Cellular

Division
1
 Cell Division
All cells are derived from pre-
existing cells
New cells are produced for
growth and to replace damaged or
old cells
Differs in prokaryotes (bacteria)
and eukaryotes (protists, fungi,
plants, & animals)

2
 Keeping Cells Identical

The instructions for

making cell parts
are encoded in the
DNA, so each new
cell must get a
complete set of the
DNA molecules

3
 DNA Replication
DNA must be
copied or Original DNA
replicated strand

before cell
division Two new,
Each new cell
identical DNA
strands
will then have an
identical copy of
the DNA

4
Identical Daughter Cells

Two
identical
daughter
cells

Parent Cell

5
Chromosomes

6
 Prokaryotic Chromosome
The DNA of
prokaryotes
(bacteria) is one,
circular
chromosome
attached to the
inside of the cell
membrane

7
 Eukaryotic Chromosomes
All eukaryotic cells store genetic
information in chromosomes
Most eukaryotes have between 10 and
50 chromosomes in their body cells
Human body cells have 46 chromosomes
or 23 identical pairs

8
 Eukaryotic Chromosomes
Each chromosome is composed of a
single, tightly coiled DNA molecule
Chromosomes can’t be seen when
cells aren’t dividing and are called
chromatin

9
 Compacting DNA into
Chromosomes
DNA is
tightly
coiled
around
proteins
called
histones

10
Chromosomes in Dividing Cells
Duplicated
chromosomes are
called
chromatids &
are held
together by the
centromere

Called Sister Chromatids 11

 Karyotype
A picture of the
chromosomes from
a human cell
arranged in pairs by
size
First 22 pairs are
called autosomes
Last pair are the
sex chromosomes
XX female or XY
male
12
 Boy or Girl?
The Y Chromosome Decides

Y - Chromosome

X - Chromosome
13
Cell Reproduction

14
 Types of Cell Reproduction
Asexual reproduction involves a
single cell dividing to make 2 new,
identical daughter cells
Mitosis & binary fission are
examples of asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves two
cells (egg & sperm) joining to make a
new cell (zygote) that is NOT
identical to the original cells
Meiosis is an example
15
Cell Division in
Prokaryotes

16
 Cell Division in Prokaryotes
 Prokaryotes such as
bacteria divide into 2 Parent
cell
identical cells by the
process of binary
fission Chromosome
 Single chromosome doubles
makes a copy of
itself
 Cell wall forms Cell splits
between the
chromosomes dividing
the cell
2 identical daughter cells 17
 Prokaryotic Cell
Undergoing Binary Fission

18
Animation of Binary Fission

19
The Cell
Cycle
20
Five Phases of the Cell Cycle
G1 - primary growth phase
S – synthesis; DNA replicated
G2 - secondary growth phase
collectively these 3 stages are
called interphase
M - mitosis
C - cytokinesis

21
Cell Cycle

22
Interphase - G1 Stage

1st growth stage after cell

division
Cells mature by making more
cytoplasm & organelles
Cell carries on its normal
metabolic activities

23
 Interphase – S Stage
Synthesis stage
DNA is copied or replicated

Two
identical
copies
of DNA

Original
DNA
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 Interphase – G2 Stage
2nd Growth Stage
Occurs after DNA has been copied
All cell structures needed for
division are made (e.g. centrioles)
Both organelles & proteins are
synthesized

25
What’s Happening in Interphase?

What the cell looks like

Animal Cell

What’s occurring

26
 Sketch the Cell Cycle

DNA Copied
Cells prepare for
Cells Division
Mature

Daughter
Cells
Cell Divides into
Identical cells
27
Mitosis

28
 Mitosis
Division of the
nucleus
Also called
karyokinesis
Only occurs in
eukaryotes
Has four stages
Doesn’t occur in
some cells such
as brain cells
29
 Four Mitotic Stages

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

30
 Early Prophase
Chromatin in nucleus condenses to
form visible chromosomes
Mitotic spindle forms from fibers in
cytoskeleton or centrioles (animal)

Nucleolus Cytoplasm

Nuclear Membrane
Chromosomes

31
 Late Prophase
Nuclear membrane & nucleolus are
broken down
Chromosomes continue condensing &
are clearly visible
Spindle fibers called kinetochores
attach to the centromere of each
chromosome
Spindle finishes forming between the
poles of the cell
32
 Late Prophase

