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While it is difficult to define “animal welfare” precisely, it is widely accepted to encompass both physical and mental health states.1
Welfare includes many of the elements that contribute to an animal’s quality of life, including its ability to cope with the environment
in which it lives. An animal is considered to be in a good state of welfare if it is healthy, comfortable, well-nourished, safe, able to
express innate behavior, and not suffering from unpleasant states such as pain, fear and distress. 2
Structurally, post-hatch development of the intestine is fairly rapid in poultry compared to other animals. 5-8 However, the
establishment of a balanced microbiome is far from complete in young chickens (e.g., broilers) and highly influenced by stressors
such as the diet and feed form, exposure to infectious agents (bacterial, viral and zoo-parasitic), environmental conditions, handling,
immunization and stocking densities.9-11 Reducing and/or eliminating stress and distress in intensive poultry production systems is
essential for animal health and welfare, as well as for productivity. Stress triggers physiologically complex and metabolically costly
inflammatory and immune responses (both innate and adaptive) with potentially negative welfare consequences.
Avian Insight
The intestine-mental health link must be considered within the context of complex interaction of genetics, dietary and
environmental factors, as well as the microbial challenge normally present in animal production facilities. Broiler chickens are
marketed at very young ages (28 to 66 days of age), well before the establishment of the balanced and stable microbiome commonly
present in adult birds. Early and frequent shifts in the intestinal microbiome can increase the susceptibility of broiler chickens to
intestinal dysbiosis and subsequently to intestinal disease.
Recent trends to replace some of these proven interventions (e.g., antibiotics) with probiotics, prebiotics, enzymes, organic acids
or herb extracts have yet to be proven consistently effective. 30 Yes, there can be negative outcomes from irresponsible use of
antimicrobials or antibiotics, but that is not how these products are intended nor used by the industry. Judicious use under the
oversight of a veterinarian is essential, as these antimicrobials are not a panacea or quick bandage to management problems. In the
meantime, the welfare of broiler chickens may be compromised, whether directly or indirectly, with the indiscriminate elimination of
targeted interventions in broiler production.
Avian Insight
1
T. I. J. H. Duncan. 1987. “The welfare of farm animals: an ethological approach.” Sci. Prog., Oxf. 71:317-326.
2
World Organisation for Animal Health. 2010. “Introduction to the recommendations for animal welfare.” Chapter 7.1, Article 7.1.1.,Terrestrial Animal Health Code.
3
Equilibrium in the gut ecosystem for productive healthy birds. E. O. Oviedo-Rondon and M. E. Hume, 2013.
4
P. Hugenholtz, P., B.M. Goebel, B.M., and N.R. Pace. 1998. “Impact of culture-independent studies on the emerging phylogenetic view of bacterial diversity.” J. of
Bact. 4765-4774.
5
M. Yegani and D. R. Korver. 2008. “Factors affecting intestinal health in poultry.” Poultry Sci., 87: 2052-2063.
6
D. Sklan World’s Poult. 2001. “Development of the digestive tract of poultry.” Sci. J. 57:415–427.
7
D. Sklan. 2005. “Development of defense mechanisms in the digestive tract of the chick.” J. Appl. Poult. Res. 14:437–443.
8
E. T. Moran, Jr. 1985. “Nutrition of the developing embryo and hatchling.” Poultry Sci., 86:1-7.
9
D. B. Anderson. July 9-11, 2002. “Intestinal microbes: When does normality change into a health and performance insult.” Elanco Global Enteritis Symp.
10
H. Karunajeewa. 1987. “A review of current poultry feeding systems and their potential acceptability to animal welfarists.” Worlds Poult. Sci. J., 43:20-32.
11
D. W. Kononen, J.R. Hockstein, and R.K. Ringer. 1986. “A quantitative method for evaluating avian food avoidance behavior.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 5:823-830.
12
A. C. Bested, A. C. Logan and E. M. Selhub. 2013. “Intestinal microbiota, probiotics and mental health: from Metchnikoff to modern advances: Part I –
autointoxication revisited.” Gut Pathogens, 5:5.
