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Belgaum, Karnataka-590018
An Internship report
Submitted by:
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Under the Guidance of
This is to certify that the INTERNSHIP at KARNATAKA TEST HOUSE PVT LTD
has been successfully completed by
SREENIVASA C
Technical manager
KARNATAKA TEST HOUSE PVT LTD
INTERNSHIP REPORT 2018-2019
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The satisfaction that accompanies the successful completion of any task would be
incomplete without mention of the people who made it possible, whose constant
guidance and encouragement, crowned our efforts with success. We take this
opportunity to express our deepest gratitude and appreciation to all those who
helped us directly or indirectly towards the successful completion of this internship.
We also wish to thank all the Staff members of organization for helping
me directly or indirectly in completing this work successfully.
Place: Bangalore
ABSTRACT
The internship report gives the details about the company background including
Mission, Vision and Moto.
It also explains the overall familiarity in my internship tenure. It also records the
overall work we have been executing. It gives a high light of what we had been
doing and the main works of Geotechnical Engineering and Concrete Technology.
It is obvious that the internship has a positive effect in improving the skills and
different abilities. The report will confirm the benefits of internship program, which
has not only been an exceptional learning experience, but has also given has a
significant base on which we could build my professional Engineering care
INDEX
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
1. 01 - 13
a) INTRODUCTION
b) SOIL EXPLORATION
C.BLOCKS HOLLOW/SOLID:
a) WATER ABSORPTION 124-134
3.D
b) COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
c) BLOCK DENSITY
BRICKS
3.E
a) WATER ABSORPTION 135-144
b) COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
145-160
4 REINFORCEMENT STEEL
TILES 161-167
5
168-171
6 REFERENCE
1.0
GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTION.
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION:
The field and laboratory studies carried out for obtaining the necessary information about the
subsoil characteristics including the position of ground water are termed as “Geotechnical
Investigation”
The very main purpose of geotechnical investigation is to conduct soil investigation and its
features for the site where building constructions take place.
Site investigation refers to the methodology of determining surface and subsurface features of the
proposed area.
Rock mechanics behavior tests viscous Elasto plasticity nonlinearity lining support system
for tunnel surrounding rocks rheological damage and fracture rheology in soft soils.
Engineering geology to solve Engineering problems such as design of foundations, slopes,
excavations, dams, tunnels.
Other Civil, Mining and Environmental Engineering projects relating to the mechanical
response of the ground and the water within it.
Research work being undertaken in the Geo Engineering Centre includes studies on
geosynthetics, long term performance of landfill liners, shallow and deep foundations,
tunnels and deep excavations, pipes, culverts and other buried infrastructure as well as
Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering.
To find the shear strength of soil, physical and mechanical properties for eg.
Construction.
DEFINITION OF SOIL
Soil is an un-aggregated or un-cemented material of an earth crust which are normally formed
due to disintegration of the original parent rock.
A. Trial pit
B. Boring
A. TRIAL PIT
ADVANTAGES
Cost effective
DISADVANTAGES
Too many pits may scar site and require backfill soils.
Boring is carried out in the relatively soft and unfermented ground (engineering ‘soil’) which is
normally found close to ground surface. The techniques used vary widely across the world.
It depends on:
Type of structure
Size of the structure
Weight coming from the structure
PERCUSSION BORING
CORE DRILLING
When rocks are to be penetrated for examination, core drilling is resorted to. In this process, a
hole is made by rotating a hollow steel tube having a cutting bit at its end.
SOIL SAMPLES:
Figure 3: Collected soil samples and Soaking in water for lab tests
Field Tests:
Laboratory Tests:
A set of laboratory tests are required to be done to obtain the soil parameters for the design of
foundation.
DEFINITION: The quantity of water content present in soil is known as moisture content or
water content of soil.
SIGNIFICANCE:
The knowledge of the natural moisture content is essential in all studies and determining
the bearing capacity and settlement of soil.
It gives a idea about the state of soil in field
REFERENCE STANDARD:
AIM: For determination of the moisture content of soil by oven drying method.