Chromosomes

Nucleus & Nucleolus have disintegrated

33
 Spindle Fiber attached to
Chromosome

Kinetochore Fiber

Chromosome
34
 Review of Prophase

What the cell

looks like

What’s happening 35
 Spindle Fibers
The mitotic spindle form from the
microtubules in plants and centrioles
in animal cells
Polar fibers extend from one pole of
the cell to the opposite pole
Kinetochore fibers extend from the
pole to the centromere of the
chromosome to which they attach
Asters are short fibers radiating
from centrioles
36
Sketch The Spindle

37
 Metaphase
Chromosomes, attached to the
kinetochore fibers, move to the center
of the cell
Chromosomes are now lined up at the
equator Equator of Cell

Pole of
the Cell

38
 Metaphase

Asters at
the poles

Spindle Chromosomes
Fibers lined at the
Equator

39
 Metaphase

Aster

Chromosomes at Equator
40
 Review of Metaphase

What the cell looks

like

What’s
occurring
41
 Anaphase
Occurs rapidly
Sister
chromatids are
pulled apart to
opposite poles
of the cell by
kinetochore
fibers

42
 Anaphase

Sister
Chromatids
being
separated

43
 Anaphase Review

What the
cell looks
like

What’s
occurring

44
 Telophase
Sister chromatids at opposite
poles
Spindle disassembles
Nuclear envelope forms around
each set of sister chromatids
Nucleolus reappears
CYTOKINESIS occurs
Chromosomes reappear as
chromatin

45
Comparison of Anaphase & Telophase

46
 Cytokinesis
Means division of the cytoplasm
Division of cell into two,
identical halves called daughter
cells
In plant cells, cell plate forms
at the equator to divide cell
In animal cells, cleavage furrow
forms to split cell

47
 Cytokinesis
Cleavage furrow Cell plate in
in animal cell plant cell

48
Mitotic Stages

49
 Daughter Cells of Mitosis
Have the same number of
chromosomes as each other and as
the parent cell from which they
were formed
Identical to each other, but smaller
than parent cell
Must grow in size to become mature
cells (G1 of Interphase)

50
Identical Daughter Cells

What is
the 2n
or
diploid
number?
2

Chromosome number the same, but cells

smaller than parent cell
51
Review
of
Mitosis

52
Draw & Learn these Stages

53
Draw & Learn these Stages

54
 Name the Mitotic Stages:
Interphase

Name this?

Prophase
Telophase

Name this?

Metaphase
Anaphase

55
 Eukaryotic Cell Division
 Used for growth and
repair
 Produce two new cells
identical to the original
cell Chromosomes during
Metaphase of mitosis
 Cells are diploid (2n)

Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis

56
 Mitosis Animation
Name each stage as you see it occur?

57
Mitosis in Onion Root Tips
Do you see any stages of mitosis?

58
Test Yourself
over Mitosis

59
Mitosis Quiz

60
Mitosis Quiz

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Name the Stages of Mitosis:
Early prophase
Early Anaphase Metaphase

Interphase Early
Telophase,
Begin
cytokinesis

Late Late telophase,

Prophase Advanced Mid-Prophase Late
cytokinesis Anaphase
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 Identify the Stages
?
Early, Middle, & Late Prophase

? ? ?
Metaphase Anaphase
Late Prophase

? ? ?
Late Anaphase Telophase Telophase &
Cytokinesis 63
 Locate the Four Mitotic
Stages in Plants

Anaphase
Telophase
Metaphase

Prophase

64
 Uncontrolled Mitosis
 If mitosis is not
controlled, unlimited
cell division occurs
causing cancerous
tumors
 Oncogenes are special
proteins that
increase the chance
that a normal cell
develops into a tumor
cell
Cancer cells
65
Abnormal Cell Division
• Tumor
– Mass of undifferentiated cells not normally
found in a certain part of the body
a. Benign tumor – cell mass that does not
fragment and spread beyond its original area
of growth; can become harmful by growing
large enough to interfere with normal body
functions

66
b. Malignant tumor - nonencapsulated growth
of tumor cells that are harmful; they may
spread or invade other parts of the body
• cells of these tumors move from the original
site (metastasize) and establish new colonies in
other regions of the body

67
Cancer
term used to refer to refer to any
abnormal growth of cells that has a
malignant potential
Carcinogens
agents responsible for causing cancer

68
Factors associated with cancer
• Radiation
– X rays and gamma rays
– UV light (UV-B)
• Sources of carcinogen
– Tobacco - uranium
– Nickel - tar
– Arsenic - cadmium
– Benzene - chromium
– Dioxin - polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
– Asbestos

