TECHNICAL REPORT

“ANALYSIS AND MODELLING OF UV RADIATION”

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. -

2 - SOLAR GLOBAL RADIATION ON A HORIZONTAL PLANE ................................................................... -

2.1 – SUN POSITION WITH RESPECT A POINT ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE......................................... -
2.2 - DIRECT AND DIFFUSE COMPONENTS OF THE SOLAR GLOBAL RADIATION................................ -
2.3 - SOLAR GLOBAL RADIATION ON SLOPED SURFACES ................................................................ -

3 – SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION OF UV SOLAR RADIATION ON A HORIZONTAL PLANE........................... 3

3.1 – SPECTRAL UV IRRADIANCE WITH AN EMPIRICAL METHOD.................................................... 3
3.2 – SPECTRAL UV IRRADIANCE SOLVING THE RADIATIVE TRANSFER EQUATIONS ....................... 4
3.3 - FACTORS INFLUENCING UV SOLAR RADIATION AT THE EARTH’S SURFACE............................ 5

4 – SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION OF UV ERYTHEMAL SOLAR RADIATION ON A HORIZONTAL PLANE ..... 8

5 - DIRECT AND DIFFUSE COMPONENTS OF THE UV ERYTHEMAL SOLAR RADIATION .......................10

6 - METHOD FOR CALCULATE THE UV ERYTHEMAL SOLAR RADIATION ON SLOPED SURFACES .......12
6.1 - DIRECT UV ERYTHEMAL IRRADIANCE ................................................................................ 12
6.2 - DIFFUSE UV ERYTHEMAL IRRADIANCE REFLECTED FROM THE GROUND .............................. 12
6.3 – DIFFUSE UV ERYTHEMAL IRRADIANCE COMING FROM THE SKY WITH PEREZ-SKY MODEL .. 13

7 - UV ERYTHEMAL SOLAR RADIATION ON THE HUMAN BODY ..........................................................15

7.1 - BODY SURFACE AREA ........................................................................................................ 15
7.2 – AREA OF THE SKIN-WORKERS EXPOSED TO UV RADIATION ................................................ 16
7.3 – UV ERYTHEMAL EXPOSURE DOSE RECEIVED BY WORKERS ................................................. 21

8 - UV EXPOSURE LIMITS FOR HUMAN BODY ......................................................................................22

8.1 - EXPOSURE LIMITS FOR THE EYE .......................................................................................... 22
8.2 - EXPOSURE LIMITS FOR THE SKIN ......................................................................................... 24
8.3 – APPLICATION OF THE EXPOSURE LIMITS TO SUNLIGHT ........................................................ 25

9 - UV INDEX.......................................................................................................................................26
9.1 – UV INDEX DEFINITION ....................................................................................................... 26

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10 - UV INDEX FORECASTING METHOD ..............................................................................................28
10.1 - METHODS BASED ON THE ESTIMATION OF UV TOTAL IRRADIANCE FROM SOLAR TOTAL
IRRADIANCE ............................................................................................................................... 28
10.2 - METHODS BASED ON REGRESSION MODELS OF MEASURED UVIS ....................................... 29
10.3 - COMPARISON OF THE METHODS AT A SPECIFIC GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION FOR FOUR
SIGNIFICANT DAYS ..................................................................................................................... 31
10.4 - COMPARISON AT SPECIFIC DAYS FOR FIVE DIFFERENT LATITUDES ..................................... 33

11 - NUMERICAL EXAMPLE TO DETERMINE UV ERYTHEMAL IRRADIANCE ON SLOPED SURFACE.....38

11.1 - SPECTRAL UV ERYTHEMAL IRRADIANCE WITH AN EMPIRICAL METHOD ............................ 38
11.2 – SPECTRAL UV ERYTHEMAL IRRADIANCE WITH THE RADIATIVE TRANSFER EQUATIONS..... 40
11.3 – DIRECT AND DIFFUSE COMPONENTS OF THE UV ERYTHEMAL SOLAR RADIATION .............. 44
11.4 – UV ERYTHEMAL SOLAR IRRADIANCE ON THE FRONT SIDE OF THE WORKER....................... 45
11.5 – UV ERYTHEMAL SOLAR IRRADIANCE ON THE BACK-SIDE OF THE WORKER........................ 47
11.6 – AREA OF THE SKIN-WORKER EXPOSED TO UV RADIATION ................................................ 48
11.7 – UV ERYTHEMAL EXPOSURE DOSE RECEIVED BY THE WORKER .......................................... 49
11.8 – UV OCULAR EXPOSURE DOSE RECEIVED BY THE WORKER ................................................ 49

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................52

APPENDIX A. GLOBAL SOLAR CONSTANT ............................................................................................ -

A.1. SOLAR CONSTANT ................................................................................................................. -
A.2. UV SOLAR CONSTANT ........................................................................................................... -
A.3. ERYTHEMAL UV SOLAR CONSTANT ...................................................................................... -

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3 – SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION OF UV SOLAR RADIATION ON A HORIZONTAL PLANE

At several occasions, the effect of the downwelling solar irradiance on an object is characterized by a
typical spectral response, also known as action spectrum in human health. The most likely known of these
action spectra is the standardized action spectrum for erythema, also known as the CIE (Commission
Internationale de l’Eclairage) spectrum (see Sec. 4). There are also other action spectra related for example
to eye damage (see Sec. 8). The only way to take into account a known spectral response or action
spectrum is to multiply a detailed spectral distribution of the irradiance, say every 1 𝑛𝑚 or 10 𝑛𝑚, by this
response. This remark demonstrates the need for an accurate knowledge of the spectral distribution of the
downwelling solar irradiance at ground level.

3.1 – SPECTRAL UV IRRADIANCE WITH AN EMPIRICAL METHOD

A method, developed by [1] for the estimation of the spectral distribution of the UV solar irradiance at
Earth’s surface, from the sole knowledge of the total solar irradiance at surface (𝐸ℎ ) on a horizontal plane,
is shown. The spectral distribution of the method ranges from 280 𝑛𝑚 to 1000 𝑛𝑚. According to [2] the
spectral distribution of interest for the erythema action spectrum ranges from 250 𝑛𝑚 to 400 𝑛𝑚 but in
our case the spectral distribution from 250 𝑛𝑚 to 280 𝑛𝑚 is not important because the atmospheric ozone
layer is always able to block UV solar radiation of wavelengths of less than 290 𝑛𝑚 [3], [4]. According
to [1], the UV irradiance 𝐼ℎ (𝜆) on a horizontal plane for 10 𝑛𝑚 band centered on 𝜆 is equal to:

𝐼ℎ (𝜆) = 1.163 ∙ 10−4 (𝜆 − 300) ∙ 𝑓(𝜆) ∙ 𝐸ℎ for 310 𝑛𝑚 ≤ 𝜆 ≤ 400 𝑛𝑚 (3.1)

𝐼ℎ (𝜆) = 0.6 ∙ 𝐼ℎ (𝜆 = 310 𝑛𝑚) for 280 𝑛𝑚 ≤ 𝜆 < 310 𝑛𝑚 (3.2)

Where 𝜆 is the wavelength of the considered band expressed in 𝑛𝑚, 𝐸ℎ is the total solar irradiance at the
Earth’s surface on a horizontal plane expressed in 𝑊/𝑚 2. Because the spectral width of the bands is 10
𝑛𝑚, the irradiance at a given wavelength is multiplied by 10. 𝑓(𝜆) is a spectral factor. The spectral factor
is defined as:
𝑆 𝑆
𝑓 (𝜆) = [1 − 𝑓𝑐 (𝜆)] ∙ + [1 − 𝑓𝑏 (𝜆)] ∙ (1 − ) (3.3)
𝑆0 𝑆0

The spectral factor for any sky conditions is obtained by linear interpolation between clear and overcast
conditions: 𝑓𝑐 (𝜆) is a coefficient for clear skies, 𝑓𝑏 (𝜆) is a coefficient for overcast skies. The coefficients
𝑓𝑐 (𝜆) and 𝑓𝑏 (𝜆) are given in tabular form in [5], see Table 3.1. The ratio 𝑆/𝑆0 is the relative sunshine
duration, where 𝑆 is the sunshine duration during the day while 𝑆0 is the astronomical daylength. The
sunshine duration is defined as the number of hours during a day for which the solar irradiance exceeds
120 𝑊/𝑚2 [6]. The astronomical daylength is defined as the number of hours from sunrise to sunset.

𝝀 𝒇𝒄 (𝝀) 𝒇𝒃 (𝝀)
310 0.299131 0.052609
320 -0.072117 -0.436417
330 -0.470114 -1.083667
340 -0.163680 -0.507508
350 -0.045845 -0.320075
360 0.104993 -0.135391
370 0.094821 -0.128547
380 0.193805 -0.002148
390 0.227752 0.092124
400 -0.028009 -0.137366
Table 3.1. Coefficients for clear and overcast sky conditions, [5].

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3.2 – SPECTRAL UV IRRADIANCE SOLVING THE RADIATIVE TRANSFER EQUATIONS
Unfortunately, the sunshine duration is known only in a limited number of sites. Alternatively to the
empirical method proposed by [1], the spectral distribution of UV solar irradiance on a horizontal plane
at the Earth’s surface can be calculated solving the radiative transfer equations implemented, for example,
in the TUV (Tropospheric Ultraviolet and Visible radiation model) software calculator developed by the
American National Center for Atmospheric Research [7]. The input data for the software to estimate the
spectral UV irradiances are: position of the considered point (longitude, latitude and altitude), solar
position respect the point (date and local time), the total column of ozone, the aerosol optical depth, the
sulphur dioxide (𝑆𝑂2 ) and nitrogen dioxide (𝑁𝑂2 ) concentrations. Total column of ozone data are
available on the NASA site based on satellite observations [8], the aerosol optical depth data are available
on the AERONET (AErosol RObotic NETwork) site [9] while the sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide
concentrations data are available on the ESA (European Space Agency) site [10]. Aerosol optical depth is
dimensionless while ozone, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide are given to the software in Dobson Unit
(1 𝐷𝑈 = 0.4462 ∙ 103 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚 −2).

In the present work, version 5.3.1 of the software is adopted. The model implemented in the software
considers the extra-terrestrial solar spectral irradiance (see Appendix A) and computes its propagation
through the atmosphere taking into account multiple scattering and absorption due to gases and particles.
Both Rayleigh and Mie scattering are considered depending on particle size. The Earth atmosphere is
divided in 80 equally spaced layers, each 1 𝑘𝑚 thick with homogeneous composition and properties
according to the United States Standard Atmosphere (1976, [11]) which considers an annual average
ozone profile (for 45°N) for 2-74 𝑘𝑚 altitudes, while values at 0 and 1 𝑘𝑚 are filled in assuming a typical
surface mixing ratio of 40 ppb (part per billion). An 8-stream discrete ordinate method is used for the
calculations [12]. A pseudospherical correction is applied to account for Earth’s curvature [13]. The
calculations are carried out at each wavelength from 250 to 400 𝑛𝑚 with a resolution of 1 𝑛𝑚 to match
the resolution of the instruments. The surface albedo is assumed to be Lambertian and wavelength
independent, with values taken in literature [14], see Table 6.1. The ozone profile is scaled on the base of
the ozone data taken from NASA satellite. Model calculations are for cloud-free conditions. In Figure 3.1
the graphic interface of the software is shown. The outputs of the software have been validated in various
studies for clear-sky conditions [15], [16].

Figure 3.1. Graphic interface of the TUV software.

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All the software input data are relevant parameters influencing the UV solar radiation at the Earth’s surface
and they have been detailed in the next Sub-section.

3.3 - FACTORS INFLUENCING UV SOLAR RADIATION AT THE EARTH’S SURFACE

Computation of the ultra-violet spectral distribution at the Earth’s surface typically requires knowledge of
a number of astronomical and meteorological parameters. Most of these parameters will introduce some
degree of uncertainty in an ultra-violet spectral distribution calculation. Typical problems related to this
uncertainty are temporal or spatial variability and lack of measurements of these parameters. Relevant
parameters for ultra-violet spectral distribution calculation are summarized in Table 3.1 with an estimate
of the introduced uncertainties in the calculation according to [17].

Parameter Uncertainty in calculation

Cloud amount and properties > 50%
Albedo (snow) 28%
Ozone profile 8%
Aerosol properties 5%
Astronomical factors 3-5%
Total Ozone Column (TOC) 3-4%
Trace gasses (SO2, NO2) 1%

Table 3.1. Relevant parameters for ultra-violet spectral distribution calculation and uncertainty introduced in
calculation (source [17]).

Clouds. UV solar radiation (and in general total solar radiation) is scattered when passing through clouds
because they are formed by small water droplets or ice crystals. The effect of clouds on UV solar radiation
is (in general) a decrease of the transmissivity of atmosphere. Clouds are highly variable in time and space,
so there is great difficulty in their specification, and their usual effect is attenuation of surface UV solar
radiation [18]. Cloud attenuation depends on different cloud properties such as cloud amount, cloud optical
thickness, relative position between the Sun and clouds, cloud type, number of cloud layers, etc.
Sometimes ground level UV radiation may be affected by clouds in such a manner that it may be higher
than UV radiation in cloudless conditions. This effect, known as cloud enhancement, is described for
example by [19]-[21] and most of the enhancements were associated with cumuliform clouds in
dissipation stage while the cloud fringes were crossing over the Sun disk or were associated with partly
cloudy skies when the direct solar radiation was unobstructed.

Albedo. Albedo is the ratio between the reflected irradiance from a surface and the incident irradiance on
the same surface:

𝐸𝑟
𝜌=
𝐸𝑖

In the UV wavelength band, albedo for most surfaces is below 0.1, quite lower than albedo in the visible
wavelength band. When albedo is low and the sky is cloudless, an uncertainty of 1% in its value results in
uncertainties of estimated UV irradiances of less than 0.5% [18]. However, there are some very specific
surfaces with higher UV albedo: dry sand (𝜌 = 0.18) and snow (𝜌 > 0.79) [22]-[24].

Ozone profile. The distribution of ozone through the atmosphere (ozone profile) has a remarkably strong
influence on UVI. According to [17], the UV solar irradiance values increase by 8% when a mid-latitude
ozone profile is replaced by a tropical profile, while keeping the total ozone column amount constant.
Stratospheric ozone (O3) is created over low latitudes by the action of ultra-violet radiation. An oxygen
molecule (O2) reacts with the high energy radiation and two oxygen atoms are formed in the reaction. A
5
third molecule (M), e.g. another oxygen or nitrogen, is required to remove the excess of the kinetic energy
in the following way:

𝑂2 + 𝑈𝑉 → 𝑂 + 𝑂
𝑂2 + 𝑂 + 𝑀 → 𝑂3 + 𝑀

The destruction of ozone results in its breakdown to molecular oxygen and atomic oxygen. In equilibrium,
these two events of synthesis and degradation have in the past resulted in an average ozone content of
about 300 𝐷𝑈 (Dobson Unit, 1 𝐷𝑈 = 0.4462 ∙ 103 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑚 2). However, with the loading of the
atmosphere with halogen compounds containing Cl and Br from industrial activities, the balance is no
longer in place, since Br, BrO, Cl and ClO take part in the catalytic breakdown cycles involving ozone
[25]. Most of the stratospheric ozone occurs between 10 and 30 𝑘𝑚 above the surface of the earth,
providing an effective filter against harmful ultraviolet radiation.

