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Figure 12 Cracking of concrete due to ASR in (a) bridge abutment, (b) hydraulic dam, (c)
retaining wall, (d) pavement, (e) bridge piers and beams, and (f) curb and gutter .................. 20
Table 1 Nature of some typical SCMs ....................................................................................... 6
Low-CaO High-CaO
Property Slag Silica fume
fly ash fly ash
Chemical composition
(see Table 2.2)
Ca-Al-Si
glass, some
Al-Si glass,
Ca-Al glass,
inert Ca-Al-Si-Mg
Mineralogy crystalline Silicate glass
crystalline glass
C2S, C3S, CŜ,
phases
MgO, and
lime
Angular
Shape Spherical Spherical crushed Spherical
particles
Median size
5–20 2–20 5–20 0.1–0.2
(μm)
Surface area
300–500 300–500 400–650 15,000–25,000
(m2/kg)
S.G. 1.9–2.8 1.9–2.8 2.85–2.95 2.2–2.3
Bulk density 130–430
1200
(kg/m3) (undensifed)
Pozzolanic
Nature of
Pozzolanic and Hydraulic Pozzolanic
reaction
hydraulic
grey to buff Dark grey to
Colour Grey White
white black
glassy particles as they leave the chamber. These solid particles area unit collected from the
flue gases victimisation mechanical and electrical precipitators, or baghouses. The particles of
ash that “fly” far from the chamber with the flue gases area unit referred to as fly ash, associated
this material is used as an SCM in Portland cement concrete. ash is additionally referred to as
powdered fuel ash (PFA) in some countries. Heavier turn ash particles drop to rock bottom of
the chamber, and this material is termed bottom ash or chamber bottom ash; such material isn't
typically appropriate to be used as a building material for concrete, however is employed within
the manufacture of masonry block.
The metal content of the fly ash is maybe the most effective indicator of however the fly ash
can behave in concrete (Thomas et al., 1999), though different compounds, corresponding to
the alkalis (Na2O and K2O), carbon (usually measured as LOI), and salt (SO3), will have an
effect on the performance of the fly ash. Low calcium fly ashes (<8% CaO) square measure
invariably made from hydrocarbon coals and square measure preponderantly composed of
aluminosilicate glasses (60 to 90%) with varied amounts of crystalline quartz, mullite,
hematite, and magnetite (ACI 232, 2003). These crystalline phases square measure primarily
inert in concrete, and also the glass needs a supply of alkali or lime (for example, Ca(OH)2) to
react and kind building material hydrates. Such fly ashes square measure pozzolanic and show
no significant hydraulic behaviour.
Source: Effect of fly ash fineness on water demand of concretes proportioned for equal slump.
(Data from Owens, P.L., Concrete Magazine, July 1979, pp. 22–26.)
3.2. Setting Time:
The impact of SCMs on the setting behaviour of concrete depends not only on the composition,
fineness, and amount of SCM used, but also on the sort and quantity of cement, the water-to-
cementitious materials ratio (W/CM), the sort and quantity of chemical admixtures, and the
concrete temperature. It is fairly well established that low-calcium fly ashes extend each the
initial and final set of concrete, as shown in Figure five.8, particularly once used at higher
levels of replacement and in weather condition. Similarly, high levels of slag may end up in
slower setting times at low temperatures. During weather condition, the utilization of fly ash
and scoria, particularly at high levels of replacement, will cause terribly significant delays in
each the initial and therefore the fnal set.
Source: The Use of GGBS and PFA in Concrete, Technical Report 40, Concrete Society,
Wexham, Slough, 1991
3.4. Bleeding:
Bleeding is defined because the upward migration of blending water in contemporary concrete
caused by the settlement of the solid materials and ends up in the event of a layer of water at
the surface of recently placed concrete. Bleeding is normal, and provided it doesn't occur
overly, it's not prejudicial to the concrete and should be useful in reducing plastic shrinkage
cracking. Excessive trauma happens once the quantitative relation of the quantity of water to
the surface area of solids is high and should diminish the standard of the concrete due to (1)
the build-up of bleed water beneath combination particles or embedded steel weakening the
bond, (2) a rise within the W/CM at the surface, particularly if the finishing takes place once
the bleed water is gift, (3) associate accumulation of bleed water and development of a weak
layer below the surface if the surface is finished before trauma has ceased, (4) the development
of bleed channels which will gift most well-liked pathways for the ingress of aggressive
species, and (5) excessive settlement of the solid concrete. Excessive trauma might occur in
improperly proportioned concrete and is exacerbated by high intermixture water contents, low
cement contents, and also the use of aggregates deficient in fines. trauma is lower in air-
entrained concrete.