69
• Diet
– Alcohol
– Smoked meats and fish
– Food containing nitrates (e.g. bacon)
• Viruses
– Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and liver cancer
– Herpes simplex (HSV) type II and uterine
cancer
– Epstein – Barr virus and Burkitt’s lymphona
– Human Y-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV-1) and
lymphomas and leukemias
70
• Hormonal imbalances
– Diethylstilbestrol
– Oral contraceptives
• Types of genetic and familial cancers
– Chronic myelogenous leukemia
– Acute leukemias
– Retinoblastomas
– Certain skin cancers
– Breast, endometrial, colorectal, stomach,
prostate, lung

71
Treatments of cancer
• Surgery
• Chemotherapy
• Radiation

72
Chemotherapy
• Uses various types of chemicals to destroy
mitotically dividing cancer cell
• Types of chemotherapeutic drugs
a. Antimetabolites – compounds interfering
fatally with the cell’s metabolic pathways
– methotrexate (prevents the synthesis of new
DNA)

73
b. Toposiomerase inhibitors – prevent
the”unzipping” of DNA (doxorubicin)
c. Alkylating agents – form chemical bonds
within the DNA of cancer cells resulting in
breaks and other damage not easily
repaired (cyclophosphamide &
chlorambucil)
d. Plant alkaloids – disrupt the spindle
apparatus, thus disrupting the normal
separation of chromatics at the time of
anaphase (vinblastine)
74
Radiation Therapy
• Uses powerful X rays or gamma rays
• From outside
• Implanting radioactive “seeds” into the
tumor

75
p53
• Guardian of the genome
• Tumor-suppressor p53 gene
• Stops a damaged cell just before the S
phase so that it can be repaired
• Directly involved with the DNA repair
process
• Gives a cell the ability to be genetically
healthy

76
Radiation
• Destroys cancer cells
• Apoptosis
– Programmed cell death (death that has a
genetic basis)
– Occurs in many cells of the body because they
might be harmful or it takes too much energy
to maintain them

77
• When p53 initiates apoptosis, the cell’s
DNA is cut into pieces and the cytoplasm
and nucleus shrinks; this is followed by
engulfment by phagocytes

78
 Meiosis
Formation of Gametes
(Eggs & Sperm)

79
 Facts About Meiosis
Preceded by interphase which
includes chromosome replication
Two meiotic divisions --- Meiosis
I and Meiosis II
Called Reduction- division
Original cell is diploid (2n)
Four daughter cells produced that
are monoploid (1n)
80
 Facts About Meiosis
Daughter cells contain half the
number of chromosomes as the
original cell
Produces gametes (eggs & sperm)
Occurs in the testes in males
(Spermatogenesis)
Occurs in the ovaries in females
(Oogenesis)

81
 More Meiosis Facts
 Startwith 46 double stranded
chromosomes (2n)
After 1 division - 23 double
stranded chromosomes (n)
After 2nd division - 23 single
stranded chromosomes (n)
 Occurs in our germ cells that
produce gametes

82
Why Do we Need Meiosis?
It is the fundamental basis of
sexual reproduction
Two haploid (1n) gametes are
brought together through
fertilization to form a diploid
(2n) zygote

83
Fertilization – “Putting it
all together”
2n = 6

1n =3

84
 Replication of Chromosomes
Replication is the
process of
duplicating a Occurs in
chromosome Interphase
Occurs prior to
division
Replicated copies
are called sister
chromatids
Held together at
centromere
85
 A Replicated Chromosome

Gene X

Homologs Sister
(same genes, Chromatids
different alleles) (same genes,
same alleles)

Homologs separate in meiosis I and

therefore different alleles separate.
86
Meiosis Forms Haploid Gametes
 Meiosis must reduce the chromosome number
by half
 Fertilization then restores the 2n number

from mom from dad child

too
much!

meiosis reduces
genetic content
The right
number!
87
 Meiosis: Two Part Cell
Division
Sister
chromatids
Homologs separate
separate

Meiosis Meiosis
I II

Diploid
Diploid
Haploid
88
 Meiosis I: Reduction Division

Nucleus Spindle
fibers Nuclear
Early envelope
Prophase I Late Metaphase
(Chromosome Prophase I Anaphase Telophase I
number I I (diploid)
doubled)

89
 Prophase I

Early prophase Late prophase

Homologs pair. Chromosomes condense.
Crossing over Spindle forms.
occurs. Nuclear envelope
fragments.
90
Tetrads Form in Prophase I

Homologous chromosomes Join to form a

(each with sister TETRAD
chromatids)

Called Synapsis
91
 Crossing-Over
 Homologous
chromosomes in
a tetrad cross
over each other
 Pieces of
chromosomes or
genes are
exchanged
 Produces
Genetic
recombination in
the offspring
92
Homologous Chromosomes
During Crossing-Over

93
 Crossing-Over

Crossing-over multiplies the already huge

number of different gamete types
produced by independent assortment 94
Metaphase I

Homologous pairs
of chromosomes
align along the
equator of the
cell

95
Anaphase I

Homologs separate and

move to opposite poles.

