THEORY OF FLIGHT

1. PHYSICS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

❑ The Atmosphere

The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth is

called the atmosphere. There is no defined upper
limit to the atmosphere, but most aviation activity
takes place within the first 60,000 ft and therefore
we need not study above that.
❑ Gas Composition

The gases found in the atmosphere are in the

following proportions (by volume):
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Other gases 1% (e.g. argon, carbon dioxide,
water vapor)
These proportions do not change with altitude.
❑ Regions of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is divided into a number of
layers:

➢ The Troposphere
➢ The Tropopause
➢ The Stratosphere
➢ The Mesosphere
➢ The Thermosphere or Ionosphere
The Troposphere
Temperature decreases with an increase in
height. In this region nearly all significant
weather occurs.
The Tropopause
The upper limit of the troposphere where
temperature stops decreasing with an
increase of height. The tropopause is
therefore the upper limit of significant weather,
the first point of lowest temperature, and
additionally it is the region for maximum wind
strengths.
The Stratosphere
approximately 50 km above mean sea level,
and is characterized by the temperature
being steady or increasing with height
The Mesosphere
From 50 km to 80 km. The temperature
generally decreases with height.
The Thermosphere or Ionosphere
Temperature increase with height
❑ TEMPERATURE
The temperature scales most commonly used are
Celsius (also known as Centigrade), Fahrenheit
and Kelvin (also known as Absolute).
The melting point of ice, being O0C and 320f
respectively, and the boiling point of water, being
1000C or 2120F
Convert unit temperature

9 5
F = C + 32 C = (F − 32)
5 9
Lapse Rates
The temperature decrease with an increase of
height is referred to as lapse rate.
A representative value of 20C/1000 ft is a typical
value for the troposphere, and this figure is used as
the reference for the Jet Standard.
The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) uses
the comparable value of 1.98 C/1000 ft.
❑ Temperature and Aircraft Performance
At a given pressure, an increase of temperature
results in a reduction of density.
Firstly, considering airframe performance, a reduction
of density (ρ) reduces lift (L).
This may be counteracted by increasing the true
airspeed (V) to achieve the required amount of lift
(L):

L= CL ½ ρ V2 S

where: CL = coefficient of lift

S = surface area
❑ Temperature and Aircraft Performance

The dynamic pressure is gained at the expense of an

increased take-off run, cruising TAS or landing run
according to the stage of flight.
 Pressure Definition
Pressure is the force exerted on a unit area,
i.e.:

Force Mass Acceleration

Pressure = =
Area Area

Pressure Unit
pressure is expressed in pounds per square inch (Psi).
In meteorology the unit of pressure is the
millibar (mb),
 Principle of the
Mercury Barometer
Variation of Pressure in the Atmosphere

❑ At sea level, pressure generally varies

between 950 and 1050 mb.
❑ In tropical revolving storms and
tornadoes, however, pressures may fall
much lower.
❑ With increasing altitude the mass of
overlying air decreases and so the
pressure falls.
❑ Pressure values of the International
Standard Atmosphere are given below:
Variation of Pressure in the Atmosphere
❑ Density Definition
Density is the mass per unit volume of a
substance, at a specified temperature and
pressure.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Variation of Density in the Atmosphere

At sea level, densities vary between 1.20 and
1.55 kg per cu m, the higher values being usually
associated with the colder temperatures of
higher latitudes, and the lower values typical of
Equatorial latitudes.
Variation of Density in the Atmosphere

Air at lower levels in the atmosphere is compressed

by the mass of the air above it.
With increasing altitude, the overlying mass
reduces and air can now expand, resulting in a
further reduction of pressure.
With increasing altitude the temperature also
decreases, but at a rate lower than the pressure.
Density, therefore, decreases with height.
Philip K Hitti, in his book History of the Arabs : From the Earliest Times to the
Present
“Ibn Firnas was the first man in history to make a scientific attempt at flying.”
2. THEORY OF FLIGHT

❑ Lift Augmented
❑ Wing Planforms
❑ Flight Control
❑ Flight Forces
❑ Basic Maneuvers
❑ Lift Augmentation