Aerosol properties. Tiny solid and liquid particles suspended in the atmosphere are called aerosols.
Windblown dust, sea salts, volcanic ash, smoke from wildfires, and pollution from factories are all
examples of aerosols. Particles suspended within the atmosphere cause extinction of radiation because of
scattering and absorption phenomena. Particles are highly variable in their chemical and physical
properties (composition, size, or degree of aggregation) both in time and space. Depending upon their
size, type, and location, aerosols can either cool the surface, or warm it. They can help clouds to form, or
they can inhibit cloud formation. And if inhaled, some aerosols can be harmful to people's health [26].
The aerosol optical depth is the optical depth due to extinction by the aerosol component of the
atmosphere. The aerosol optical depth or optical thickness (τ) is defined as the extinction coefficient over
a vertical column of unit cross section:
∞
𝜏 = ∫𝑧 𝑛𝑗 (𝑧) 𝜎𝑗 𝑑𝑧

where 𝑛𝑗 is the altitude-dependent concentration (molecules or particles per cubic centimetre) of the
various gases (𝜎𝑗 ) and particles that attenuate radiation, each with an effective cross section. In general
every constituent (gas or particle) can both scatter and absorb radiation, but in practice at visible, UV-A
and UV-B wavelengths scattering by gases is so weak that only air (𝑁2 + 𝑂2 ) contributes, while only a
few trace gases (𝑂3 , 𝑆𝑂2 and 𝑁𝑂2 ) have strong enough absorption to require consideration [27]. Aerosol
optical depths typically decrease with increasing wavelength and are much smaller for longwave radiation
than for shortwave radiation. Values vary widely depending on atmospheric conditions, but are typically
in the range 0.02–0.2 for visible radiation [28], [29]. Ignoring the variations in aerosol by assuming a
typical value for the aerosol optical depth (𝜏 = 0.235) introduces an error of about 5% in the UV spectral
irradiances [17].

Astronomical factors. Astronomical factors refer to the position of the Sun relative to a specific site on
the Earth. The most important factor influencing UV radiation reaching the ground is solar elevation
(commonly described through the solar zenith angle 𝜃, see Sub-sec. 2.1). The higher the Sun from the
horizon, the shorter the atmospheric path that radiation crosses before reaching the ground and the lower
the extinction. Another astronomical factor is the variation of Earth-Sun distance due to the elliptical orbit
of the Earth. As result of this variation the incoming solar irradiance varies by ±3.3% throughout the year,
and it is maximum in January (perihelion) and minimum in July (aphelion). Another related factor is the
solar activity, which has a well established period of 11 years and is responsible for variations of 0.1% in
the total solar energy output. At short wavelengths, however, the latter effect may be larger (1.1%, [27]).
Altitude is another astronomical factors. The higher above sea level, the shorter the optical path that solar
radiation has to cross to reach the surface and, obviously, the lower the extinction suffered.

6
Total Ozone Column. In mid-latitudes the TOC concentration shows a substantial day-to-day variability.
On an annual basis in the Northern hemisphere, the average TOC values exceed the Southern hemisphere
average values by the 4%, the 12%, and the 18% at low (0°-25°), mid- (25°-50°), and high (50°-60°)
latitudes, respectively [30]. Comparing the TOC average concentrations in the two hemispheres, 52% of
the annual average TOC concentrations resides in the Northern hemisphere while 48% resides in the
Southern hemisphere, which equates to an 13% average enhancement in the Southern hemisphere of the
ultra-violet irradiances [31].

Trace gases. Like ozone, sulphur dioxide (𝑆𝑂2 ) and nitrogen dioxide (𝑁𝑂2 ) absorbs ultraviolet sunlight.
Their effect on ultraviolet solar radiation is quite small, less than 1% [17]. On the other hand, as the
lifetime of this gases (in particular of the 𝑆𝑂2 ) is quite short, it is possible that substantially higher amounts
can occur in some areas. Both the direct and diffuse component of surface UV radiation are absorbed by
these gases. The direct component is reduced in accordance with Beer-Lambert’s law, which is inversely
proportional to the exponent of the absorption coefficient at a given wavelength. The diffuse component
is reduced by absorption that occurs in the optical path both before and after the radiation is scattered.
Multiple scattering enhances the amount of absorption because the path length of radiation through the
absorber is increased [32].

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4 – SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION OF UV ERYTHEMAL SOLAR RADIATION ON A HORIZONTAL
PLANE

To evaluate the effect of the UV radiation on the human body, CIE erythema reference action spectrum is
possible to use [2], [33]. The erythema action spectrum expresses the ability of UV radiation to elicit
erythema in human skin. Such ability of UV radiation depends strongly on wavelength and for this reason
UV irradiance on a horizontal plane (𝐼ℎ ) must be weighted according to [2] in order to evaluate the
potential damage for skin due to UV radiation. The spectral dependence of the ability of UV radiation to
produce erythema in human skin is expressed with the erythema action spectrum (𝑠𝑒𝑟 (λ)). The erythema
action spectrum is expressed with the following equations (see Figure 4.1 and 4.2):

𝑠𝑒𝑟 (λ)=1 for 250 nm ≤ λ ≤ 298 nm

0.094(298−𝜆)
𝑠𝑒𝑟 (λ)=10 for 298 nm < λ ≤ 328 nm
𝑠𝑒𝑟 (λ)=100.015(140−𝜆) for 328 nm < λ ≤ 400 nm

ser(λ)
1,0
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0,0
250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
λ [nm]

Figure 4.1. Erythema action spectrum given in [2].

To obtain the spectral distribution of the UV erythemal solar radiation that ranges from 250 𝑛𝑚 to
400 𝑛𝑚, the spectral distribution of the UV radiation has to be multiplied for the CIE erythema action
spectrum:

𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ (λ) = 𝐼ℎ (λ) ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑟 (λ)

To obtain the UV erythemal solar radiation, the sum of the UV erythemal spectral distribution is needed:

𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ = ∑400 𝑛𝑚
𝑖=250 𝑛𝑚 𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ (𝜆𝑖 ) ∙ ∆𝜆

where ∆𝜆 is the wavelength interval.

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 ser(λ)
1,0000

0,1000

0,0100

0,0010

0,0001
250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
λ [nm]

Figure 4.2. Erythema action spectrum given in [2].

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5 - DIRECT AND DIFFUSE COMPONENTS OF THE UV ERYTHEMAL SOLAR RADIATION

Here is presented a method for splitting UV erythemal solar irradiance on a horizontal plane into its direct
and diffuse components. Despite its important role on the human health and numerous biological
processes, the diffuse and direct components of the erythemal ultra-violet irradiance (𝐼𝑒𝑟 ) are scarcely
measured at standard radiometric stations and therefore needs to be estimated. The method, originally
proposed by [34], is inspired from mathematical expressions used to estimate total solar diffuse
component. To adapt the method to the UV range, [35] added to the various variables of the method the
total column of ozone in order to take into account its strong impact on the attenuation of UV radiation.
The method has been tested against experimental data taken in the city of Badajoz (38.99°N, 7.01°W, 199
m a.s.l.) in Spain. According to the method, the diffuse and the direct components of the UV erythemal
irradiance on a horizontal plane at the Earth’s surface are:

𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑑ℎ = 𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ ∙ (1.20 − 35.4 ∙ 𝑘𝑈𝑉,𝑒𝑟 + 0.50 ∙ cos 𝜃 − 1.12 ∙ 10−3 ∙ 𝑇𝑂𝐶)
𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑏ℎ = 𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ − 𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑑ℎ

where 𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ is the UV irradiance erythemally weighted (see Sec. 4), 𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑑ℎ is the diffuse component of the
UV irradiance erythemally weighted, 𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑏ℎ is the direct component of the UV irradiance erythemally
weighted, 𝜃 is the solar zenith angle, 𝑇𝑂𝐶 is the Total Ozone Column expressed in Dobson Unit and
𝑘𝑈𝑉,𝑒𝑟 is the clearness index for the UV irradiance erythemally weighted. 𝑘𝑈𝑉,𝑒𝑟 is defined as the ratio
between the UV irradiance erythemally weighted on a horizontal plane (𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ ) and the UV irradiance
erythemally weighted at the top of the atmosphere:

𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ
𝑘𝑈𝑉,𝑒𝑟 = 𝑇𝑂𝑃
𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ

the UV irradiance erythemally weighted at the top of the atmosphere on a horizontal plane parallel to the
Earth’s surface is:

𝑇𝑂𝑃 𝑇𝑂𝑃
𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ = 𝐼𝑒𝑟 ∙ 𝑐𝑑 ∙ cos 𝜃

𝑇𝑂𝑃
where 𝐼𝑒𝑟 is the erythemally weighted UV solar constant equal to 14.830 W/𝑚2 (see Annex A) and 𝑐𝑑
is the eccentricity correction factor of the Earth-Sun distance (see Sub-sec. 2.1). Typical values of the
diffuse UV erythemal fraction are shown in Table 5.1. The diffuse UV erythemal fraction is expressed
with 𝑓𝑈𝑉,𝑒𝑟 defined as the ratio between the diffuse UV erythemal fraction and the UV erythemal
irradiance:

𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑑ℎ
𝑓𝑈𝑉,𝑒𝑟 =
𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ

𝑓𝑈𝑉,𝑒𝑟 values are in function of the global solar clearness index (𝐾𝑡 ). 𝐾𝑡 provides the transmission of the
incident global irradiance, passing through the atmosphere and indicates the degree of availability of the
solar irradiance at ground level. It is defined, for the whole solar spectrum, as the ratio between the global
solar irradiance on a horizontal plane at the Earth’s surface (𝐸ℎ ) and the extra-terrestrial global solar
irradiance on a horizontal plane at the top of the atmosphere (𝐸ℎ𝑇𝑂𝑃 ):

𝐸ℎ
𝐾𝑡 =
𝐸ℎ𝑇𝑂𝑃

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From Table 5.1 it is possible to say that in very clear conditions (𝐾𝑡 > 0.7), the average value of the
diffuse UV erythemal irradiance reaches the 62% with respect to the global UV erythemal irradiance. The
diffuse UV erythemal irradiance, even in very clear skies, is always a dominant fraction of the UV
erythemal irradiance at the ground level and is never less than the 48% of the UV erythemal irradiance
even in practically cloudless skies (the direct UV erythemal irradiance is always less than 62% of the UV
erythemal irradiance, [36], [37]). With overcast conditions, the diffuse UV erythemal irradiance reaches
values above the 90% with respect the UV erythemal irradiance (the direct UV erythemal irradiance is
less than 10%, [38]).

𝑲𝒕 𝒇𝑼𝑽,𝒆𝒓
0.1 < 𝐾𝑡 < 0.2 0.91
0.2 < 𝐾𝑡 < 0.3 0.93
0.3 < 𝐾𝑡 < 0.4 0.92
0.4 < 𝐾𝑡 < 0.5 0.88
0.5 < 𝐾𝑡 < 0.6 0.82
0.6 < 𝐾𝑡 < 0.7 0.73
0.7 < 𝐾𝑡 < 0.8 0.62
0.8 < 𝐾𝑡 < 0.9 0.67

Table 5.1. Diffuse UV erythemal fraction with respect to the total UV erythemal radiation, [39].

The percentage of diffuse UV erythemal irradiance is higher for the shorter 320-400 𝑛𝑚 range (UVB)
than for 280-320 𝑛𝑚 (UVA). This is due to the higher relative effectiveness for erythemal damage of the
CIE action spectrum in the shorter wavelengths [40].

11
6 - METHOD FOR CALCULATE THE UV ERYTHEMAL SOLAR RADIATION ON SLOPED SURFACES

Consider an area (𝐴) on a plane (𝜋) with a tilt angle 𝛽 and an azimuth angle 𝛾 as in Sub-section 2.3. 𝛽 is
defined as the angle between the horizontal plane and the plane 𝜋 (see Figure 6.1). 𝛽 can vary from 0° to
180° (with 𝛽 = 0° the plane is horizontal, with 𝛽 = 90° the plane is vertical and with 𝛽 > 90° the plane
is facing the ground). 𝛾 is defined as the angle between the projection on the horizontal plane of the normal
of the plane 𝜋 and the South direction (see Figure 6.1). 𝛾 is positive in the direction from South to West.
The UV erythemal solar irradiance arriving on 𝐴 is the sum of the direct (𝐼𝑏𝐴 ) and diffuse (𝐼𝑑𝐴 )
components:

𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝑏𝐴 + 𝐼𝑑𝐴

The diffuse UV erythemal solar irradiance (𝐼𝑑𝐴) is the sum of the part coming from the sky and of the part
reflected from the ground:

𝐼𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑠 + 𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑔

6.1 - DIRECT UV ERYTHEMAL IRRADIANCE

The direct part of the UV solar irradiance (𝐼𝑏𝐴 ) can be calculated with the following equation:

𝐼𝑏𝐴 = 𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑏ℎ ∙ 𝑅𝑏

where 𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑏ℎ is the direct UV erythemal solar irradiance on a horizontal plane and 𝑅𝑏 is the ratio between
the direct irradiance on the tilted plane 𝜋 and the direct irradiance on a horizontal plane:

cos 𝜗
𝑅𝑏 =
sin 𝛼

where 𝜗 is the incidence angle and 𝛼 is the height of the Sun on the horizon. 𝜗 is the angle between the
normal to the plane 𝜋 and the line from a point 𝑃 to the Sun’s disc centre (see Figure 6.1).

Figure 6.1. Definition of 𝛽, 𝜗 and 𝛾 angles.

6.2 - DIFFUSE UV ERYTHEMAL IRRADIANCE REFLECTED FROM THE GROUND

The diffuse irradiance incident on a plane which is reflected and diffused from the ground (𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑔 ) can be
estimated with the following equation:

𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑔 = 𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ ∙ 𝜌𝑈𝑉 ∙ 𝐹𝑔

12
where 𝜌𝑈𝑉 is the ground albedo in the UV (see Table 6.1 for typical values of 𝜌𝑈𝑉 ) and 𝐹𝑔 is the view-
factor between the visible portion of the ground and the area 𝐴. In the case of a horizontal ground with an
unlimited extension and without any reflective surfaces, 𝐹𝑔 is:

1−cos 𝛽
𝐹𝑔 = 2

Surface 𝝆𝑼𝑽
Dry snow (old) 0.822
Wet snow (old) 0.744
Dry snow (fresh) 0.944
Wet snow (fresh) 0.792
Limestone 0.112
Alpine pasture 0.049
Tennis court 0.029
Primitive rock 0.037
Soil 0.022
Ice 0.078
Water 0.048
Asphalt 0.055
Wet coarse sand 0.024
Dry coarse sand 0.042
White formica (plastic) 0.079
Natural clear wood (pinus) 0.026
White painted wood (pinus) 0.042
Black painted wood (pinus) 0.027
Stainless steel opaque plate 0.043
Yellow grass 0.010
Green grass 0.011

Table 6.1. Average ground reflectivity (albedo) in the UV, for some type of surfaces (sources [3], [23], [24]).