APPARATUS USED:
PROCEDURE:
CALCULATION:
W1=Mass of container in gm
TABULAR COLUMN:
(W=WW/Ws)%
RESULTS: The average natural water content of the soil specimen is 27.58 %
SIGNIFICANCE:
APPARATUS USED:
Balance
Sieves sizes ranges from 10mm, 4.75mm, 2.36, 2mm,
1.18mm, 600mic, 425mic, 300mic, 150mic, 75mic and
then pan
Sieve shaker Figure 7:- Sieve sets
PROCEDURE:
TABULAR COLUMN:
CALCULATIONS:
Where , D30 is the diameter corresponding to 30% finer in the particle-size distribution
D60 is the diameter corresponding to 60% finer in the particle-size distribution
100
100 100 100
100
91.8
90
Percentage passing in%
80
74.54
70
60
54.74
50
44
40
30
20
16.2
10
1.67 0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Particles size in mm
Figure 8: Grain size distribution of Bore hole no.BORE
1 HOLE NO. 1
110
99 100
100
90.07 90
88.27
80
71 70
60
57.47
Percentage passing in%
50
48.47
43.8
40
30
26.24
20
10
8.47
0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Series1
Particles size in mm
110
100
98.73
95.13
90
87.93
80
77.6
59.93 60
50
42.93
40
29.66 30
20
14.2
10
3
0 0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Series1
Particles size in mm
Figure 10: Grain size distribution of Bore hole no. 03
120
110
100
100
95.2
90
84.4
82.7
80
Percentage passing in%
70
63.2
60
50
46
40
33.1
30
26.5
20
13
10
8.1
0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Series1
Particles size in mm
Figure 11: Grain size distribution of Bore hole no. 04
RESULTS:
= = = =
Cu
= 3.84 = 8.23 = 5.416 = 11.2
= = = =
CC
= 0.745 = 0.545 = 0.565 = 1.29
DEFINITION: Specific gravity of soil solid is the ratio between the unit weight of the soil solid
to the unit weight of the water. In other words it is the density of the soil solid relative to water.
SIGNIFICANCE:
APPARATUS USED:
PROCEDURE:
First and foremost job that is to be done is wash the density bottle and dry it in an oven at
105 0C to 100 0C. Cool it in the desiccators.
After the first step, Weigh the bottle, with stopper to the nearest 0.001g (M1).
Now take about 5 to 10g of the oven dried soil sample and transfer it the density bottle.
Weigh the bottle with the stopper and the dry sample (M 2).
BE DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING –AGMRCET, VARUR Page 24
INTERNSHIP REPORT 2018-2019
Add de-aired distilled water to the density bottle just enough to cover the soil. Shake
gently to mix the soil and water.
Fill the water up to the lower portion of the lid and weigh it as M3.
Empty the density bottle and clean the surface and fill it with the only water till it reaches
the lower portion of the lid and take the weight of bottle and the weight of the water as
M4.
Calculate the specific gravity of the soil as per IS codes
TABULAR COLUMN:
RESULTS:
DEFINITION: It the minimum water at which the soil is in liquid state but has small shear
strength which can be measured by standard available means. A liquid limit is the moisture
content expressed as a percentage of the weight of oven-dried soil, at which soil changes from a
plastic to a liquid state.
SIGNIFICANCE:
These limits of soil are very important property of fine grained soil and its Value
is used to classify fine grained soil and to calculate activity of clays, plasticity
index of soil and toughness index of soil.
It also gives us information regarding the state of consistency of soil on site.
In addition, it also can be used to predict the consolidation properties of soil while
calculating allowable bearing capacity & settlement of foundation
APPARATUS USED:
grooving tool,
glass plate,
425micron sieve,
spatula etc.
PROCEDURE:
Soil sample passing 425 µ is air dried and Weight of soil sample taken for test = 120 g
Mix the sample thoroughly with required amount distilled water to form a uniform paste.
Place soil sample in cup, squeezed down and spread into position by spatula a depth of 1
cm at maximum thickness and cut a groove by using standard grooving tool
Turn the crank at the rate of 2 revolutions per second and count the no. of drops until the
groove close through a length of 12mm
Take a representative slice of soil sample at right angle to the groove and find the moisture
content
The operation is repeated for minimum of four times
Consistency that no. of drops required to close the groove shall be not less than 15 or
more than 35
Plot curve log number of drops N and moisture content w and determine liquid limit(LL)
at N = 25
CALCULATIONS:
Ww = W2-W3 g
Ws = W3-W1 g
Water content = %
TABULAR COLUMN:
No. of blows 13 14 28 34
Liquid Limit(LL)=
Results: The liquid limit of the given soil sample by casegrande’s method is 28%
90
80 80
70
60
50 50
Water content
40
30
28.57
22.22
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
No. of blows
Figure 14: Curve representing Water content with respect to number of blows
REFERENCE STANDARD:
AIM: To determine the liquid limit of the soil by cone penetration test
APPARATUS USED:
Cone penetrometer,
flexible spatula,
glass plate,
weighing balance,
containers,
425 micron IS sieves etc.