Plain Flap

Split Flap
Lift Augmentation - Flaps

Fowler Flap
Triple-slotted flap. In this configuration, the flap consists of a fore flap, a mid flap, and an
aft flap. When deployed, each flap section slides aft on tracks as it lowers. The flap
sections also separate leaving an open slot between the wing and the fore flap, as well
as between each of the flap sections.
Leading Edge Flap
Lift Augmentation - Slats
SLATS

Side view (left) and front view (right) of a Krueger flap on a Boeing 737
SLATS

Air passing through the slot aft of the slat promotes boundary layer airflow on the upper
surface at high angles of attack
Effect on airflow of slot
Lift Augmentation - Slats
Lift Augmentation - Slats
Change in stall angle with slot open
Change in stall angle with flap and slat
Spoilers and Speed Brakes
A spoiler is a device found on the upper surface of many heavy and high-performance
aircraft. It is stowed flush to the wing’s upper surface. When deployed, it raises up into
the airstream and disrupts the laminar airflow of the wing, thus reducing lift
❑ The Boundary Layer
This may be best described as the layer of air
extending from the surface to the point where
no drag effect is discernible, or, that region of
flow in which the speed is less than 99% of the
free stream flow, and it usually exists in two forms
— laminar and turbulent
Hubungan antara viskositas
dengan aliran laminar dan
turbulen adalah bila semakin
besar viskositas yang
terdapat pada fluida maka
semakin kecil gesekan yang
tejadi antara fluida dengan
permukaan suatu benda
sehingga kecepatan aliran
antara molekul fluida lebih
teratur, ini berarti aliran ini
cenderung laminar.

Begitupun sebaliknya, semakin

kecil viskositas fluida maka
alirannya cenderung bergolak
(tidak teratur) atau turbulen.
❑ Wing Planforms
𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛2
Aspect Ratio A=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Aspect Ratio and Induced (Vortex) Drag
The Effects of Taper
Sweepback
❑ Wing Planforms

Sweepback
❑ Flight Control

❑ The purpose of flight controls is to enable

the aircraft to be rotated about its three
axes.
❑ Control in pitch is exercised by elevators
which move the aircraft about its lateral
axis,
❑ control in roll by the ailerons which move
the aircraft about its longitudinal axis and
❑ control in yaw by the rudder which moves
the aircraft about it's normal, or vertical,
axis.
❑ Flight Control
❑ Flight Control
Tabs
The force of the air against a control surface during the high speed of flight can make it
difficult to move and hold that control surface in the deflected position. A control
surface might also be too sensitive for similar reasons.

a. Balance Tab
Balance tabs assist with forces needed to position control surfaces.
❑ Flight Control
Servo Tab
❑ Flight Control
Anti-balance Tab
control surface configuration
❑ Flight Forces