6.3 – DIFFUSE UV ERYTHEMAL IRRADIANCE COMING FROM THE SKY WITH A PEREZ-SKY MODEL
The diffuse UV erythemal irradiance coming from the sky (𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑠 ) can be calculated with the method
proposed by Perez [41]-[43]. The Perez-sky model has been originally designed for reproduce the diffuse
global solar radiation but it has been also applied to reproduce the diffuse UV erythemal radiation on
sloped surface with good results [44]-[46]. The diffuse irradiance coming from the sky is estimated with
the following equation:

1+cos 𝛽 𝑎
𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑠 = 𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑑ℎ ∙ [(1 − 𝐹1 ) ∙ ( ) + 𝐹1 ∙ + 𝐹2 ∙ sin 𝛽]
2 𝑏

where 𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑑ℎ is the diffuse UV erythemal irradiance on a horizontal plane (see Sec. 5), 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 are,
respectively, the coefficients of the circumsolar irradiance and of the horizon irradiance respect the UV
total diffuse irradiance while 𝑎 and 𝑏 are the coefficients taking into account the incidence angle of the
Sun on the area 𝐴:

𝑎 = max[0, cos 𝜗]
𝑏 = max[0.0872; cos 𝜗𝑧 ]

where 0 stands for the cosine of 90° and 0.0872 for the cosine of 85°, 𝜗𝑧 is the zenith angle of the Sun
expressed in radians.
13
The equation of 𝜗𝑧 is the following:

90°−𝛼
𝜗𝑍 = 2𝜋 ∙ ( 360°
)

where 𝛼 is the angle of elevation of the Sun:

sin 𝛼 = cos 𝜃 = cos 𝜑 ∙ cos 𝛿 ∙ cos 𝜔 + sin 𝜑 ∙ sin 𝛿

The coefficients 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 depend on the sky conditions described by the coefficients of transparency (𝜀)
and brightness (∆), defined by the following equations:

𝐸
𝐸𝑑ℎ + 𝑏ℎ
sin 𝛼
+1.041∙𝜗𝑍 3
𝐸𝑑ℎ
𝜀=
1+1.041∙𝜗𝑍 3

𝐸
𝑑ℎ
∆= 𝑚 ∙ 𝐸𝑇𝑂𝑃
𝐺

where 𝐸𝑑ℎ is the diffuse total solar irradiance and 𝐸𝑏ℎ is the direct total solar irradiance (see Sec. 2),
calculate considering the albedo values of Table 2.1. 𝐸𝐺𝑇𝑂𝑃 is the extra-terrestrial total solar irradiance on
a plane perpendicular to solar radiation (𝐸𝐺𝑇𝑂𝑃 = 𝐸0 ∙ 𝑐𝑑 ; 𝐸0 = 1367 𝑊/𝑚 2, 𝑐𝑑 is the eccentricity
correction factor see Sub-sec. 2.1) and 𝑚 is the air optic mass, function only of the elevation angle 𝛼
(expressed in degrees):

1
𝑚=
sin 𝛼+0.050572∙(6.07995+𝛼)−1.6364

finally, the 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 coefficients can be estimated with the following equations:

𝐹1 = max[0; 𝑓11 + 𝑓12 ∙ ∆ + 𝑓13 ∙ 𝜗𝑍 ] and 0 ≤ 𝐹1 ≤ 1

𝐹2 = max[0; 𝑓21 + 𝑓22 ∙ ∆ + 𝑓23 ∙ 𝜗𝑍 ] and 0 ≤ 𝐹2 ≤ 1

with 𝜗𝑍 expressed in radians while the terms 𝑓11 , 𝑓12 , 𝑓13 , 𝑓21 , 𝑓22 and 𝑓23 are listed in Table 6.2.

𝜀 1.000-1.065 1.065-1.230 1.230-1.500 1.500-1.950 1.950-2.800 2.800-4.500 4.500-6.200 > 6.200

𝑓11 -0.0083117 0.1299457 0.3296958 0.5682053 0.8730280 1.1326077 1.0601591 0.6777470
𝑓12 0.5877285 0.6825954 0.4868735 0.1874525 -0.3920403 -1.2367284 -1.5999137 -0.3272588
𝑓13 -0.0620636 -0.1513752 -0.2210958 -0.2951290 -0.3616149 -0.4118494 -0.3589221 -0.2504286
𝑓21 -0.0596012 -0.0189325 0.0554140 0.1088631 0.2255647 0.2877813 0.2642124 0.1561313
𝑓22 0.0721249 0.0659650 -0.0639588 -0.1519229 -0.4620442 -0.8230357 -1.1272340 -1.3765031
𝑓23 -0.0220216 -0.0288748 -0.0260542 -0.0139754 0.0012448 0.0558651 0.1310694 0.2506212

Table 6.2. Terms for the calculation of the circumsolar and horizon irradiance according to Perez method, [47].

14
7 - UV ERYTHEMAL SOLAR RADIATION ON THE HUMAN BODY

UV solar radiation has positive and adverse effects on human body. For this reason, the knowledge of UV
solar radiation at the Earth’s surface as determined in the previous sections is very important. The first
adverse acute effect occurring after an overexposure to solar radiation is erythema for human skin and for
this reason is not only important the knowledge of UV erythemal solar radiation at ground level but also
the knowledge of the skin surface directly exposed to Sun and not protected by clothes.

The anatomical distribution of ultraviolet solar radiation is not uniform over the human body. Certain parts
of the human body are more susceptible to high UV erythemal solar radiation exposure than others. For
example on clear-sky days, horizontal anatomical sites receive the highest UV erythemal solar radiation
exposure. The UV exposure is highest on the vertex of the head with the level of exposure decreasing for
below positions [48]. Facial exposure ranges between 19% and 56% of the vertex of the head (the most
exposed point). The hands and arms also receive relatively high UV erythemal solar radiation exposure
(more than the 50% of the vertex of the head). Vertical surfaces on average receive the 38% of the vertex
[49]. The legs zone receives less per unit area than the whole body. On overcast-sky days all anatomical
sites receive approximately the 30% less than that received on a clear-sky day [50]. Quantification of the
anatomical distribution of UV erythemal radiation is important to better understand UV-related diseases
and to guide the design of sun protection programmes. Not by chance over 80% of skin cancers occur on
the face, head, neck and back of the hands.

In Sub-sec. 7.1 a method for the estimation of the human skin directly exposed to Sun-rays is exposed on
the base of the BSA (Body Surface Area) index. In Sub-sec. 7.2 the area of the skin directly exposed to
UV radiation is calculated and finally in Sub-sec. 7.3 the UV radiation doses received by a worker are
analysed.

7.1 - BODY SURFACE AREA

The Body Surface Area (BSA) is a physiological quantity relevant in many medical applications. In
clinical practice, it is used for dosage of drugs and is calculated by empirical equations. In literature there
are a lot of studies showing empirical equations for the determination of BSA [51]-[54] but recent studies
on 3D laser-based anthropometry provides an easy and more effective way to measure BSA [55] [56]. An
empirical equation has been chosen determined thanks to a correlation with a large population-based study
on Caucasian adults 3D body surface measurements [57]. The equation is expressed in function of the sex,
the Body Mass Index (BMI), the height and the weight of a person:

𝐵𝑆𝐴 = 𝛽0 ∙ 𝐻𝛽1 ∙ 𝑊 𝛽2

where BSA is expressed in square meters, 𝐻 is the height of the person expressed in centimeters, 𝑊 is the
weight expressed in kilograms and 𝛽0 , 𝛽1 and 𝛽2 are coefficients listed in Table 7.1 in function of the sex
and of the BMI of the considered person. According to WHO guidelines [58], [59], BMI is a simple index
commonly used to classify underweight, overweight and obesity in adults. It is defined as the weight (𝑊)
in kilograms divided by the square of the height (𝐻) in metres:

𝑊
𝐵𝑀𝐼 =
𝐻2

On the base of the BMI value of Table 7.2, adults are normal weight, underweight, overweight or obese.

15
 Male Female
𝛽0 0.0070 0.0105
Normal
Weight
𝛽1 0.7645 0.6455
𝛽2 0.3777 0.4292
𝛽0 0.0091 0.0105
Overweight 𝛽1 0.6770 0.6494
𝛽2 0.4214 0.4230
𝛽0 0.0126 0.0122
Obesity 𝛽1 0.5852 0.5922
𝛽2 0.4528 0.4568
Table 7.1. 𝛽 coefficients for BSA determination in function of the sex and of the BMI.

Underweight 𝐵𝑀𝐼 < 18.5

Normal weight 18.5 ≤ 𝐵𝑀𝐼 < 25.0
Overweight 25.0 ≤ 𝐵𝑀𝐼 < 30.0
Obesity 30.0 ≤ 𝐵𝑀𝐼

Table 7.2. BMI categories in accordance with the World Health Organization.

7.2 – AREA OF THE SKIN-WORKERS EXPOSED TO UV RADIATION

The aim of this Sub-Section is to determine the area of skin of workers directly exposed to UV radiation
and not protected by clothes. Clothing is the first UV radiation protection for humans. From a UV
transmittance point of view, clothes can be divided into two groups: the sun-protective rated clothes and
the regular or standard clothes. The sun-protective clothes are clothes specifically designed for sun
protection and are produced from a fabric certified for its level of ultraviolet (UV) protection. A particular
weave structure and denier (related to thread count per inch) may produce sun protective properties. In
addition, some textiles and fabrics employed in the use of sun protective clothing may be pre-treated with
UV-inhibiting ingredients during manufacture to enhance their effectiveness [60]. The Ultra-violet
Protection Factor (UPF) is an index to measure the UV protection of a fabric. UPF measures the
effectiveness of textile fabrics in protecting the human skin from ultraviolet radiations. It is expressed as
the ratio of extent of time required for the skin to show redness (erythema) with and without the textile
protection, under continuous exposure to solar radiation, similar to SPF (Sun Protection Factor) ratings
for sunscreen [61]. The UPF is calculated with the following equation:
𝑀𝐸𝐷𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛
𝑈𝑃𝐹 =
𝑀𝐸𝐷𝑢𝑛𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛

where, 𝑀𝐸𝐷 is the minimal erythemal dose or quantity of radiant energy needed to produce the first
detectable reddening of skin after 24 hours of continuous exposure. The various ratings of textile UPF are
mentioned in Table 7.3. While standard summer fabrics have UPF of about 12, sun-protective clothing
typically has UPF of about 35, which means that only 1 out of 30 units of UV radiation will pass through
(~3%) [62].

Clothes UPF range Protection category UV radiation transmission (%)

15-24 Good 6.7-4.2
25-39 Very good 4.1-2.6
40-50, 50+ Excellent <2.5
Table 7.3. Ultra-violet Protection Factor ratings for clothes.
16
The area of the skin-worker exposed to UV radiation (and not covered by clothes) is:

𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝐵𝑆𝐴 − 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑣

where 𝐵𝑆𝐴 is the area of the skin of the worker calculated as in Sub-sec. 7.1 while 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑣 is the area of the
skin covered by clothes. EN ISO 9920:2007 defines the term 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑣 as the body surface area covered by
clothing and the value of 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑣 is expressed as a percentage of the total body surface area [63]. In Figures
7.2, 7.3 and 7.4 are shown the areas of body covered by various types of clothing for males and females
expressed in percentage with respect 𝐵𝑆𝐴 based on a study of [64]. The worker is represented with a
vertical plane coincident with the coronal plane (or frontal plane) of the worker itself (see Figure 7.1). The
UV radiation which is exposed the worker is the UV erythemal irradiance arriving on the vertical plane.

Figure 7.1. Coronal (or frontal) plane of a human body.

In the hyphothesis of perfect symmetry of the human body with respect to the coronal plane, the front side
and the back-side of the skin area exposed to Sun are the half of the total area exposed to Sun:
𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝐴𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡,𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘,𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 2

17
Figure 7.2. Area covered by clothing based on Body Surface Area for male, [64].

18
Figure 7.3. Area covered by clothing based on Body Surface Area for female, [64].

19
Figure 7.4. Area covered by clothing based on Body Surface Area for female, [64].

20
7.3 – UV ERYTHEMAL EXPOSURE DOSE RECEIVED BY WORKERS
It is possible to measure UV radiation doses received by workers or general population through various
indices. The most utilized are the Minimum Erythemal Dose and the Standard Erythemal Dose:

− The Minimum Erythemal Dose (MED, 𝐽/𝑚2) is defined as the erythemal radiant exposure that
produces a just noticeable erythema on a single individual's previously unexposed skin (in people
with skin phototype I one MED is equal to 200, 𝐽/𝑚 2 of erythemal effective UV radiation). This
measure is subjective with regards determination of the reddening of the skin and depends on
many variables including individual skin pigmentation and exposure site. For example, in an
investigation of the photoprotection of epidermal melanin pigmentation of the WHO, the ratio of
the values for the MED between skin type V and skin type I and II was 2.29 [65]. When MED is
used in populations of different skin types, the skin type must be defined. MED is a subjective
measure based on the reddening of the skin; it depends on many variables, including individual
sensitivity to UV, radiometric characteristics of the source, skin pigmentation, anatomic site, and
the elapsed time between irradiation and the observation of reddening (typical value is for 24
hours post-exposure). For these reasons the use of the MED index is limited and reserved solely
for observational studies and the lack of a consistent baseline for MED measurement decreases
its value for interstudy comparisons.
− The Standard Erythemal Dose (SED, 𝐽/𝑚2) is a standardized measure of erythemogenic UV
radiation. One SED is equivalent to an erythemally effective radiant exposure of 100 𝐽/𝑚 2 when
the radiation is weighted by the erythema action spectrum, 𝑠𝑒𝑟 (𝜆) , defined by [2]. The SED is
independent of skin type and a particular exposure dose in SED may cause erythema in fair skin
but none in darker skin.

Recommended values of 𝑆𝐸𝐷s have been shown in Table 7.4 on the base of the skin phototypes. Skin
phototypes are defined in Table 7.5 on the base of the Fitzpatrick scale. An exposure of 1 𝑆𝐸𝐷 is
approximately the ICNIRP guideline for a daily exposure limit (8 ℎ), see Sec. 8.

Skin Tanning Classes of

Sun sensitivity Sunburn susceptibility
phototype achieved individuals
Always sunburn: < 2
I Very sensitive No tan Melano-compromised
SED
II Moderately sensitive High: 2 − 3 SED Light tan Melano-compromised
Moderately
III Moderate: 3 − 5 SED Medium tan Melano-competent
insensitive
IV Insensitive Low: 5 − 7 SED Dark tan Melano-competent
Natural brown
V Insensitive Very low: 7 − 10 SED Melano-protected
skin
VI Insensitive Extremely low: 10 SED Natural black skin Melano-protected
Table 7.4. Classification of skin types based on their susceptibility to sunburn in sunlight, [3].

I II III IV V VI

Northern Southern East Indian,

European Mediterranean, African
European, European, Central African, Native
Scandinavian Asian, Latin Aboriginal
British European American

Table 7.5. Skin phototypes based on the Fitzpatrick scale, [66].