13
A. C. Bested, A. C. Logan and E. M. Selhub. 2013. “Intestinal microbiota, probiotics and mental health: from Metchnikoff to modern advances: Part II –
contemporary contextual research.” Gut Pathogens, 5:3.
14
A. C. Bested, A. C. Logan and E. M. Selhub. 2013. “Intestinal microbiota, probiotics and mental health: from Metchnikoff to modern advances: Part II – convergence
towards clinical trials.” Gut Pathogens, 5:4.
15
J. F. Cryan, and S. M. O’Mahony. 2011. “The microbiome-gut-brain axis: from bowel to behavior.” Neurogastroenterol. Motil., 23:187–192.
16
R. K. Newman and D. C. Sands. 1983. “Dietary selection for lysine by the chick.” Physiol. Behavior, 31:13-19.
17
M. Adret-Hausberger and R. B. Cumming. 1987. “Social experience and selection of diet in domestic chickens.” Bird Behavior, 7:37-43.
18
M. J. Haskell, M. Vilarino, M. Savina, J. Atamna, and M. Picard. 2001. “Do broiler chicks have a cognitive representation of food quality? Appetite, behavioural and
ingestive responses to a change in diet quality.” Appl. Anim. Behavioral Sci., 72:63-77.
19
D. O. Skinner-Noble, L. J. McKinney, and R.G. Teeter. 2005. “Predicting calorific value of nonnutritive factors: III. Feed form affects broiler performance by modifying
behavioral patterns.” Poult. Sci., 84:403-411.
20
W. Bessei. 1993. “The influence of stocking density on performance, behavior and health of broilers- A literature review.” Arch. Geflugelk., 57:97-102.
21
R. H. Thomas, M. M. Meeking, J. R. Mepham, L. Tichenoff, F. Possmayer, S. Liu, and D. F. MacFabe. 2012. “The enteric bacterial metabolite propionic acid alters brain
and plasma phospholipid molecular species: further development of a rodent model of autism spectrum disorders.” J Neuroinflammation, 9:153.
22
R. Diaz Heijtz , S. Wang, F. Anuar, Y. Qian, B. Björkholm, A. Samuelsson, M. L. Hibberd, H. Forssberg, S. Pettersson. 2011. “Normal gut microbiota modulates brain
development and behavior.” Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 108:3047–3052.
23
M. Pimentel, D. Hallegua, E. J. Chow, D. Wallace, G. Bonorris, and H. C. Lin. 2000. “Eradication of small intestinal bacterial overgrowth decreases symptoms in
chronic fatigue syndrome: a double blind, randomized study.” Gastroenterology, 118:A414.
24
A. Reichenberg, R. Yirmiya, A. Schuld, T. Kraus, M. Haack, A. Morag, and T. Pollmächer. 2001. “Cytokine-associated emotional and cognitive disturbances in
humans.” Arch. Gen Psychiatry, 58:445–52.
25
Miller et al Biol Psychiatry. 2009. “Inflammation and its discontents: the role of cytokines in the pathophysiology of major depression.” Biol Psychiatry; 65(9): 732–741.
26
K. A. Neufeld, N. Kang, J. Bienenstock, and J. A. Foster. 2011. “Effects of intestinal microbiota on anxiety-like behavior.” Commun Integr Biol., 4:492–494
27
P. Bercik, E. Denou, J. Collins, W. Jackson, J. Lu, J. Jury, Y. Deng, P. Blennerhassett, J. Macri, K. D. McCoy, E. F. Verdu, and S. M. Collins. 2011. “The intestinal microbiota
affect central levels of brain-derived neurotropic factor and behavior in mice.” Gastroenterology, 141:599–609.
28
C. L. Smith and J. Johnson. 2012. “The Chicken Challenge: What contemporary studies of fowl mean for science and ethics.” Between the Species, 15:75-102.
29
C. L. Smith and S. L. Zielinski. 2014. “The startling intelligence of the common chicken.” Scientific American. 60-65.
30
T. Roberts, J. Wilson, A. Guthrie, K. Cookson, D. Vancraeynest, J. Schaeffer, R. Moody, and S. Clark. 2015. “New issues and science in broiler chicken intestinal health:
Emerging technology and alternative interventions.” J. Appl. Poult. Res. 24:257-266.
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