➢ The four forces acting in level flight are lift,

weight, drag and thrust.
➢ The lift acts through the center of
pressure.
➢ The weight is through the center of
gravity.
➢ The drag and thrust act along lines
parallel to the longitudinal axis
❑ Flight Forces
❑ Flight Forces
Pitching Moments
❑ Turning Flight
➢ Before an aeroplane turns, however, it
must overcome inertia, or its tendency
to continue in a straight line.
➢ The necessary turning force is created
by banking the aeroplane so that the
direction of lift is inclined.
➢ To maintain altitude, lift must be
increased by increasing back pressure
and, therefore, the angle of attack
until the vertical component of lift
equals weight.
UPON COMPLETION OF TRAINING, YOU WILL HAVE:
• Knowledge of aircraft construction, structural stress, and
materials used on aircraft.
• Brief the aircraft and its components.
Purpose of aircraft structure either simple or complex
interfaces with the others, ultimately parts work together
to accomplish safe flight.
Must be capable to withstand several loads and meet
requirements of Design, Analysis, and Validation.
Airworthiness requirement for structural strength
• Federal Aviation Regulation Part 25 – Airworthiness
Standards: Transport Category Airplane.
• EASA Certification Specification 25.
• CASR (Amdt 5 Part 25 – Airworthiness Standards:
Transport Catagory Airplane.
Section 1 Regulations:
• Subpart C: Structure.
• Subpart D: Design and Construction.
Clear understanding of DESIGN, ANALYSIS, and
VALIDATION requirements for aircraft structures.
STRUCTURE REQUIREMENT
1. Weight Consideration
- Maximum Strength & Minimum Weight
2. Strength & Rigidity
- Minimum Fatique & Corrosion
3. Non Elastic Instability
(Kelenturan yg tidak Stabil)
Terjadi Fatique → akibat Buckling
4. Load on Aircraft
5. Material
Aircraft are built to meet certain specified
requirements be selected built into an aircraft.
The primary factors consider in aircraft structures are:
• Strength.
• Weight and
• Reliability.
These factors determine the requirements to be met
by any material used to construct or repair the
aircraft.
Safe Life
Safe Life design is the preferred method for design of
product for durable operation.
Under this method, the structure is operated at a
stress far below the fatigue strength of the
component.
The principle requires structural elements be replaced
after a fixed number of flight cycle (the component or
system is designed to not fail within a certain, defined
period), base on fatigue analysis.
The life of a structure may depend more on how it is
loaded than on the total number of times it is loaded
(fatigue stress load).
Unsteady aerodynamics and flutter finite element
component and airplane analyses are conducted.
Structure must remain elastic up to limit loads and
must carry ultimate loads.
If the resulting component operates at stresses above
the fatigue strength, it is said to be a life limited
component.
Fail Safe Design
The concept of fail-safe designs is extended here to
include all designs that mitigate the harm caused by
failure (mitigate losses due to system or component
failures).
Fail-safe means that a device will not endanger lives
or properties when it fails.
Safe-life designs involve a testing and analysis (fatigue
analysis) to estimate how long the component can be
in service before it will likely fail.
Type of design on aircraft:
• Multiple stringer and ribs (wing).
• Multiple wing panels.
• Multiple stringers and frames (fuselage).
• Bonded, bolted attachmet fittings.
Principle of fail-safe that any damage will detected
during inspection.
The damage tolerance philosophy was developed.
Design objective (free from significant corrosion)
during operation.
Maintenance – specified preventive must be
performed.
Validation – feed back is used to improve prevention
measures.
Damage Tolerance.
Property of a structure relating to its ability to sustain
defects safely until repair can be effected.
Principle requires that any damage is detected and
repaired before the strength is below minimum level.
Improve on fail-safety structural elements considers the
effects of environmental damage (corrosion) and accident.
Damage-tolerance (fail-safe) evaluation
“The evaluation must include a determination of the
probably locations and modes of damage due to fatigue,
corrosion, or accidental damage.
The residual strength evaluation must show that the
remaining structure is able to withstand loads
corresponding to…”
Before the strength becomes less, the damage is detected
and repaired back to original capability.
86
Difference load for part of
the construction, difference
its made are classified:
• Primary construction.
• Secondary construction.
• Tertiary construction.
Primary construction
Highly stressed (critical load), if damage the structural
integrity can result in loss of control of the aircraft, very
severe hazards to passengers and crew ( or ).
Secondary construction
Highly stressed (not directly
critical load), if damage the
structural integrity flight
characteristics will safe to
landing/not collapse (
or ).
Terteary construction
Lightly stressed parts (fairing, minor components) in
manuals or drawing shown in or .
C. AIRCRAFT AXIS
C. AIRCRAFT AXIS