21
8 - UV EXPOSURE LIMITS FOR HUMAN BODY

A number of international and national organizations have promulgated guidelines or standards on

exposure to UV radiation due to solar radiation [2] [3] [67][72]. The exposure limits for both general
public and occupational workers exposure to UV radiation incident on the skin or eye are the same and
are based on the UV effective spectral irradiance (𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 , 𝑊/𝑚 2). The UV effective spectral irradiance is
the UV spectral irradiance (𝐼(𝜆), 𝑊/𝑚2) at the eye or skin surface mathematically weighted with the
hazard relative spectral effectiveness factor (𝑠(𝜆)). This is given as follows:
𝜆
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = ∑𝜆21 𝐼(𝜆) ∙ 𝑠(𝜆) ∙ ∆𝜆

where 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 is the UV effective spectral irradiance, 𝐼(𝜆) is the UV spectral irradiance, 𝑠(𝜆) is the relative
spectral effectiveness factor and ∆𝜆 is the bandwidth of the calculation or measurement in 𝑛𝑚. 𝜆1 and 𝜆2
are the extreme of integration and they depends on the chosen standard. The limits apply to sources whose
emissions are measured or calculated with an instrument having a cosine response detector oriented
perpendicular to the most directly exposed surfaces of the body when assessing skin exposure and along
(or parallel to) the line of sight when assessing ocular exposure. Although no measurement averaging
aperture is recommended, 1 𝑚𝑚 is commonly used. The limits apply to people, not UV light sources and
define a level of UV light exposure, below which nearly all individuals may be repeatedly exposed without
adverse acute health effects. The limits are designed to protect lightly pigmented individuals (phototype I
and II, see Table 7.5) but some people may be unusually photosensitive or exposed to photosensitising
agents, so the standard exposure limits may not be adequate for them. The limits should reduce the risk of
chronic effects by preventing acute effects and limiting life-long UV light exposure with a significant
safety margin [73], [74].

8.1 - EXPOSURE LIMITS FOR THE EYE

According to ICNIRP guidelines [67], exposure to UV radiation in the spectral region from 180 to 400
𝑛𝑚 incident upon the unprotected eye should not exceed 30 𝐽/𝑚2 for avoid acute adverse effects. This
exposure limit must be compared with the UV effective spectral irradiance. The UV effective spectral
irradiance must be spectrally weighted with the spectral weighting factors contained in Table 8.1 and
shown in Figures 8.1 and 8.2. In Figures 8.1 and 8.2 the ICNIRP spectral weighting factors (𝑠𝑒𝑦𝑒 (λ)) for
eye protection are compared with the CIE spectral weighting factors (𝑠𝑒𝑟 (λ)) for skin protection shown in
Sec. 4. In addition, to avoid long-term adverse effects, exposure to UV radiation in the spectral region
from 315 to 400 𝑛𝑚 (UVA) should not exceed 104 𝐽/𝑚 2. UVA radiation is not weighted with the spectral
factors of Table 8.1 but is unweighted:

𝐼𝑈𝑉𝐴 = ∑400 𝑛𝑚
315 𝑛𝑚 𝐼 (𝜆 ) ∙ ∆𝜆

The exposure limits should be applied to exposure directed perpendicular to the surfaces of the body facing
the radiation source. The exposure limits, for both general and occupational exposure to UV radiation
incident upon the eyes, are referred within an 8 hours period (30000 s). ICNIRP studies show that indoor
workers, as with most of the population, may typically experience about 300 SED per year from solar
exposure (mostly from weekends and holidays). Outdoor workers at the same latitudes receive about 3 to
5 times these exposure doses, certainly in excess of 1000 SED per year [3].

If the irradiance is constant, the permissible exposure duration 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑠) is the ICNIRP exposure limit of
30 𝐽/𝑚2 divided by the effective irradiance as shown in the following equation:

22
 30
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼
𝑒𝑓𝑓

where 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximal exposure duration measured in seconds and 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 is the UV effective irradiance
spectrally weighted with the values of Table 8.1 and measured in watt per square meter. The maximal
exposure duration may also be determined using Table 8.2, which provides representative exposure
durations corresponding to effective irradiances in watt per square meter or microwatt per square
centimeter. For constant irradiance, the maximum duration of exposure related to the UVA limit can be
estimated as the ratio between the UVA ICNIRP limit and the unweighted UVA irradiance:

104
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐼𝑈𝑉𝐴

λ λ λ λ
𝑠𝑒𝑦𝑒 (λ) 𝑠𝑒𝑦𝑒 (λ) 𝑠𝑒𝑦𝑒 (λ) 𝑠𝑒𝑦𝑒 (λ)
[𝑛𝑚] [𝑛𝑚] [𝑛𝑚] [𝑛𝑚]
180 0.012000 255 0.520000 310 0.015000 335 0.000340
190 0.019000 260 0.650000 313 0.006000 340 0.000280
200 0.030000 265 0.810000 315 0.003000 345 0.000240
205 0.051000 270 1.000000 316 0.002400 350 0.000200
210 0.075000 275 0.960000 317 0.002000 355 0.000160
215 0.095000 280 0.880000 318 0.001600 360 0.000130
220 0.120000 285 0.770000 319 0.001200 365 0.000110
225 0.150000 290 0.640000 320 0.001000 370 0.000093
230 0.190000 295 0.540000 322 0.000670 375 0.000077
235 0.240000 297 0.460000 323 0.000540 380 0.000064
240 0.300000 300 0.300000 325 0.000500 385 0.000053
245 0.360000 303 0.120000 328 0.000440 390 0.000044
250 0.430000 305 0.060000 330 0.000410 395 0.000036
254 0.500000 308 0.026000 333 0.000370 400 0.000030
Table 8.1. Spectral weighting factors (𝑠𝑒𝑦𝑒 (λ)) for the unprotected eye.

seye(λ)
1,0
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0,0
180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
λ [nm]

ICNIRP CIE

Figure 8.1. Spectral weighting function for the eye given in [67] compared with the CIE erythemal spectral
weighting factors given in [2].

23
 seye(λ)
1,00000

0,10000

0,01000

0,00100

0,00010

0,00001
180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
λ [nm]

ICNIRP CIE

Figure 8.2. Spectral weighting function for the eye given in [67] compared with the CIE erythemal spectral
weighting factors given in [2].

Duration of exposure Effective irradiance

per day 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 [𝑊/𝑚2] 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 [𝜇𝑊/𝑐𝑚2]
8h 0.001 0.1
4h 0.002 0.2
2h 0.004 0.4
1h 0.008 0.8
30 min 0.017 1.7
15 min 0.033 3.3
10 min 0.05 5
5 min 0.1 10
1 min 0.5 50
30 s 1.0 100
10 s 3.0 300
1s 30 3,000
0.5 s 60 6,000
0.1 s 300 30,000
Table 8.2. Limiting UV exposure durations based on exposure limits.

8.2 - EXPOSURE LIMITS FOR THE SKIN

Exposure limits for the eyes can be extended to the unprotected skin. This limit should be considered a
desirable goal for skin exposure to minimize the long-term risk, but it must be recognized that this limit
is difficult to achieve in sunlight and judgment must be used in its practical application. The limit of 30
𝐽/𝑚 2 within a period of 8 hours has a very substantial safety factor for medium and dark skin phototypes
(known as “melano-competent”) and more generally for individuals who have been conditioned by
previous and repeated exposures (known as “melano-adapted” or “tanned”) because humans have evolved
in sunlight, and therefore adapted in some way to natural conditions of sun exposure.
The exposure limits are based on a normal 24 hours light/dark cycle where cellular repair can take place
after the exposure is discontinued. In terms of acute skin effects from solar exposure, the ICNIRP guideline
for maximum human biologically efficient radiant exposure of the eye and skin to UVR of 30 𝐽/𝑚 2 is
equivalent to approximately 1.0 –1.3 SED and approximately one-half of a MED for fair skin, where the
exposure level that is compared to the SED is weighted with the CIE erythemal effectiveness curve.
24
8.3 – APPLICATION OF THE EXPOSURE LIMITS TO SUNLIGHT
Humans have evolved in sunlight, and therefore adapted in several ways to natural conditions of sun
exposure. By contrast, exposures from many types of artificial sources such as welding arcs may bypass
these adaptations. However in sunlight exposure, anatomical and behavioral factors tend to reduce the
severity of sunlight exposure. UVR exposure of an individual depends upon four primary factors: the
ambient solar UVR, the fraction of ambient exposure received on different anatomical sites, the behavior
of the individual, and the duration spent outdoors.
Solar ocular exposure, particularly in mid-summer, routinely appears to exceed the ICNIRP limit even for
relatively short exposure durations. The ICNIRP limit for a daily exposure limit of 30 𝐽/𝑚2 is exceeded
if measured on a horizontal surface in the summer under a clear sky condition or in tropical conditions
within 6 min around solar noon. For skin exposure, under the same conditions and using the CIE erythemal
spectral effectiveness function, the time to achieve one SED (100 𝐽/𝑚2) is approximately 5 min. At other
times of the day, these durations will be longer. This clearly indicates that outdoor workers who belong to
skin phototypes 1 to 4 would need to be well protected in such an environment. Estimating that ambient
UV radiation is averaging 40 SED, the body sites uncovered by clothing receive 10 SED per day on arms
and legs for an all-day exposure. The shoulders are exceptionally vulnerable to solar exposure and may
be exposed to between 20 and 30 SED under the same conditions. Often, many workers do not experience
sunburn, meaning that their skin has adapted to solar exposures. But accumulation of significant solar UV
radiation may still have implication for the induction of skin cancer later in the life. Minimizing UV
radiation exposure of outdoor workers clearly poses a challenge.
The ICNIRP guideline [67], recommend therefore that the UV radiation limits must be considered as
“ceiling values” for the eye, but desirable goals for the skin. In current practical hazard evaluation and
risk assessment, it has become customary by many practitioners to recognize that ICNIRP limits are
directly applicable to exposure of the cornea under worst-case conditions of normal incidence. However,
excursions above the ICNIRP limit for well-adapted skin have been considered by many not to pose a
serious risk. Certainly, this higher skin exposure is routinely accepted in an outdoor work environment.
Some phototypes with heavy natural pigmentation certainly do not experience the same risk of either acute
or chronic effects as those of Celtic origin with a sensitive skin phototype.

25
9 - UV INDEX

Daily estimates of UV radiation are needed in the occupational field to evaluate the photobiological risk
and protect worker’s health. UV radiation effects on human health can be measured through the Ultra-
Violet Index (UVI) as recommended by the World Health Organization [65] [75][76]. Also according to
ICNIRP Statement [3], the UV Index may be useful to establish baseline exposure values for outdoor
workers since their exposure vary so much with time of the day, season, activity and position of the worker.

9.1 – UV INDEX DEFINITION

UVI quantifies the erythemal potential (or sunburning power) of the solar UV radiation [33]. UVI is a
simple measure of the UV radiation level at the Earth’s surface and an indicator of the potential for skin
damage (the first adverse symptom occurring due to UV radiation). At international level, UVI is defined
as [2]:
400 𝑛𝑚
𝑈𝑉𝐼 = 𝑘𝑒𝑟 ∙ ∫250 𝑛𝑚 𝐼 (𝜆) ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑟 (𝜆) 𝑑𝜆 (9.1)

where 𝑘𝑒𝑟 is a constant equal to 40 𝑚 2 /𝑊, 𝐼 (𝜆) (𝑊/𝑚2 ∙ 𝑛𝑚) is the UV spectral irradiance at wavelength
λ, 𝑠𝑒𝑟 (𝜆) is the erythema action spectrum and 𝑑𝜆 is the wavelength interval used for the integration. The
integration is between 250 and 400 𝑛𝑚. The erythema action spectrum, 𝑠𝑒𝑟 (𝜆), is defined with the
following equations [2], [33], see Figure 9.1 and also Sec. 4:

𝑠𝑒𝑟 (λ)=1 for 250 nm ≤ λ ≤ 298 nm

𝑠𝑒𝑟 (λ)=100.094(298−𝜆) for 298 nm < λ ≤ 328 nm
𝑠𝑒𝑟 (λ)=100.015(140−𝜆) for 328 nm < λ ≤ 400 nm

ser(λ)
1,0
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0,0
250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
λ [nm]

Figure 9.1. Erythema action spectrum, [2].

The potency and the effects of UV radiation on the biological activity for a variety of organisms differ by
wavelength. For monitoring and communication purposes, different UV action spectra have been
developed during the years. These spectra use different weighting functions. The action spectrum for
erythemal dose given in [2] is the most widely used [77]. The standard erythema action spectrum provides
an internationally accepted representation of the erythema-inducing effectiveness of wavelengths in the
26
UV part of the spectrum. The action spectrum forms the basis of the UV index used for public health
information, defines the standard erythema dose (SED) unit and the minimum erythema dose (MED) and
is the default response spectrum aspired to by a range of UV radiometer manufacturers [78].
The UV Index (UVI) is an important vehicle to raise public awareness of the risks of excessive exposure
to UV radiation and of the need to adopt protective measures. As a simple measure of UV radiation levels
at the Earth’s surface, the values of the UVI range from zero upward (see Figure 9.2). The higher the UVI
values are, the greater is the potential for damage to the skin and eye, and the less time it takes for harm
to occur (see Table 9.1). In Figure 9.3 the worldwide annual mean values of UV Index at ground level are
shown.

Figure 9.2. UVI logo and scale as standardized by World Health Organizations, [79].

Exposure category UV Index range

Low <2
Moderate 3 to 5
High 6 to 7
Very high 8 to 10
Extreme 11+
Table 9.1. UV radiation exposure categories based on the UV Index, adapted from [75].

Figure 9.3. Annual averaged UV Index, 1997-2003 [65].

27
10 - UV INDEX FORECASTING METHOD

The aim of this Section is a literature review of the major UVI forecasting methods to estimate daily UVI
peak and clarify their scope and application limits. Generally, UVI forecasting methods are determined
for certain typologies of studies (medical hazards assessment, climatology studies, meteorological
forecasting, etc.) and cannot be applied to other ones in an easy way.

The calculation of UV irradiances for the calculation of the UV Index is not simple and unfortunately in
Italy there is not a national service for outdoor workers providing data on daily UVIs (see Sub-sec. 1.2,
[4], [96]). In the absence of available measurements of UV irradiances needed in Eq. 9.1, an option is to
use forecasting methods, determined by fitting analysis of historical series of measured UVIs.

UV Index forecasting methods can be divided in two groups: methods based on the estimation of the UV
total irradiance (𝐼𝑈𝑉 , 𝑊/𝑚2) from solar total irradiance (𝐼, 𝑊/𝑚 2) and methods based on regression
models of measured UVIs. In this Technical Report seven UVI forecasting methods are discussed
[1][17] [80][82] [86][87]: four methods based on the estimation of the UV total irradiance (see Sub-
sec. 10.1) and three methods based on regression models (see Sub-sec. 10.2). In Sub-sec. 10.3, a numerical
example of the various methods is shown for a significantly day. In Sub-sections 10.3 and 10.4 a
comparison of the methods is shown.

10.1 - METHODS BASED ON THE ESTIMATION OF UV TOTAL IRRADIANCE FROM SOLAR TOTAL
IRRADIANCE
In this Sub-section, methods based on the estimation of the UV total irradiance (𝐼𝑈𝑉 , 𝑊/𝑚2) from solar
total irradiance (𝐼, 𝑊/𝑚 2) are shown. Four empirical methods have been selected from the scientific
literature [1] [80][82]. In 1985, a linear form equation to estimate the UV total irradiance from solar total
irradiance has been proposed [80]:

𝐼𝑈𝑉 = 0.054 𝐼 + 0.052 (10.1)

the coefficients of the equation have been fitted on measurements performed at Bratislava (48.13°N,
17.10°E, 126 𝑚 a.s.l.), in Slovakia. In 2009, a similar equation has been determined [81]:

𝐼𝑈𝑉 = 0.039 𝐼 + 0.022 (10.2)

the coefficients have been fitted with measurements performed at Łódź (51.75°N, 19.47°E, 162 𝑚 a.s.l.),
in Poland. In 2011, an exponential form of the equation has been proposed [82]:

𝐼𝑈𝑉 = 0.073 𝐼0.941 (10.3)

the equation has been established with measurements performed in Valladolid (41.63°N, 4.70°W, 698 𝑚
a.s.l.), in Spain. In 2012, an equation based on the UV clearness index (𝐾𝑡 ) has been proposed [1]:

𝐼𝑈𝑉 = (1.897 − 0.860 𝐾𝑡 ) ∙ 10−3 𝐼 + (7.210 − 2.365 𝐾𝑡 ) ∙ 10−2 𝐼 (10.4)

The 𝐾𝑡 index is defined as the ratio between the solar total irradiance and the extra-terrestrial solar total
irradiance on a plane parallel to the Earth’s surface [5] [83]. After the determination of the UV total
irradiance with the proposed methods, the UV Index can be calculated with the following equation [84]:
𝐼
𝑈𝑉
𝑈𝑉𝐼 = 18.9

28
the equation is valid for ozone amounts in the range of 250 to 400 𝐷𝑈 (Dobson Unit, 1 𝐷𝑈 = 0.4462 ∙
103 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑚 −2) and solar zenith angle (𝜃) of less than 60°.