Abbreviation Formula
S SiO2
Al
A
2O3
C CaO
F Fe2O3
M MgO
N Na2O
K
K
2O
S SO3
C CO2
H
H
2O
The pozzolanic activity of a fabric defines the power of that material to react with lime. There
are 2 parts to the current activity, the frst being the whole quantity of CH with that the fabric
can mix and therefore the second being the speed at that the reaction with CH occurs. Massazza
(1998) states that there's general agreement that the total quantity of CH with that a pozzolan
will mix depends on the following factors:
• Nature of the reactive phases within the pozzolan
• Content of those phases
• SiO2 content of those phases
• CH/pozzolan quantitative relation of the combo
• length of action
On the opposite hand, the speed of the reaction with CH can rely upon:
• Specific area of the pozzolan
• Water/solid quantitative relation of the combo
• Temperature
Source: Ogawa, K., et al., Cement and Concrete Research, 10(5), 683–696, 1980. Printed with
permission of Elsevier
Stage 2: A amount of relative inactivity called the dormant amount or the induction amount.
this era results from the necessity for the ions in answer to succeed in a crucial concentration
before nucleation happens and association begins. The period of this era is typical between 2
and four hours, however could also be altered by the presence of constituents that act as either
set accelerators or retarders. This stage represents the period once contemporary concrete is
often handled, placed, and consolidated.
Stage 3: The association of C3S begins once more and accelerates, reaching a most at the tip
of the acceleration amount.
Stage 4: the speed of association decreases throughout the speed period thanks to the
formation of C-S-H round the hydrated C3S grains, that acts as a barrier.
Stage 5: The association reaches a gentle state and future association is diffusion controlled,
because the mass transport of water and dissolved ions through the association barrier controls
future association. The rate of association slows because the barrier thickens and approaches
completion asymptotically.
Where:
fc′ = compressive strength (MPa or psi)
fr′ = flexural strength or modulus of rupture (MPa or psi)
fsp ′ = splitting strength (MPa or psi)
These empirical equations have been developed from data for portland cement contents, but
they are generally considered to be appropriate for concrete containing SCMs.
5.3. Modulus of Elasticity:
The modulus of elasticity, Ec, can also be predicted from the compressive strength, fc′, of
concrete, and the equations used in ACI 318 are as follows:
where
wc = unit weight of concrete (kg/m3 or lb/ft3)
Ec = modulus of elasticity (MPa or psi)
The relationship between the modulus of snap and also the compressive strength of concrete is
actually unaffected by the presence of SCMs, and the prognosticative equations area unit
equally applicable to concrete with or while not SCM. Figure 9 shows strength and modulus
information for twenty-one concrete mixtures with fly ash levels up to five hundredth (Ghosh
and Timusk, 1981), and this information indicate that fly ash concrete is expected to possess
an identical modulus as Portland cement concrete of equivalent strength. The modulus
determined by testing during this study was systematically more than the modulus expected
using the equations in ACI 318.
Source: (From Ghosh, R.S., and Timusk, J., ACI Materials Journal, 78(5), 351–357, 1981.
Printed with permission from the American Concrete Institute.)
6. Volume Stability:
6.1. Drying Shrinkage:
Drying shrinkage refers to the reduction in volume caused by the loss of water from hardened
concrete thanks to evaporation. The strains made by drying are significant (typically >400 μs)
and should be accounted for in design and construction. for instance, contraction joints ought
to be provided in pavements, driveways, and slabs to stop uncontrolled cracking of the concrete
once it shrinks. Uneven drying can even cause warp and curling of concrete slabs. The
shrinkage of concrete also will cause reductions in restressing, and these losses ought to be
accounted for within the design stage. There are several factors that have an effect on cracking,
the principal ones being water content, mixture volume, mixture sort, water-cement
quantitative relation, moist curing amount, and surface area-to-volume quantitative relation. to
attenuate the drying shrinkage in concrete, the subsequent ways ought to be considered:
• Maximize content (increase most aggregate size, optimize grading).
• cut back the unit water content (judicious use of water-reducing admixtures, fly ash).