ROLLING/
BANKING
PITCHING
YAWING
Dimension and Locations
In order to determine a particular location in aircraft
it is divided into three (imaginary) planes that are at
an angle of 900 to each other.
Dimension and Locations
Dimension and Locations
Zonal Identification
The location identification system is used to pin point
the various locations, make it possible to indicate the
location of the centre of gravity.
Localize parts more easily is divided into:
• Major Zones.
• Major Sub-Zones.
• Unit Zones.
Zonal Identification
Major Zones.
Identified by hundred as:
• 100 Fuselage Lower Section.
• 200 Fuselage Upper Section.
• 300 Stabilizer.
• 400 Nacelle.
• 500 Left Wing.
• 600 Right Wing.
• 700 Landing gear.
• 800 Doors.
Zonal Identification
Each major zone divided into sub-zone broken by 10
sub-zone unit.
Example location identification 212.
• 200 Upper half body (Major Zone)
• 10 Cockpit (Major Sub-zone)
• 2 Zone number right side (Unit Zone).
Aircraft Structural Design
Major focus structural design:
• Fail-Safety,
• Fatigue,
• Corrosion,
• Maintenanc and Inspection ability, and
• Product ability
Structural Concept
Aircraft structure are design using a semi monocoque
concept a basic load carrying shell reinforced by
frames and longerons, and stringer construction
support.
Design-Life Criteria Philosophy, with fail-safe design
concepts, the usable structural life would be much
greater.
Consider system installation provision needs to be
given to the construction of the fuselage.
Structural Concept
Drains and Ventilation Provision
External drain ports are located on exterior surfaces
of the fuselage, wing and tail unit to drain any fluids
overboard are always open.
Structural Concept
Lightning Strike Protection
Can affect aircraft operations and cause service
interruptions affected by several factors, including the
geographic area where the aircraft operates.
Lightning is initiated at the leading edges, which
ionize, creating a strike opportunity. Lightning
currents travel along the aircraft and exit to the
ground, forming a circuit with the aircraft between
the cloud energy and the ground.
Structural Concept
Electrical Bonding
Electrically connecting together all of the metal
structure of the aircraft, including the engine and
metal covering on the wiring will have substantially
the same electrical potential.
Stress on Aircraft
Airframes must be strong and light in weight.
All materials used to construct an aircraft must be
reliable (minimizes dangerous and unexpected
failures).
Stresses are known as LOADS considered when an
aircraft is designed.
Many forces and structural stresses act on an aircraft
when it is flying and when it is static.
• Stress is External force (load) acts
on a body, it is opposed by an
internal force

• Stress = External Force

Area of Applied Force
FIVE MAJOR STRESS TO WHICH AIRCRAFT
• TENSION,
• COMPRESSION,
• TORSION,
• SHEAR,
• BENDING.
 Tension
Stress
Area

External Force

Tension Stress describes forces that tend to pull an object apart.

Example : Control Cable, L/G in Flight, Bolt

Compression Stress
Continu
e
 Compression
Stress
Area

External Force

Compression stress is resistance to external force that tries to push an

object together

Example : Aircraft rivet Installation, L/G on Ground

Bending Stress
Bending Stress
Compression

Bending

Bending Stress = Tension + Compression

Example : Aircraft Wing in Flight

Shear Stress
Bolt

A Shear stress tries to slice a body apart.

Example : Bolt, Rivet, Pin etc.

 Torsion/Twist Stress

Torsion Stress is Applied to a material when it is twisted.

Combination of tension and compression
 Tension = diagonally across the object
 Compression = act right angles to the tension
Example : Engine Crankshaft, Bolt Installation
Stress on Aircraft
Aircraft structural members are designed to carry a
load or to resist stress, the term “STRESS” is often
used interchangeably with the word “STRAIN”.
External loads or forces cause stress, STRESS is a
material’s internal resistance, or counterforce, that
opposes deformation. The degree of deformation of a
material is STRAIN.
BUKLING are: the event of the skin expand &
deflated, because of air-distribution
fluctuation result

Are reduced by:

Corrugated Construction
Honey Comb
 Reinforced of the skin
Other method :
1. Mild Skin
2. Redux Bonding
3. Composite Material
4. Stress Skin Construction
Stress Skin Construction