10.2 - METHODS BASED ON REGRESSION MODELS OF MEASURED UVIS

In this Sub-section, methods based on regression models of measured UVIs have been shown. Three
methods have been selected [17][86] [87]. All the methods provide a UVI forecast for the next day and
the forecasted value is the UVI peak at solar noontime in clear-sky conditions. Input data in common for
all the methods are: geographical position (latitude, longitude and altitude), solar position (date and local
time) and the Total Column of Ozone (TOC, corresponding to the thickness of the ozone layer measured
in 𝐷𝑈). All ozone data are available from the remote sensing Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS)
instrument operative on board of the satellite Earth-Probe since 1996 [8].

10.2.1 - Model 1.
The first empirical model analysed has been proposed in 2004 by the team of Marc Allaart of the Royal
Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI) [17]. The method focuses on forecasting a clear-sky UV
index as a function of two predictable quantities: the solar zenith angle and the total ozone. The empirical
function is derived by fitting the measurements of total ozone and UV Index obtained from two
instruments, located one in the mid-latitudes (De Bilt in the Netherlands, 52.10° N, 5.13° E, 2 𝑚 a.s.l.)
and one in the tropics (Paramaribo in Suriname, 5.81° N, 55.21° W, 25 𝑚 a.s.l.). The regression equation
is based on the Environment Canada methods [85], which is computationally efficient and easy to use.
The Canadian method, however, is limited to a specific range of solar zenith angle (θ) values that are
relevant for noontime in the Canadian summer and does not reproduce the measurements taken in the
tropical station of Paramaribo. On the other hand, the KNMI method shows a revised regression equation
valid for 0°<θ<90° and a wide range of ozone values. For the method the forecasted UV Index (𝑈𝑉𝐼) is:

cos 𝜃 1.62 280.0

𝑈𝑉𝐼0 = 𝑈𝑉𝐴 ∙ [2.0 ∙ (1000 𝑇𝑂𝐶
) + TOC
+ 1.4] (10.5)

where 𝑈𝑉𝐴 is the contribution of the direct UV solar radiation to the 𝑈𝑉𝐼 in the hypothesis of an
atmosphere without ozone. In this case the 𝑈𝑉𝐼 will depend mainly on the solar zenith angle and the
distance from the Sun to the Earth:
𝜏
𝑈𝑉𝐴 = 𝑐𝑑 ∙ 𝑆 ∙ (0.17 + 0.83cos 𝜃) ∙ 𝑒 −0.17+0.83 cos 𝜃

Where cd is the eccentricity correction factor of the Earth-Sun distance defined as the square of the ratio
of mean Earth-Sun distance (𝑟0 ) to the distance at a given time (𝑟), 𝑆 is the extra-terrestrial value for 𝑈𝑉𝐴
at the distance of 𝑟0 equal to 1.24 𝑊/𝑚 2, 𝜃 is the solar zenith angle and 𝜏 is the atmospheric extinction
factor (due to molecular scattering and aerosol extinction) equal to 0.58. Finally, 𝑇𝑂𝐶 is the total column
of ozone expressed in 𝐷𝑈 of the previous day of the 𝑈𝑉𝐼 forecast. In this case a persistence model of the
concentration of ozone is adopted.

10.2.2 - Model 2.
The second empirical model analysed has been shown in 2006 by the team of Sumridh Sudhibrabha of
the Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi of Bangkok [86]. The method focuses on the forecast
of the ozone concentration, and then calculate the forecast erythemal UV irradiance from the ozone
forecast. The UV forecast is for clear skies and for the altitude of the sea level. The empirical function is
derived by fitting the measurements of UV Index obtained from a spectrophotometer located in Bangkok,
Thailand (13.67° N, 100.62° E, 20 𝑚 a.s.l.) The ozone forecast model has been developed from a time
series of total ozone column data to be used at sites where no upper air observations were available. The
29
significant parameters of the model are the total ozone columns of the two previous days before the day
of forecasting:

𝑇𝑂𝐶(𝑖) = 20.704 + 0.638 ∙ 𝑇𝑂𝐶(𝑖−1) + 0.282 ∙ 𝑇𝑂𝐶(𝑖−2)

Where 𝑇𝑂𝐶(𝑖) is the total column of ozone of the day of forecasting, 𝑇𝑂𝐶(𝑖−1) is the total column of ozone
of the previous day and 𝑇𝑂𝐶(𝑖−2) is the total column of ozone of the day before yesterday. All total
columns are expressed in 𝐷𝑈. For the ultraviolet modelling, as stated by [2], the Ultra-violet Index at the
sea level (𝑈𝑉𝐼0 ) is the product of a constant (𝑘𝑒𝑟 = 40 𝑚 2 /𝑊) for the total erythemally weighted
irradiance in the UV bands (𝐸𝑈𝑉0 , in 𝑊/𝑚 2):

𝑈𝑉𝐼0 = 𝑘𝑒𝑟 ∙ 𝐸𝑈𝑉0 (10.6)

The total erythemally weighted irradiance is estimated by the model as a function of ozone and its air
mass:
2
+ 0.2453 𝜇2 )
𝐸𝑈𝑉0 = 𝑐𝑑 ∙ cos 𝜃 ∙ 𝑒 (7.1471−0.6862 𝜇 𝑇𝑂𝐶(𝑖) − 1.7255 𝜇 + 0.025 (𝜇 𝑇𝑂𝐶(𝑖) )

where 𝑐𝑑 is the eccentricity correction factor of the Earth-Sun distance, 𝜃 is the solar zenith angle, 𝑇𝑂𝐶(𝑖)
is the forecasted column of ozone expressed in 𝑎𝑡𝑚 ∙ 𝑐𝑚 and 𝜇 is the air mass of ozone estimated as:
1
𝜇= 𝑅
cos(arcsin( sin 𝜃))
𝑅+ℎ

where 𝑅 is the radius of the Earth (𝑅 = 6371 𝑘𝑚) and ℎ is the mean height of the ozone layer (ℎ =
22 𝑘𝑚).

10.2.3 - Model 3.
The third empirical model analysed has been shown in 2009 by the team of M. Antón of the Universidad
of Extremadura in Badajoz, Spain [87]. The method focuses on the 𝑈𝑉𝐼 forecasting based on the
ultraviolet erythemal transmissivity. The model estimates the solar ultraviolet erythemal irradiance as a
function of the total column of ozone and the clearness index. The empirical functions are derived by
fitting the measurements of the UV Index obtained from three instruments, located in Badajoz (38.99° N,
7.01° W, 199 𝑚 a.s.l.), Cáceres (39.48° N, 6.34° W, 397 𝑚 a.s.l.) and Plasencia (40.06° N, 6.04° W,
372 𝑚 a.s.l.). As stated by [2], the Ultra-violet Index at the sea level (𝑈𝑉𝐼0 ) is the product of a constant
(𝑘𝑒𝑟 = 40 𝑚 2 /𝑊) for the total erythemally weighted irradiance in the UV bands (𝐸𝑈𝑉0, in 𝑊/𝑚2):

𝑈𝑉𝐼0 = 𝑘𝑒𝑟 ∙ 𝐸𝑈𝑉0 (10.7)

The total erythemally weighted irradiance is estimated by the model as a function of:

𝐸𝑈𝑉0 = 𝑇𝑈𝑉 ∙ 𝐸𝑈𝑉 𝑇𝑂𝑃

where 𝑇𝑈𝑉 is the UV erythemal transmissivity and 𝐸𝑈𝑉 𝑇𝑂𝑃 is the ultraviolet erythemal irradiance at the
top of atmosphere (extra-terrestrial irradiance). The calculation of the extra-terrestrial UV erythemal
irradiance is based on the day of the year and on the latitude of the location under study:

𝐸𝑈𝑉 𝑇𝑂𝑃 = 𝑆𝑈𝑉 ∙ 𝑐𝑑 ∙ cos 𝜃

where 𝑆𝑈𝑉 is the erythemal solar constant for the UV frequency bands (280-400 𝑛𝑚) weighted by the
standard CIE spectral response (𝑆𝑈𝑉 = 10.3 𝑊/𝑚2 ), 𝑐𝑑 is the eccentricity correction factor of the Earth-

30
Sun distance and 𝜃 is the solar zenith angle. The UV erythemal transmissivity is estimated with the
following equation:
0.78
𝑇𝑂𝐶 −1.33 𝐸𝐺
𝑇𝑈𝑉 = 70 ∙ ( ) ∙( 𝑇𝑂𝑃 )
cos 𝜃 𝐸𝐺

where 𝑇𝑂𝐶 is the total column of ozone of the previous day of the forecasting. In this case a persistence
model of the concentration of the ozone is adopted. 𝐸𝐺 is the solar irradiance at sea level over a horizontal
surface and it is an input data. 𝐸𝐺 is taken from SODA web service [88], while 𝐸𝐺𝑇𝑂𝑃 is the extraterrestrial
total solar irradiance on a horizontal surface equal to:

𝐸𝐺𝑇𝑂𝑃 = 𝐸0 ∙ 𝑐𝑑

where 𝐸0 is solar constant (𝐸0 = 1367 𝑊/𝑚 2).

10.3 - COMPARISON OF THE METHODS AT A SPECIFIC GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION FOR FOUR

SIGNIFICANT DAYS
For a comparison of the proposed methods for UV Index forecasting, the UVIs have been calculated with
the seven methods shown in Sub-sections 10.1 and 10.2 for four significant days during the period of a
year at solar noontime: the 20/03/2017 (spring equinox), the 21/06/2017 (summer solstice), the 22/09/2017
(autumn equinox) and the 21/12/2017 (winter solstice) for the geographical position of 43.72°N, 10.39°E
(corresponding to the city of Pisa, Italy). For simplicity, the methods are grouped into two group: the
group (A) of methods of Sub-section 10.1 based on the estimation of UV total irradiance from solar total
irradiance and the group (B) of methods of Sub-section 10.2 based on regression models of measured
UVIs. In Figure 10.1, the differences between the method groups (A) and (B) are more evident for higher
values of UVIs (in summer and spring) and methods of group (A) produce a significant underestimation
of UVI peak while in winter the analysed methods show similar results. For the forecasted UVI values in
21/06/2017 (with the highest UVI values among the four days) and for the forecasted UVI values in
21/12/2017 (with the lowest UVI values), the daily trends during sunshine hours of the forecasted UVIs
by the seven methods are compared in Figure 10.2 and 10.3.

Figure 10.1. Comparison of the analysed UVI forecasting methods for significant days of the year at 43.72°N,
10.39°E.

31
In Figure 10.2, the forecasted UVI daily trends have been shown with steps of one hour from sunshine to
sunset for the 21/06/2017. All UVIs have been calculated considering a 𝑇𝑂𝐶 value of 320 𝐷𝑈 as provided
by the NASA satellite OMI, for the same geographical position and in clear-sky conditions. All methods
forecast the UVI peak at solar noontime, even if there are great discrepancies in the UVI peak values. In
the day of the 21/06/2017 the UVI peak has been 8.0 while typical values of the UVI in summer days are
about 8.6 [89], see Figure 10.4. Best performances are given by the methods described by Eqs. (10.5) and
(10.6), more capable to estimate the daily UVI trend. In the first two hours of the day and in the last hour
before sunset all the methods give very similar results. Only the method described by Eq. (10.7), in the
early hours, gives lower UVI values than the other methods.

Figure 10.2. Daily UVI trends of the analysed methods for the day of 21/06/2017 at 43.72°N, 10.39°E.

Figure 10.3. Daily UVI trends of the analysed methods for the day of 21/12/2017 at 43.72°N, 10.39°E.

In Figure 10.3 the forecasted UVI daily trends for the 21/12/2017 are shown. The UVI peak is 0.8 while
typical values of UVI in winter days are about 1.0 [89], see Figure 10.4. In winter days there are lower
32
discrepancies in the estimation and in general methods of group (A) show better results. Methods
described by Eqs. (10.6) and (10.7) show an underestimation of the UVI peak value while methods
described by Eqs. (10.1), (10.3), (10.4) and (10.5) produce an overestimation of the UVI peak value.

Figure 10.4. Typical value of the UVI peak for the geographical position of 43.72°N, 10.39°E during the period of
a year [89].

10.4 - COMPARISON AT SPECIFIC DAYS FOR FIVE DIFFERENT LATITUDES

The seven methods have been also compared at different latitudes in the Northern and in the Southern
hemisphere. In Figure 10.5 the forecasted UVI values for the day of 21/06/2017 (summer solstice in the
Northern hemisphere) at the latitudes of 66°N, 45°N, 0°, 45°S and 66°S and at the longitude of 10.39°E
are shown. Latitudes above the polar circles (66.56°) are not considered to avoid the polar night and the
polar day. In the day of 21/06/2017 the highest UVI values are at midlatitudes in the Northern hemisphere
and at the equator. The high values are due to the favourable inclination of the Earth axis of inclination.
At the summer solstice, the Northern hemisphere is in the hot season while the Southern hemisphere is in
the cold season. In Figure 10.6 the forecasted UVI values for the day of 21/12/2017 (winter solstice in the
Northern hemisphere) at different latitudes are shown. In the days of 21/06/2017 and 21/12/2017 a similar
but inverted UVI trend is possible to observe. This is due to the Earth axis of inclination. The differences
in the UVI peak values in the two hemispheres are due to the different concentration of ozone registered
in the hot seasons. As illustrated in Figure 10.7, the Northern hemisphere experiences its peak ozone
values during the boreal summer at mid-latitudes. The Southern hemisphere peak occurs in austral spring
in the tropics and subtropics between South America and Africa and in a band centered at 30°S stretching
from Southern Africa eastward to Australia [90]. On an annual basis in the Northern hemisphere, the
average TOC values exceed the Southern hemisphere average values by the 4%, the 12%, and the 18% at
low (0°−25°), mid- (25°−50°), and high (50°−60°) latitudes, respectively [30]. Comparing the TOC
average concentrations in the two hemispheres, 52% of the annual average TOC concentrations resides in
the Northern hemisphere while 48% resides in the Southern hemisphere, which equates to an 13% average
enhancement in the Southern hemisphere of the UVI peak values [31]. As for the daily UVI trends the
methods of group (A) are not capable to estimate in an adequate manner UVI variations at different
latitude, especially in the hot seasons while in the cold seasons give similar results to method of group
(B).