• cut back the W/CM.
• Extend the amount of wet activity.
• Use shrinkage-reducing admixtures.
Source: Zhang, M.H., et al., Cement and Concrete Research, 33(10), 1687–1694, 2003.
6.2. Creep:
Creep is that the term accustomed describe time-dependent deformation beneath a sustained
load. The quantity of creep exhibited by a concrete mixture can depend upon the composition
of the mixture and therefore the nature of the loading. The water content, W/CM, and
combination volume of the concrete have the most important influence on creep; the sort of
cement encompasses a secondary result. to reduce the creep of concrete, the subsequent
changes to mixture proportioning ought to be considered:
• Maximize content (increase most aggregate size, optimize grading).
• cut back the unit water content (judicious use of water-reducing admixtures, fly ash).
• cut back the W/CM.
• Increase maturity before loading (delay loading, steam curing).
Source: Fourth International Conference on Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag, and Natural Pozzolans
in Concrete, SP-132, Vol. 2, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1992, pp.
1325–1341; Malhotra, V.M., et al., Condensed Silica Fume in Concrete, CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL, 1987
Based on tests on concretes with fly ash or silicon oxide fume, Luther and Hansen (1989)
planned that there's no significant distinction between the specific creep of cement concrete,
silicon oxide fume concrete, and fly ash concrete of an equivalent strength. Indeed, this is often
in keeping with the statement in ACI 232.2R that “the effects of fly ash on creep strain of
concrete square measure restricted primarily to the extent to that fly ash influences the final
word strength.” This statement will seemingly be extended to all SCMs.
7. Durability of Concrete:
Concrete is usually a sturdy material and may be expected to perform adequately for many
years or maybe centuries in most environments, provided the following conditions area unit
met:
• The constituent materials area unit appropriate for the supposed use.
• The concrete is proportioned to fulfil the exposure surroundings.
• The concrete is correctly mixed, transported, placed, consolidated, finished, and cured.
• Adequate protection is provided wherever needed (e.g., low pH environments).
There are a unit variety of processes that may result in the premature deterioration of concrete,
and therefore the commonest processes area unit listed in Table. The table categorizes the
processes as being either chemical or physical, but several processes have each a chemical and
a physical element. For example, physical salt attack happens as a results of crystallization
pressure or the cyclic hydration-dehydration of bound compounds, and these area unit very
chemical processes that manufacture physical stresses.
Table 4 Chemical and Physical causes for Concrete Detrition
Chemical Physical
Acid attack Freezing and thawing
Sulphate attack De-icer salt scaling
Delayed ettringite formation Abrasion and erosion
Attack by other chemicals Physical salt attack
Corrosion of embedded metals Fire
Alkali-aggregate reactions
Source: Based on Mindess, S., et al., Concrete, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
2003.
7.1. Permeability:
Concrete may be a porous material and fluids (liquids or gases) might flow through concrete
underneath sure circumstances. The porousness of concrete to fluids is usually measured by
applying a pressure gradient across a concrete sample and measurement the speed of fluid flow.
The porousness of concrete to water, usually termed the hydraulic physical phenomenon, is
usually measured on a water-saturated cylindrical sample of concrete by waterproofing the
curved surface of the sample, applying water struggling to 1 flat face, and measurement the
speed of water flowing out from the opposite face. The coefficient of water porousness is then
calculated exploitation D’Arcy’s equation as follows:
where
k = coeffcient of water permeability or hydraulic conductivity (m/s)
Q = flow rate (m3/s)
A = cross-sectional area of sample (m2)
l = length of the sample in the direction of flow (m)
Δh= difference in hydraulic head across the sample (m)
Table 5 Effect of the Fly Ash on permeability of Concrete
Figure 12 Cracking of concrete due to ASR in (a) bridge abutment, (b) hydraulic dam, (c) retaining wall, (d)
pavement, (e) bridge piers and beams, and (f) curb and gutter
8. Specifications:
There are many specifications worldwide for supplementary cementing materials (SCMs) and
for blended cements containing SCMs. This chapter discusses American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) specifications only.
SCMs that are used as a separate addition at the concrete mixer are covered
by the following ASTM specifications:
• ASTM C 618 Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural
Pozzolan for Use in Concrete
• ASTM C 1240 Standard Specification for Silica Fume Used in Cementitious Mixtures