With most Stringer added

Construction of Aircraft
Constructing an aircraft, a distinction is made
between the main sections and the sub-sections. The
main sections of the aeroplane construction are:
• FUSELAGE,
• WINGS,
• LANDING GEARS,
• EMPENNAGE (Vertical and Horizontal stabilizers)
• POWERPLANT/PROPULSION.
FUSELAGE
The fuselage of an aircraft is subject the fives types of
stress - Torsion, Bending, Tension, Shear, and
Compression.
Engine torque tends to rotate the aircraft in the
direction opposite to the direction the propeller is
turning.
When an aircraft is on the ground, there is a bending
force on the fuselage.
FUSELAGE
The main structure or body of the fixed-wing aircraft,
space for cargo, controls, accessories, passengers,
and other equipment.
In single-engine aircraft, the fuselage houses the
powerplant.
Two general types of fuselage construction:
• TRUSS, and
• MONOCOQUE.
FUSELAGE
TRUSS TYPE
Is a rigid framework made up of members, such as
beams, struts, and bars to resist deformation by
applied loads.
Generally covered with fabric, usually constructed of
steel tubing welded (of aluminum alloy and may be
riveted or bolted).
That all members of the truss can carry both tension
and compression loads.
 135
FUSELAGE
This construction method, lengths of tubing, called
longerons, are welded in place to form a well-braced
framework. Vertical and horizontal struts are welded to
the longerons give the structure a square or rectangular.
The truss-type fuselage is constructed of steel or
aluminum tubing. Strength and rigidity is achieved by
welding the tubing together into a series of triangular
shapes, called trusses.
FUSELAGE
MONOCOQUE TYPE.
Monocoque (single shell) fuselage relies largely on
the strength of the skin or covering to carry the
primary loads.
Divided into two classes:
• Monocoque,
• Semi-Monocoque.
FUSELAGE
MONOCOQUE (TRUE MONOCOQUE)
Uses formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads to
give shape to the fuselage.
Since no other bracing members are present, the skin
must carry the primary stresses and keep the fuselage
rigid.
The biggest problem in monocoque construction is
maintaining enough strength while keeping the
weight within allowable limits.
FUSELAGE
SEMI-MONOCOQUE
To overcome the strength/weight problem of
monocoque construction, a modification called
semimonocoque construction was developed.
Consists of Frame assemblies, Bulkheads, and
Formers (as in the monocoque), additionally, the skin
is reinforced by longitudinal members called
longerons (extend across several frame members and
help the skin support primary bending loads).
Stringers (lighter than the longerons) also used.
FUSELAGE
The semi-monocoque system uses a
substructure to which the airplane’s
skin is attached. which consists of
bulkheads and/or formers of various
sizes and stringers, reinforces the
stressed skin by taking some of the
bending stress from the fuselage.
FUSELAGE
On single engine is usually attached
to the front of the fuselage, a
fireproof partition between the rear
of the engine and the flight deck to
protect the pilot and passengers
from accidental engine fire (firewall)
of heat-resistant material.
FUSELAGE
Stringers variety of shape from piece of aluminium
alloy extrusion have some rigidity used for giving
shape and attachment of the skin.
Advantages of semi-monocoque fuselage where are
Bulkheads, Frames, Stringers, and Longerons facilitate
design and construction streamline (rigid and strong).
Spreading loads these structures and skin (stressed
skin) may withstand considerable damage and still be
strong to hold together.
WINGS
That airfoil rapidly through the air create lift, controls
speed, generates lift, balance and stability all change.
Both leading edge and trailing edge may straight or
curved or combined; the tip may be square, rounded
even tip.
Wings attached to the fuselage at the Top, Mid or
Bottom of fuselage.
They may extend perpendicular to the horizontal or
can angle up/down slighty of fuselage (dihedral), that
affect lateral stability of the aircraft.
WINGS
WINGS
LANDING GEARS
Support of the airplane when parked, taxiing, taking
off, or when landing; consists of wheels, floats, or
skis.
LANDING GEARS
Three wheels (two main wheels, third wheel either
front or rear of the aircraft).
Rear mount of wheel (conventional landing gear)
refer as tailwheel aircraft.
Front/nose mount of wheel refer as tricycle gear,
both wheel nose or tail wheels are steerable to
control the aircraft on the ground.
EMPENAGE
The tail section of an airplane is empennage,
consisting of fixed surfaces Vertical Stabilizer and the
Horizontal Stabilizer.
POWERPLANTS
Includes both the engine and the propeller to provide
the power also generates electrical power covered by
a cowling.
Construction of Aircraft
Assembly methods used it should be it is far easier to
remove (on a regular basis by Bolt and Nut).
On an aircraft where it is not possible to reach both
sides of the structure (special blind rivets must be
installed).
Surfaces of the plate considerations are involved with
suitable jointing compound.
Construction of Aircraft
Bolted joints one method by applying a measured
torque load, the other type relies on the shear
strength.
Construction of Aircraft
Riveting to fasten parts together to form the aircraft
structure, rivets are type fastener used in aircraft
(Solid and Blind/Special/Hollow).
Construction of Aircraft
Bonding used to attach parts or components often be
used with adhesive bonding and shall be classified for
structural application means:
• Designating levels and types of inspection.
• Peel strength requirements.