33
Figure 10.5. UVI forecasted trends of the analysed methods for the day of 21/06/2017 at different latitudes and at
the longitude of 10.39°E.

Figure 10.6. UVI forecasted trends of the analysed methods for the day of 21/12/2017 at different latitudes and at
the longitude of 10.39°E.

34
Figure 10.7. OMI stratospheric ozone column by season expressed in Dobson Unit (data area averaged over the
period 2004-2010 with a resolution of 5°, [90]).

In Figure 10.8 the forecasted UVI values for the day of 20/03/2017 (spring equinox in the Northern
hemisphere) at different latitudes are shown while in Figure 10.9 the forecasted UVI values for the day of
22/09/2017 (autumn equinox in the Northern hemisphere). In the days of 20/03/2017 and 22/09/2017 the
maximum UVI peaks are at the equator while at mid-latitudes and at the polar circles the values are lower.
The UVI peak, for all the methods, is at the equator because the sunrays are perpendicular to the Earth’s
surface and the inclination of the Earth axis is null. The trends in the two days are very similar and
symmetrical with respect to the equator because the ozone seasonal variations in the two hemispheres in
spring and autumn are very similar (see Figure 10.7). Also the forecasted UVI values are similar in the
two hemispheres and in the two seasons. Typical UVI values at mid-latitudes are in range of 4.0 to 5.0
(see Figure 10.4) as forecasted by methods of group (B). Methods of group (A) show an underestimation
at mid-latitudes. At the polar circles typical values of UVI are in the range of 1.5 to 2.0 and in this case
methods of group (B) show a slightly underestimation with respect to methods of group (A).
Typical UVI values at the equator in spring and autumn are about 11.0, so methods of group (A) show a
great underestimation but also the method of group (B) described by Eq. (10.6) show an underestimation
of UVI values.

35
Figure 10.8. UVI forecasted trends of the analysed methods for the day of 20/03/2017 at different latitudes and at
the longitude of 10.39°E.

Figure 10.9. UVI forecasted trends of the analysed methods for the day of 20/03/2017 at different latitudes and at
the longitude of 10.39°E.

Methods of group (A) described with Eqs. (10.1) and (10.2) generally produce a significant
underestimation of UVIs with a RMSE (Root Mean Square Error) on the order of 40-50%. More accurate
results are obtained with methods described with Eqs. (10.3) and (10.4) but the RMSE is still large (about
10-30%) as stated by [80]. According to [91][92], the methods of the group (B) show better results than
the methods of group (A): the RMSEs of methods of group (B) described with Eqs. (10.5) and (10.7) are
in the range of 15-20% while the RMSE of the method described with Eq. (10.6) is less than 10%. The
accuracy of methods of group (B) is better because they take into account the seasonal and daily ozone
36
concentration variations derived from satellite measurements. According to [17], in mid-latitudes the
ozone distribution through the atmosphere (ozone concentration profile) show a substantial day-to-day
variability and this has a remarkably strong influence on UVI forecast. According to [93] both
observations and state-of-the-art ozone forecasts introduce an uncertainty of 3% in the TOC value used in
methods of group (B). The uncertainty in TOC values lead to an error of 12% in UVI values.

Due to the great uncertainties in UVI forecasting, the UVI forecasting methods of group (A) results more
suitable for epidemiologic or climatic studies and not for daily UVI forecasting. Epidemiologic and
climatic studies are distributed over years or decades and for them are more important monthly mean
values, so daily UV errors have a minor impact on the reliability of these studies. Furthermore, in
epidemiologic studies are more important the UV doses received by workers to understand the long-term
effects of UV radiation than the UV peaks responsible for acute and immediate effects. On the other hand,
UVI forecasting methods of group (B) are more suitable for daily UVI forecasting because are more
capable to estimate daily UVI variation than methods of group (A). The accuracy of methods of group (B)
is better because they take into account the seasonal and daily ozone concentration variations derived from
satellite measurements.

37
11 - NUMERICAL EXAMPLE TO DETERMINE THE UV ERYTHEMAL IRRADIANCE ON SLOPED SURFACE

It is here shown a numerical example for a better explanation of the concepts of the previous sections. The
aim is to determine the UV irradiance arriving on an outdoor worker during the day of Monday the
26/02/2018 from 12:02 am to 01:02 pm (corresponding, respectively, to the half hour before the solar
noontime and the half hour after the solar noontime). The working activity takes place in Pisa on the roof-
top of a building without any shielding elements (43.72186°N, 10.38832°E, 12 m a.s.l.). Due to his work
activities, the worker during this time is in a standing position and is facing constantly the North direction.
First of all, the UV erythemal irradiance on a horizontal surface has to be determined. It is possible to
determine the UV erythemal irradiance weighting the spectral UV irradiance with the CIE erythema action
spectrum described in Sec. 4. The spectral UV irradiance on a horizontal plane can be estimated with the
method shown in Sub-sec. 3.1 or solving the radiative transfer equations implemented, for example, in the
TUV software, see Sub-sec. 3.2.

11.1 - SPECTRAL UV ERYTHEMAL IRRADIANCE WITH AN EMPIRICAL METHOD

The spectral UV erythemal irradiance is determined with the method proposed by [1], see Sub-sec. 3.1.
The spectral UV irradiances are calculated with Eqs. 3.1 and 3.2. The spectral irradiances in the range
from 250 𝑛𝑚 to 280 𝑛𝑚 are considered equal to zero due to the absorbing effect of the ozone. The spectral
UV irradiances (𝐼ℎ (𝜆)) are shown in Table 11.1. The spectral factors 𝑓(𝜆) are calculated with Eq. 3.3 and
shown in Table 11.2. The coefficients 𝑓𝑐 (𝜆) and 𝑓𝑏 (𝜆) for clear and overcast conditions are taken from
Table 3.1. The astronomical daylength (𝑆0 ) of the day 26/02/2018 is of 11.03 hours because the sunrise is
at 07:00 am while the sunset is at 18:02 pm. The sunshine duration (𝑆) is 9.25 hours calculated as the
number of hours during the day for which the total solar irradiance exceeds 120 𝑊/𝑚2, see Table 11.3.
Total solar irradiation data on a horizontal plane at the Earth’s surface are taken from SODA site [88] and
shown in Table 11.3. For the calculation of the total solar irradiance (𝐸ℎ , 𝑊/𝑚2) needed in Eq. 3.1, the
mean value of the total solar irradiation data (𝐻ℎ , 𝑊ℎ/𝑚 2) from 11:30 to 12:30 (time is expressed in true
solar time) has been divided by 0.25 ℎ:
𝐻ℎ 166.83
𝐸ℎ = = = 667.31 𝑊/𝑚 2
0.25 0.25

The adopted values of the total solar irradiation have been underlined in grey in Table 11.3.

𝝀 𝑰𝒉 (𝝀) 𝑰𝒆𝒓,𝒉 (𝝀) ∙ 𝒔𝒆𝒓 (𝝀) 𝑰𝒆𝒓,𝒉 (𝝀) ∙ 𝒔𝒆𝒓 (𝝀) ∙ ∆𝝀

[𝑛𝑚] [𝑊/𝑚2 ∙ 𝑛𝑚] [𝑊/𝑚2 ∙ 𝑛𝑚] [𝑊/𝑚2]
250 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
260 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
270 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
280 0.000345 0.000345 0.003449
290 0.000345 0.000345 0.003449
300 0.000345 0.000224 0.002237
310 0.005748 0.000428 0.004281
320 0.017554 0.000150 0.001501
330 0.036533 0.000052 0.000516
340 0.037847 0.000038 0.000378
350 0.042301 0.000030 0.000299
360 0.043483 0.000022 0.000218
370 0.051133 0.000018 0.000181
380 0.052017 0.000013 0.000131
390 0.055469 0.000010 0.000099
400 0.081152 0.000010 0.000102
𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ = 0.016841

Table 11.1. Spectral UV erythemal irradiance for the day of 26/02/2018 in Pisa calculated with the method proposed
by [1].

38
 𝝀
𝒇(𝝀)
[𝑛𝑚]
310 0.7407
320 1.1309
330 1.5691
340 1.2192
350 1.0901
360 0.9338
370 0.9412
380 0.8378
390 0.7941
400 1.0457

Table 11.2. Spectral factors 𝑓(𝜆) needed in Eq. 3.1 and calculated with Eq. 3.3 according to the method
proposed by [1].

In Figure 11.1, the spectral UV irradiances calculated according to the method proposed by [1] are shown.
In Figure 11.2, the spectral UV erythemal irradiances weighted with the CIE reference action spectrum
(see Sec. 4) are calculated. After multiplying the spectral UV erythemal irradiances for the incrementing
interval of wavelength (∆𝜆 = 10 𝑛𝑚), the spectral UV erythemal irradiances (𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ (𝜆) ∙ ∆λ, 𝑊/𝑚2) are
summoned to get the total UV erythemal irradiance (𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ ) arriving in an hour on a horizontal plane at
solar noontime in Pisa the 26/02/2018. The total UV erythemal irradiance arriving on a horizontal surface
(𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ ) is 0.0168 𝑊/𝑚2.

𝑯𝒉 𝑯𝒉
Observation period Observation period
[𝑊ℎ/𝑚2] [𝑊ℎ/𝑚2]
from 06:00 to 06:15 0.0000 from 12:00 to 12:15 167.3582
from 06:15 to 06:30 0.0000 from 12:15 to 12:30 166.4438
from 06:30 to 06:45 1.3595 from 12:30 to 12:45 164.2603
from 06:45 to 07:00 8.4169 from 12:45 to 13:00 160.8834
from 07:00 to 07:15 18.5538 from 13:00 to 13:15 156.5482
from 07:15 to 07:30 29.4586 from 13:15 to 13:30 151.3321
from 07:30 to 07:45 40.1820 from 13:30 to 13:45 145.2169
from 07:45 to 08:00 50.5031 from 13:45 to 14:00 138.3646
from 08:00 to 08:15 62.1347 from 14:00 to 14:15 130.8287
from 08:15 to 08:30 73.6959 from 14:15 to 14:30 122.5903
from 08:30 to 08:45 84.7931 from 14:30 to 14:45 113.5543
from 08:45 to 09:00 95.7335 from 14:45 to 15:00 103.8169
from 09:00 to 09:15 106.1676 from 15:00 to 15:15 93.4250
from 09:15 to 09:30 115.7904 from 15:15 to 15:30 82.5871
from 09:30 to 09:45 124.4858 from 15:30 to 15:45 71.5103
from 09:45 to 10:00 132.5355 from 15:45 to 16:00 60.1697
from 10:00 to 10:15 139.7928 from 16:00 to 16:15 48.8405
from 10:15 to 10:30 146.3689 from 16:15 to 16:30 38.3732
from 10:30 to 10:45 152.2322 from 16:30 to 16:45 27.7959
from 10:45 to 11:00 157.1649 from 16:45 to 17:00 17.3327
from 11:00 to 11:15 161.1463 from 17:00 to 17:15 7.8741
from 11:15 to 11:30 164.1817 from 17:15 to 17:30 1.3944
from 11:30 to 11:45 166.2271 from 17:30 to 17:45 0.0000
from 11:45 to 12:00 167.2847 from 17:45 to 18:00 0.0000
Table 11.3. Total solar irradiation for the day of 26/02/2018 in Pisa expressed in true solar time, [88]; in grey the
total solar irradiation values adopted for the calculation of total solar irradiance value needed in Eq. 3.1.

39
 Ih(λ) [𝑊/𝑚2∙𝑛𝑚] 26/02/2018 - solar noontime
0,10

0,08

0,06

0,04

0,02

0,00
250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
λ [nm]

Figure 11.1. Spectral UV irradiance estimated with the method proposed by [1].

Ier,h(λ) [𝑚𝑊/𝑚2∙𝑛𝑚] 26/02/2018 - solar noontime

0,50

0,40

0,30

0,20

0,10

0,00
250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
λ [nm]

Figure 11.2. Spectral UV erythemal irradiance estimate with the method proposed by [1] for the day of 26/02/2018
in Pisa at solar noontime.

11.2 – SPECTRAL UV ERYTHEMAL IRRADIANCE SOLVING THE RADIATIVE TRANSFER EQUATIONS

Alternatively to empirical methods, spectral UV erythemal irradiance can be estimated solving the
radiative transfer equations. Numerical solutions to radiative transfer equations are not simple to calculate,
so the use of computer algorithms implemented in software is important. In this numerical example has
been adopted the TUV (Tropospheric Ultraviolet and Visible radiation model) software developed by the
American National Center for Atmospheric Research [7]. The input data for the software to estimate the
spectral UV irradiances are: position of the point where the worker is located (longitude, latitude and
altitude), solar position respect the point of the worker (date and local time), the UV albedo of the
surrounding surfaces, the Total Column of Ozone (TOC, expressed in Dobson Unit, 1𝐷𝑈 = 0.4462 ∙
103 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑚 −2), the Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD, at the wavelength of 340 𝑛𝑚), the sulphur dioxide
(𝑆𝑂2 ) and nitrogen dioxide (𝑁𝑂2 ) concentrations (see Sub-sec. 3.2). TOC data are available on the NASA
40
site based on satellite observations [8], the AOD data are available on the AERONET (AErosol RObotic
NETwork) site [9], while the 𝑆𝑂2 and 𝑁𝑂2 concentrations data are available on the ESA site [10]. AOD
data are referred to the nearest station to the geographical coordinates of the worker. In this example the
AOD data of the station located in the city of Modena (44.632°N, 10.945°E, 56 m a.s.l.) have been
adopted. For the 26/02/2018 the Total Column of Ozone is 420 DU, the AOD at 340 𝑛𝑚 (the wavelength
band centered in the UV range) is 0.249, the 𝑆𝑂2 concentration is 0.35 ∙ 103 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑚 −2 while the 𝑁𝑂2
concentration is 3.75 ∙ 103 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑚 −2. The roof-top of the building where the working activities take place
is made in bitumen, so the UV albedo value is 0.055 (see Table 6.1). In Figure 11.3 the spectral solar
irradiance (𝐸ℎ (𝜆), 𝑊/𝑚 2 ∙ 𝑛𝑚) at solar noontime in the UV and visible frequency ranges is shown. The
spectral solar irradiance is estimated with the TUV software and is referred to a horizontal plane at the
Earth’s surface (12 𝑚 a.s.l.) and at top of the atmosphere (80 𝑘𝑚 a.s.l.). The spectral irradiance at top of
the atmosphere is compared with the theoretical black body emission at the temperature of the Sun’s
surface (5778 K). The black body emission is determined with the Planck’s law (see Sec. 2).

Eh(λ) [𝑊/𝑚2∙𝑛𝑚] 26/02/2018 - 12:32

1,4
1,2
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
λ [nm]

Earth's surface Top of the atmosphere Black body emission at 5778 K

Figure 11.3. Spectral solar irradiance arriving at solar noontime in Pisa the 26/02/2018 at the Earth’s surface and
top of the atmosphere.