Sister chromatids remain

attached at their
centromeres.

96
Telophase I

Nuclear envelopes
reassemble.

Spindle disappears.

Cytokinesis divides cell

into two.

97
 Meiosis II
Only one homolog of each
Gene X
chromosome is present in
the cell.
Sister chromatids carry
identical genetic
information.

Meiosis II produces gametes with

one copy of each chromosome and
thus one copy of each gene.
98
 Meiosis II: Reducing
Chromosome Number

Prophase Metaphase
II II Telophase
Anaphase II 4 Identical
II haploid cells

99
Prophase II

Nuclear envelope
fragments.

Spindle forms.

100
Metaphase II

Chromosomes align
along equator of cell.

101
 Anaphase II
Equator

Pole

Sister chromatids
separate and
move to opposite
poles.

102
Telophase II

Nuclear envelope
assembles.

Chromosomes
decondense.

Spindle disappears.

Cytokinesis divides
cell into two.
103
Results of Meiosis
Gametes (egg & sperm)
form

Four haploid cells with

one copy of each
chromosome

One allele of each gene

Different combinations
of alleles for different
genes along the
chromosome
104
Gametogenesis
Oogenesis
or
Spermatogenesis

105
 Spermatogenesis
Occurs in the
testes
Two divisions
produce 4
spermatids
Spermatids mature
into sperm
Men produce about
250,000,000
sperm per day
106
Spermatogenesis in the
Testes
Spermatid

107
Spermatogenesis

108
 Oogenesis
Occurs in the ovaries
Two divisions produce 3 polar bodies
that die and 1 egg
Polar bodies die because of unequal
division of cytoplasm
Immature egg called oocyte
Starting at puberty, one oocyte
matures into an ovum (egg) every 28
days
109
Oogenesis in the Ovaries

110
 Oogenesis
First polar body
may divide a
(haploid)
a
X Polar
bodies
X a die
a X
X
Mitosis Meiosis I Meiosis II
A X (if fertilization
Oogonium occurs) A
(diploid) Primary
oocyte X

(diploid) A X Ovum (egg) Mature

Secondary A egg
oocyte X
(haploid) Second
polar body
(haploid)
111
Comparing
Mitosis and
Meiosis

112
 Comparison of Divisions
Mitosis Meiosis
Number of 2
1
divisions
Number of
2 4
daughter cells
Genetically
Yes No
identical?
Chromosome # Same as parent Half of parent

Where Somatic cells Germ cells

When Throughout life At sexual maturity
Growth and
Role Sexual reproduction
repair 113
Sources of Variation
• Mutation
• Crossing-over
• Segregation
• Independent assortment
• Fertilization

114
Mutation
• Point mutation
– Change in a DNA nucleotide results in the
production of a different protein
• Chromosomal mutation
– Genes are rearranged

115
Crossing-over
• Occurs during Meiosis I
• Is the exchange of a part of a chromatid
from one homologous chromosome with an
equivalent part of a chromatid from the
other homologous chromosome
• Explains why a child can show a mixture of
family characteristics

116
Segregation
• Involves the separation and movement of
homologous chromosomes to the poles
• During anaphase 1
• Characteristics of both parents

117
Independent Assortment
• Combination of chromosomes
• 2n where n is the number of pairs of
chromosomes
• Variation is possible because each pair of
homologous chromosome assorts
independently of the other pairs of
homologous chromosomes

118
Fertilization
• Offsprings

119
Nondisjunction
• A pair of homologous chromosomes does
not segregate properly during
gametogenesis and both chromosomes of
a pair end up in the same gamete
• The cells usually die
• If not, trisomy or monosomy occurs

120
Translocation
• The transfer of a piece of one
nonhomologous chromosome to another
– 14/21 translocation is monosomic and has
only 45 chromosomes; one 14 and one 21 are
missing and replaced by the translocated
14/21
– 15% of the children of carrier mothers inherit
the 14/21 chromosome and have DS
– Children born to fathers with 14/21 are Downic

121
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