Table 11.3 reports the outputs of the software for incrementing intervals of 10 𝑛𝑚 from 250 𝑛𝑚 to 400 𝑛𝑚
of the UV spectral irradiances in the period from 12:02 am to 01:02 pm (for every incrementing interval
the irradiance mean value over the period is shown). The output of the software is the estimated UV
spectral irradiance arriving at the Earth surface (12 m a.s.l.) on a horizontal plane in clear-sky conditions
(cloud cover less than 10%). The mean value of the spectral UV irradiance arriving in an hour at solar
noontime (𝐼ℎ (λ), 𝑊/𝑚2 ∙ 𝑛𝑚) in Pisa is shown in Figure 11.4. Then 𝐼ℎ (λ) is weighted according to the
spectral weighting function for erythema (𝑠𝑒𝑟 (𝜆) given in [2], see Sec. 4). The spectral UV erythemal
irradiance (𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ (𝜆) = 𝐼ℎ (𝜆) ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑟 (𝜆), 𝑊/𝑚 2 ∙ 𝑛𝑚) is shown in Figure 11.5. In Figure 11.5 the spectral
UV erythemal irradiance estimated with the TUV software is compared with the one estimated with the
empirical method calculated in Sub-sec. 11.1. The empirical method produces an overestimation of the
spectral UV irradiances in the wavelength bands from 270 to 290 𝑛𝑚 because for wavelengths of less than
290 𝑛𝑚 all the ultra-violet radiation is blocked by the atmospheric ozone. For wavelength bands above
than 310 𝑛𝑚 the empirical method produces an underestimation of the spectral UV irradiances. After
multiplying the spectral UV erythemal irradiances for the incrementing interval of wavelength (∆𝜆 =
10 𝑛𝑚), the spectral UV erythemal irradiances (𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ (𝜆) ∙ ∆λ, 𝑊/𝑚 2) are summoned to get the total UV

41
erythemal irradiance (𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ ) arriving in an hour on a horizontal plane at solar noontime in Pisa the
26/02/2018.

𝝀 𝑰𝒉 (𝝀) 𝑰𝒆𝒓,𝒉 (𝝀) 𝑰𝒆𝒓,𝒉 (𝝀) ∙ ∆𝝀

[𝑛𝑚] [𝑊/𝑚2 ∙ 𝑛𝑚] [𝑊/𝑚2 ∙ 𝑛𝑚] [𝑊/𝑚2]
255 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
265 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
275 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
285 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
295 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
305 0.00378 0.00083 0.00830
315 0.07979 0.00201 0.02013
325 0.22325 0.00065 0.00647
335 0.29994 0.00036 0.00356
345 0.32074 0.00027 0.00270
355 0.34865 0.00021 0.00208
365 0.40194 0.00017 0.00169
375 0.42043 0.00013 0.00126
385 0.38314 0.00008 0.00081
395 0.44635 0.00007 0.00067
Ier,h = 0.04767
Table 11.3. UV spectral irradiance predicted for the day of 26/02/2018 in Pisa at solar noontime.

Ih(λ) [𝑊/𝑚2∙𝑛𝑚] 26/02/2018 - solar noontime

1,0

0,8

0,6

0,4

0,2

0,0
250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
λ [nm]
Earth's surface Top of the atmosphere

Figure 11.4. Mean value of the spectral UV irradiance arriving in an hour at solar noontime in Pisa the 26/02/2018.

The total UV erythemal irradiance arriving on a horizontal surface (𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ ) is 0.0477 𝑊/𝑚 2. In the day of
the 26/02/2018 in the period from 12:02 am to 01:02 pm, the UV erythemal irradiance (𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ ) has been
measured. The measured value has been 𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ = 0.0369 𝑊/𝑚2 . The software produces an overestimation
of the 29% of the total UV erythemal irradiance with respect the measured value because it is not able to
take into account the attenuation effect of clouds. In fact the day of the 26/02/2018 in Pisa has not been a
clear sky day but there was a cloud amount in the range between the 25% and 50%. The empirical method,
with an estimated UV erythemal irradiance of 0.0168 𝑊/𝑚 2, produces a great underestimation of 54%
with respect to the measured value confirming the results find in [94].

42
 Ier,h(λ) [𝑚𝑊/𝑚2∙𝑛𝑚] 26/02/2018 - solar noontime
2,1

1,8

1,5

1,2

0,9

0,6

0,3

0,0
250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400

estimated with TUV software estimated with an empirical method

Figure 11.5. Spectral UV erythemal irradiance weighted according to [2].

In the day of the 26/02/2018 at solar noontime, the measured UV Index has been (for UV Index definition
see Sec. 9):

𝑈𝑉𝐼𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑘𝑒𝑟 ∙ 𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ = 40 ∙ 0.0369 = 1.48

while the estimated UV Index with the empirical method and the TUV software is:

𝑈𝑉𝐼𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑘𝑒𝑟 ∙ 𝐶𝑀𝐹 ∙ 𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ = 40 ∙ 0.8 ∙ 0.0477 = 1.52 (TUV software)

𝑈𝑉𝐼𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑘𝑒𝑟 ∙ 𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ = 40 ∙ 0.0168 = 0.67 (empirical method)

the estimated UVI value with the TUV software is modified with the 𝐶𝑀𝐹 (Cloud Modification Factor)
coefficient to take into account the cloud attenuation effect. The 𝐶𝑀𝐹 value is taken from [95], see also
Sec. 11. The UVI value of the empirical method is not modified with the 𝐶𝑀𝐹 because the cloud effect is
taken into account in the data from SODA site concerning the total solar radiation at the Earth’surface.
The empirical method produces an underestimation of the UVI of 54% with respect the measured value,
a result in line with the ones of [94]. The percentage difference between the measured UVI and the
estimated UVI with the TUV software (modified with the 𝐶𝑀𝐹) is of about only the 3%.

In Figure 11.6 the measured UV erythemal irradiances are compared to the estimated UV erythemal
irradiances of the TUV software with step of 1 minute in the period from 12:02 am to 01:02 pm. It is clear
the attenuation effect of clouds in ultra-violet radiation at the Earth’s surface.

43
 Ier,h(λ) [𝑊/𝑚2∙𝑛𝑚] 26/02/2018 - solar noontime
0,0500

0,0475

0,0450

0,0425

0,0400

0,0375

0,0350
12,02 12,12 12,22 12,32 12,42 12,52 12,62 12,72 12,82 12,92 13,02

measured estimated

Figure 11.6. Comparison between measured and estimated with the TUV software values of the UV erythemal
irradiance at solar noontime in Pisa for the day of 26/02/2018.

11.3 – DIRECT AND DIFFUSE COMPONENTS OF THE UV ERYTHEMAL SOLAR RADIATION

The UV erythemal irradiance is the sum of its direct and diffuse components. According to the method
shown in Sec. 5 the diffuse and the direct components of the UV erythemal irradiance on a horizontal
plane at the Earth’s surface on the day of 26/02/2018 at solar noontime are:

𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑑ℎ = 𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ ∙ (1.20 − 35.4 ∙ 𝑘𝑈𝑉,𝑒𝑟 + 0.50 ∙ cos 𝜃 − 1.12 ∙ 10−3 ∙ 𝑇𝑂𝐶)
𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑑ℎ = 0.0477 ∙ (1.20 − 35.4 ∙ 0.007691 + 0.50 ∙ 0.6056 − 1.12 ∙ 10−3 ∙ 420)
𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑑ℎ = 0.0362 𝑊/𝑚 2
𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑏ℎ = 𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ − 𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑑ℎ = 0.0477 − 0.0362 = 0.0115 𝑊/𝑚 2

where the UV erythemal irradiance (𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ ) is 0.0477 𝑊/𝑚 2 (see the previous Sub-section). The clearness
index 𝑘𝑈𝑉,𝑒𝑟 is:

𝐼
𝑒𝑟,ℎ 0.0477
𝑘𝑈𝑉,𝑒𝑟 = 𝐼𝑇𝑂𝑃 = 6.1990 = 0.007691
𝑒𝑟,ℎ

the extra-terrestrial UV erythemal solar irradiance is:

𝑇𝑂𝑃 𝑇𝑂𝑃
𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ = 𝐼𝑒𝑟 ∙ 𝑐𝑑 ∙ cos 𝜃 = 10.031 ∙ 1.0205 ∙ 0.6056 = 6.1990 𝑊/𝑚 2

where 𝜃 is the solar zenith angle at solar noontime equal to 52.7301° and 𝑐𝑑 is the eccentricity correction
𝑇𝑂𝑃
factor calculated as shown in Sub-sec. 2.1. 𝐼𝑒𝑟 is the erythemally weighted UV solar constant equal to
2
10.031 𝑊/𝑚 (see Annex A). The diffuse UV erythemal component is the 76% of the total UV erythemal
irradiance as expressed by the diffuse UV erythemal fraction index:

𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑑ℎ 0.0363
𝑓𝑈𝑉,𝑒𝑟 = = = 0.76
𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ 0.0477

44
The global solar clearness index, defined as the ratio between the global solar irradiance on a horizontal
plane at the Earth’s surface and the extra-terrestrial global solar irradiance on a horizontal plane at top of
the atmosphere, is:

𝐸
ℎ 667.31
𝐾𝑡 = 𝐸𝑇𝑂𝑃 = 844.78 = 0.79
ℎ

where the extra-terrestrial global solar irradiance is:

𝐸ℎ𝑇𝑂𝑃 = 𝐸 𝑇𝑂𝑃 ∙ 𝑐𝑑 ∙ cos 𝜃 = 1367 ∙ 1.0205 ∙ 0.6056 = 844.78 𝑊/𝑚2

According to Table 5.1 with a value of 𝐾𝑡 = 0.79, a typical value of 𝑓𝑈𝑉,𝑒𝑟 is 0.62 while in our case is
0.76. In our case the diffuse UV erythemal component is greater than expected probably because of greater
activity of scattering phenomena in the atmosphere due to gases. In conclusion the diffuse UV erythemal
component arriving in Pisa the 26/02/2018 during the period of an hour at solar noontime on a horizontal
plane at the Earth’s surface is 0.0362 𝑊/𝑚 2 while the direct UV erythemal component is 0.0115 𝑊/𝑚 2.

11.4 – UV ERYTHEMAL SOLAR IRRADIANCE ON THE FRONT SIDE OF THE WORKER

The worker during its activities is in a standing position and facing the North direction. The worker is
represented with a vertical plane coincident with the coronal plane (or frontal plane) of the worker itself
(see Figure 11.7). The UV radiation which is exposed the worker is the UV erythemal irradiance arriving
on the vertical plane.

Figure 11.7. Coronal (or frontal) plane of a human body.

First of all, the UV erythemal irradiance arriving on the front side of the worker is considered: the tilt
angle of the vertical plane 𝜋 with respect the horizontal plane is 90° (𝛽 = 90°) while the azimuth angle is
180° (𝛾 = 180°). For 𝛽 and 𝛾 angle definition see Sec. 6. The Sun elevation angle respect the horizon (α)
is the angle between the line from the point of the worker (centre of the area 𝐴) to the Sun disc centre with
a horizontal plane and is equal to:

sin 𝛼 = cos 𝜃 = 0.6056

𝛼 = arcsin 𝛼 = 0.6505 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 37.2699°

where 𝜃 is the solar zenith angle calculated as shown in Sub-sec. 2.1. The solar azimuth angle (𝛾𝑠 ) is the
angle between the projection on the horizontal plane of the line joining the Sun with the point of the
worker and the South direction (see Figure 11.8). 𝛾𝑠 is negative if the projection is in the East direction

45
(in the morning before the solar noontime) while is positive if the projection is in the West direction (in
the afternoon after the solar noontime). 𝛾𝑠 is defined by the following equation:

cos 𝛿∙sin 𝜔 cos(−9.0082°)∙sin(0°)

sin 𝛾𝑠 = = =0
cos 𝛼 cos(37.2699°)
𝛾𝑠 = arcsin 𝛾𝑠 = 0 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 0°

where 𝛿 is the solar declination and 𝜔 is the angle between the meridian plane passing for the point of the
worker and the meridian plane passing for the Sun calculated as shown in Sub-sec. 2.1. To define the Sun
position respect the area 𝐴 on the plane 𝜋, the incidence angle (𝜗) between the Sun rays and the normal
to the plane 𝜋 is introduced. The cos 𝜗 is positive if the area 𝐴 is exposed to Sun rays, is negative if the
area is shielding itself (the backside is exposed to Sun rays). cos 𝜗 is equal to:

cos 𝜗 = sin 𝛼 ∙ cos 𝛽 + cos 𝛼 ∙ cos(𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾) ∙ sin 𝛽

cos 𝜗 = sin(37.2699°) ∙ cos(90°) + cos(37.2699°) ∙ cos(0° − 180°) ∙ sin 90°
cos 𝜗 = cos(37.2699°) ∙ (−1) = −0.7958

Figure 11.8. Definition of 𝛼 and 𝛾𝑠 angles.

cos 𝜗 is negative, so the front side of the worker (face and chest in particular) is not receiving a direct
irradiation from the Sun because his nape and back are shielding the front side. The UV solar irradiance
arriving on the area 𝐴, on the vertical plane 𝜋, equal to the front side of the worker body surface area is
given only by the diffuse UV erythemal component of irradiance:

𝐼𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡,𝐴 = 𝐼𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑔 + 𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑠 = 0.0013 + 0.0159 = 0.0172 𝑊/𝑚2

where the diffuse part (𝐼𝑑𝐴 ) of the UV solar irradiance is the sum of the part coming from the sky and of
the part reflected from the ground as described in Sec. 6. The diffuse UV solar irradiance reflected from
the ground (𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑔 ) can be estimated with the following equation described in Sub-sec. 6.2:

𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑔 = 𝐼𝑒𝑟,ℎ ∙ 𝜌𝑈𝑉 ∙ 𝐹𝑔 = 0.0477 ∙ 0.055 ∙ 0.5 = 0.0013 𝑊/𝑚 2

where 𝜌𝑈𝑉 is the ground albedo and its value is from Table 6.1 equal to 0.055 because the worker is on a
bitumen (asphalt) roof-top. The diffuse UV solar irradiance diffused from the sky (𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑠 ) can be calculated
with the Perez-sky model as described in Sub-sec. 6.3:

1+cos 𝛽 𝑎
𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑠 = 𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑑ℎ ∙ [(1 − 𝐹1 ) ∙ ( 2
) + 𝐹1 ∙ + 𝐹2 ∙ sin 𝛽]
𝑏
1+cos(90°) 0
𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑠 = 0.0477 ∙ [(1 − 0.6142) ∙ ( 2
) + 0.6142 ∙
0.6056
+ 0.2465 ∙ sin(90°)]
𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑠 = 0.0159 𝑊/𝑚 2

46
where the coefficients 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 are:

𝐹1 = max[0; 𝑓11 + 𝑓12 ∙ ∆ + 𝑓13 ∙ 𝜗𝑧 ]

𝐹1 = max[0; 1.1326077 − 1.2367284 ∙ 0.1127 − 0.4118494 ∙ 0.9203] = 0.6142
𝐹2 = max[0; 𝑓21 + 𝑓22 ∙ ∆ + 𝑓23 ∙ 𝜗𝑧 ]
𝐹1 = max[0; 0.2877813 − 0.8230357 ∙ 0.1127 + 0.0558651 ∙ 0.9203] = 0.2465

and in any case the coefficients 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 are less than or equal to 1. The values of 𝑓11 , 𝑓12 , 𝑓12 , 𝑓21 , 𝑓22
and 𝑓23 are listed in Table 6.2 in function of 𝜀:

𝐸
𝐸𝑑ℎ + 𝑏ℎ 95.24+
572.11
sin 𝛼
+1.041∙𝜗𝑍 3 0.6056+1.041∙0.92033
𝐸𝑑ℎ 95.24
𝜀= = = 4.1607
1+1.041∙𝜗𝑍 3 1+1.041∙0.92033

the diffuse total solar irradiance (𝐸𝑑ℎ ) and the direct total solar irradiance (𝐸𝑏ℎ ) are calculated with the
following equations described in Sub-sec. 2.2:

𝐸ℎ𝑇𝑂𝑃 = 𝐸𝐺𝑇𝑂𝑃 ∙ cos 𝜃 = 𝐸0 ∙ 𝑐𝑑 ∙ cos 𝜃 = 1367 ∙ 1.0205 ∙ 0.6056 = 844.78 𝑊/𝑚 2

ℎ 𝐸 667.31
𝐾𝑡 = 𝐸𝑇𝑂𝑃 = 844.78 = 0.7899
ℎ
𝐸ℎ 667.31
𝐸𝑑ℎ = = =95.20 𝑊/𝑚 2
1+𝑒 −5.0+8.6∙𝐾𝑡 1+𝑒−5.0+8.6∙0.7899
𝐸𝑏ℎ = 𝐸ℎ − 𝐸𝑑ℎ = 667.31 − 95.20 = 572.11 𝑊/𝑚 2

in the equation for the coefficient of transparency (𝜀) calculation and in 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 coefficients expressions,
the angle 𝜗𝑍 is equal to:

90°−𝛼 90°−37.2699°
𝜗𝑧 = 2𝜋 ∙ ( 360°
) = 2𝜋 ∙ (
360°
) = 0.9203 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 52.7301°

while the coefficient of brightness (∆) is:

𝐸𝑑ℎ 95.20
∆= 𝑚 ∙ 𝑇𝑂𝑃 = 1.6510 ∙ = 0.1127
𝐸𝐺 1367∙1.0205
1 1
𝑚 = sin 𝛼+0.050572∙(6.07995+𝛼)−1.6364 = 0.6056+0.050572∙(6.07995+37.2699)−1.6364 = 1.6510

the coefficients 𝑎 and 𝑏 are:

𝑎 = max[0; cos 𝜗] = max[0; −0.7958] = 0

𝑏 = max[0.0872; cos 𝜗𝑧 ] = max[0.0872; 0.6056] = 0.6056

11.5 – UV ERYTHEMAL SOLAR IRRADIANCE ON THE BACK-SIDE OF THE WORKER

The UV solar irradiance arriving on the back-side of the worker is now considered: the tilt angle of the
vertical plane with respect the horizontal plane is 90° (𝛽 = 90°) while the azimuth angle is 0° (𝛾 = 0°).
The Sun elevation angle α is 37.2699° while the solar azimuth angle (𝛾𝑠 ) is 0°. The incidence angle (𝜗)
between the Sun rays and the normal to the plane 𝜋 is equal to:

cos 𝜗 = sin 𝛼 ∙ cos 𝛽 + cos 𝛼 ∙ cos(𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾) ∙ sin 𝛽

cos 𝜗 = sin(37.2699°) ∙ cos(90°) + cos(37.2699°) ∙ cos(0° − 0°) ∙ sin(90°)
cos 𝜗 = cos(37.2699°) ∙ 1 = 0.7958

47
cos 𝜗 is positive, so the back-side of the worker is receiving a direct and a diffuse irradiation from the Sun.
The UV solar irradiance arriving on the area 𝐴, on the vertical plane 𝜋, equal to the back-side of the worker
body surface area is given by the direct and by the diffuse components of irradiance:

𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘,𝐴 = 𝐼𝑏𝐴 + 𝐼𝑑𝐴 = 0.0150 + 0.0465 = 0.0615 𝑊/𝑚 2

the direct UV erythemal irradiance component (𝐼𝑏𝐴 ) is calculated as described in Sub-sec. 6.1:

cos 𝜗 0.7958
𝐼𝑏𝐴 = 𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑏ℎ ∙ 𝑅𝑏 = 𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑏ℎ ∙ sin 𝛼 = 0.0114 ∙ 0.6056 = 0.0150 𝑊/𝑚 2

the diffuse component of the UV solar irradiance (𝐼𝑑𝐴 ) is:

𝐼𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑔 + 𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑠 = 0.0013 + 0.0452 = 0.0465 𝑊/𝑚 2

where the diffuse part (𝐼𝑑𝐴 ) of the UV solar irradiance is the sum of the part coming from the sky and of
the part reflected from the ground. The diffuse UV erythemal irradiance reflected from the ground is
determined as in the previous Sub-section. With respect the UV erythemal irradiance coming from the sky
(𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑠 ) of the previous Sub-section, the value is different because is changed the value of the coefficient
𝑎:

𝑎 = max[0; cos 𝜗] = max[0; 0.7958] = 0.7958

1+cos 𝛽 𝑎
𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑠 = 𝐼𝑒𝑟,𝑑ℎ ∙ [(1 − 𝐹1 ) ∙ ( ) + 𝐹1 ∙ + 𝐹2 ∙ sin 𝛽]
2 𝑏
1+cos(90°) 0.7958
𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑠 = 0.0477 ∙ [(1 − 0.6142) ∙ ( 2
) + 0.6142 ∙
0.6056
+ 0.2465 ∙ sin(90°)]
𝐼𝑑𝐴,𝑠 = 0.0452 𝑊/𝑚 2

In conclusion, in the day of 26/02/2018 from 12:02 am to 1:02 pm on the front side of the worker are
arriving 0.0172 𝑊/𝑚 2 in the frequencies of the UV (250-400 𝑛𝑚) erythemally weighted radiation, while
on the back-side are arriving 0.0615 𝑊/𝑚 2 .

11.6 – AREA OF THE SKIN-WORKER EXPOSED TO UV RADIATION

The aim of this Sub-Section is to determine the area of skin of the worker exposed to UV radiation with
the method shown in Sub-sec. 7.1. The male worker has a height of 1.75 𝑚 and a weight of 63 𝑘𝑔 and
during his work activities is wearing safety shoes, trousers, jacket, gloves and a safety helmet. The 𝐵𝑀𝐼
of the worker is:

𝑊 63
𝐵𝑀𝐼 = 𝐻 2 = 1.752 = 20.57 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 2

According to 𝐵𝑀𝐼’s values of Table 7.2, the worker is normal weight. The Body Surface Area (𝐵𝑆𝐴) of
the worker is:

𝐵𝑆𝐴 = 𝛽0 ∙ 𝐻𝛽1 ∙ 𝑊 𝛽2 = 0.0070 ∙ 1750.7645 ∙ 630.3777 = 1.736 𝑚 2

where the 𝛽-coefficients are from Table 7.1. According to [63] and [64] the percentage of BSA covered
by the worker clothes are, respectively (see Figures 7.2, 7.3 and 7.4):

− safety helmet: 3.3%

− jacket: 35.9%
48
 − gloves: 4.9%
− trousers 42.3%
− safety shoes 6.8%
Total 93.2%

the percentage of the body worker covered by clothes and not exposed to UV radiation is 93.2%. The area
(𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑣 ) covered by clothes is:

𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑣 = 0.932 ∙ 1.736 = 1.618 𝑚 2

while the area of the skin-worker exposed to UV radiation is:

𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝐵𝑆𝐴 − 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑣 = 1.736 − 1.618 = 0.118 𝑚 2

In the hyphothesis of perfect symmetry of the human body with respect to the coronal plane, the front side
and the back-side of the skin area exposed to Sun are the half of the total area exposed to Sun:

𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑝 0.118
𝐴𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡,𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘,𝑒𝑥𝑝 = = = 0.059 𝑚 2
2 2

11.7 – UV ERYTHEMAL EXPOSURE DOSE RECEIVED BY THE WORKER

During its working activities, the worker receives on the front side and on the back-side the following
energy:

𝑈𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = 𝐼𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡,𝐴 ∙ 𝐴𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡,𝑒𝑥𝑝 ∙ 𝑡𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 0.0172 ∙ 0.059 ∙ 3600 = 3.661 𝐽

𝑈𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 = 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘,𝐴 ∙ 𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘,𝑒𝑥𝑝 ∙ 𝑡𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 0.0615 ∙ 0.059 ∙ 3600 = 13.069 𝐽

where 𝐼𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡,𝐴 and 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘,𝐴 are the UV erythemal irradiances calculated in Sub-sec. 11.5 while 𝐴𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡,𝑒𝑥𝑝
and 𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘,𝑒𝑥𝑝 are the areas of skin exposed to Sun calculated in Sub-sec. 11.6. 𝑡𝑒𝑥𝑝 is the time of exposure
of the worker to Sun radiation or the time needed to the worker to do his working activity. The energy
absorbed by the worker is equal to:

𝑈𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = 3.661 𝐽 = 0.037 𝑆𝐸𝐷

𝑈𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 = 13.069 𝐽 = 0.131 𝑆𝐸𝐷

where 𝑆𝐸𝐷 is the Standard Erythemal Dose defined in Sub-sec. 7.3 as a standardized measure of the
erythemal effects of UV radiation. One 𝑆𝐸𝐷 is equivalent to an erythemal effective radiant exposure of
100 J/m2 when the radiation is weighted by the CIE erythemal action spectrum [3]. Recommended values
of 𝑆𝐸𝐷s have been shown in Table 7.4 on the base of the skin phototypes. Skin phototypes are defined in
Table 7.5 on the base of the Fitzpatrick scale. An exposure of 1 𝑆𝐸𝐷 is approximately the ICNIRP
guideline for a daily exposure limit (8 ℎ).

11.8 – UV OCULAR EXPOSURE DOSE RECEIVED BY THE WORKER

To compare the exposure limits for the eye shown in Sub-sec. 8.1 with the ocular exposure dose received
by the worker during his working activities, the spectral UV irradiances calculated in Sub-sec. 11.2 solving
the radiative transfer equations must be weighted with the ICNIRP spectral weighting factor (𝑠𝑒𝑦𝑒 (𝜆), see
Sub-sec. 8.1) and not with the CIE erythemal action spectrum (𝑠𝑒𝑟 (𝜆), see Sec. 4). The spectral UV
irradiances weighted with the ICNIRP spectral weighting factor are shown in Table 11.6. In Figure 11.9
49
the spectral UV irradiances weighted with the ICNIRP spectral weighting factor are compared to the
spectral UV irradiances weighted with the CIE erythemal action spectrum.

𝝀 𝑰𝒉 (𝝀) 𝑰𝒆𝒚𝒆,𝒉 (𝝀) 𝑰𝒆𝒚𝒆,𝒉 (𝝀) ∙ ∆𝝀

[𝑛𝑚] [𝑊/𝑚2 ∙ 𝑛𝑚] [𝑊/𝑚2 ∙ 𝑛𝑚] [𝑊/𝑚2]
255 0.00000 0.000000 0.000000
265 0.00000 0.000000 0.000000
275 0.00000 0.000000 0.000000
285 0.00000 0.000000 0.000000
295 0.00000 0.000000 0.000001
305 0.00378 0.000227 0.002266
315 0.07979 0.000239 0.002394
325 0.22325 0.000112 0.001116
335 0.29994 0.000102 0.001020
345 0.32074 0.000077 0.000770
355 0.34865 0.000056 0.000558
365 0.40194 0.000044 0.000442
375 0.42043 0.000032 0.000324
385 0.38314 0.000020 0.000203
395 0.44635 0.000016 0.000161
Ieye,h = 0.009254
Table 11.6. UV spectral irradiance predicted for the day of 26/02/2018 in Pisa at solar noontime.

The UV ocular irradiance arriving on a horizontal plane at the Earth’s surface in Pisa at solar noontime
the 26/02/2018 is 9.254 𝑚𝑊/𝑚 2. For the calculation of UV ocular irradiance arriving on the vertical
plane 𝜋 for the only front side of the worker, the procedure from Sub-sec. 11.3 to Sub-sec. 11.4 is repeated.
𝑇𝑂𝑃
In calculation, the solar constant value in the UV bands ocular weighted (𝐼𝑒𝑦𝑒 ) is 9.620 𝑊/𝑚 2. On the
face of the worker the UV ocular irradiance arriving the 26/02/2018 at solar noontime is 4.228 𝑚𝑊/𝑚 2.
The radiant exposure (energy received by the surface per unit area) is:

𝐻𝑒𝑦𝑒 = 𝐼𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡,𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 4.228 ∙ 3600 = 15.22 𝐽/𝑚 2

According to [67], exposure to UV radiation in the spectral region from 180 to 400 𝑛𝑚 incident upon the
unprotected eye should not exceed the limit of 30 𝐽/𝑚2 within a period of 8 hours. If the incoming
irradiance is considered constant, the permissible exposure duration (or the maximum time of safe
exposure, 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) for the worker is:

30 30
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 7095.96 𝑠 = 1.97 ℎ
𝐼𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡,𝐴 0.004228

For the worker there is not an exposure risk for acute adverse effect on the eyes because the time needed
for the working activity is less than the maximum time of safe exposure.

50
 Ieye,h(λ) [𝑚𝑊/𝑚2∙𝑛𝑚] 26/02/2018 - solar noontime
2,1

1,8

1,5

1,2

0,9

0,6

0,3

0,0
250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400

spectral UV irradiance erythemally weighted spectral UV irradiance ocular weighted

Figure 11.9. UV spectral irradiance predicted for the day of 26/02/2018 in Pisa at solar noontime.

In addition to the limit of 30 𝐽/𝑚2 , to avoid long-term adverse effects, exposure to UV radiation in the
UVA spectral region (315-400 𝑛𝑚) should not exceed 104 𝐽/𝑚2. The unweighted UV irradiance arriving
in the UVA bands in Pisa at solar noontime the 26/02/2018 is 29.242 𝑊/𝑚 2. For the calculation of UVA
irradiance arriving on the vertical plane 𝜋 for the only front side of the worker, the procedure from Sub-
sec. 11.3 to Sub-sec. 11.4 is repeated. In calculation, the solar constant value in the UVA bands
𝑇𝑂𝑃
unweighted (𝐼𝑈𝑉𝐴 ) is 93.543 𝑊/𝑚 2. On the face of the worker the UVA irradiance arriving the
26/02/2018 at solar noontime is 9.244 𝑊/𝑚 2. The radiant exposure in the UVA bands is:

𝐻𝑈𝑉𝐴 = 𝐼𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡,𝑈𝑉𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 9.244 ∙ 3600 = 33.28 𝑘𝐽/𝑚 2

If the incoming irradiance in the UVA bands is considered constant, the permissible exposure duration (or
the maximum time of safe exposure, 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) for the worker is:

104 104
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 1081.77 𝑠 = 18.03 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡,𝑈𝑉𝐴 9.244

It depends on the spectral distribution which one of the two exposure limits is the more restrictive one. In
this case is the limit in the UVA bands the more restrictive because the limit threshold is exceeded in about
18 minutes. After 18 minutes there is an increase of the long-term risks concerning eye diseases. The
hypothesis of the incoming irradiance constant during a period of 8 hours is not realistic because solar
radiation varies during a day but for shorter period of one or two hours is useful to evaluate the maximum
time of safe exposure and to communicate in an easy and simple way with the workers of the risks to Sun
overexposure.

51
REFERENCES

[1] L. Wald, Elements on the computation of UV maps in the Eurosun database, (2012) 1−15.
URL https://hal-mines-paristech.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00788420.

[2] Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage, CIE S007/E:1998. Erythema reference action

spectrum and standard erythema dose, Vienna (1998).

[3] International Commission on non-ionizing radiation protection, ICNIRP Statement on protection

of workers against ultraviolet radiation, Health Physics 99 (1) (2010) 66−87.
doi: 0.1097/HP.0b013e3181d85908.

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