PROCEDURE:
Test repeated by adjusting moisture content at least four times to have values of the
range 14 to 28 mm
Take a representative soil sample at depression by cone and find the moisture content
Plot curve penetration and moisture content w and
TABULAR COLUMN:
10 17
12 22
14 28
16 34
Results: The liquid limit of the soil sample by cone penetration method = 15 %
18
16 16
14 14
water content
12 12
10 10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
depth of penetration
B. PLASTIC LIMIT: It is the constant defined as the lowest moisture content and expressed as a
percentage of the weight of the oven dried soil at which the soil can be rolled into threads one-
eighth inch or 3mm in diameter without the soil breaking into pieces, also the moisture content of
a solid at which a soil changes from a plastic state to a semisolid state.
APPARATUS USED:
Glass plate,
425 micron sieve,
vernier caliper etc.
PROCEDURE:
The piece of crumbled soil thread shall be collected and used for determination of moisture
content
The test is repeated for at least three portion of the sample taken and average of three to
determine the plastic limit.
TABULAR COLIMN:
5) COMPACTION OF SOIL
DEFINITION: It is the process in which a stress applied to a soil causes densification as air is
displaced from the pores between the soil grains or Soil compaction is defined as the method of
mechanically increasing the density of soil.
SIGNIFICANCE:
Compaction reduces the voids ratio making it more difficult for water to flow through soil.
This is important if the soil is being used to retain water such as would be required for an
earth dam.
Compaction can prevent the buildup of large water pressures that cause soil to liquefy
during earthquakes.
FORMULAES:
AIM: For determination of the relation between the water content and the dry density of soils
using light compaction.
APPARATUS USED:
Sieves [19mm]
Mixing tray
Trowel
Graduated cylinder [500 ml capacity] Figure 18:- Leveling of the soil surface
Metal container
PROCEDURE:
Take about 2.5 kg of soil passing through 19mm sieve in a mixing tray.
The mould with base plate attached is weighed to the nearest 1 gm (M 1). The extension
collar is to be attached with the mould
The extension is removed and the compacted soil is leveled off carefully to the top of the
mould by means of a straight edge.
The soil is removed from the mould and a representative soil sample is obtained water
content determination.
Weight of the mould and soil is recorded and moisture content is calculated further bulk
and dry densities are calculated
Add suitable increments of water and test is continued at least five times
Plot the curve between water content and dry density and the optimum water content and
maximum dry density is obtained.
3 Water content w % 12 14 16
RESULTS:
Bulk density ρb
g/cc
= 1.932 = 2.47 = 1.97
Dry density ρd
g/cc
= 1.72 = 2.16 = 1.5
CONCLUSION:
The maximum dry density MDD of soil 2.14 g/cc with an optimum moisture content OMC of 14
% indicates after 14 % in adding more water there is no gain in strength of soil.
2.5
2.16
2
1.72
dry density in g/cc
1.5 1.5
Series1
1
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
water20:content
Figure in compaction
Standard %
3.5
2.5
Dry density in g/cc
2
Series1
1.5
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Water content in %
Figure 19: Modified compaction
AIM: To determine moisture content and dry density relationship using heavy compaction or
modified compaction method as per IS-2720-Part-8.
APPARATUS USED:
PROCEDURE:
Add suitable amount of water with the soil and mix it thoroughly. For sandy and gravelly
soil add 3% to 5% of water. For cohesive soil the amount of water to be added should
be 12% to 16% below the plastic limit.
Weigh the mould with base plate attached to the nearest 1g. Record this weight as ‘W1’.
Compact the moist soil into the mould in five layers of approximately equal mass, each
layer being given 56 blows, with the help of 4.9 kg rammer, dropped from a height of 450
mm above the soil. The blows must be distributed uniformly over the surface of each
layer.
After completion of the compaction operation, remove the extension collar and level
carefully the top of the mould by means of straightedge.
Weigh the mould with the compacted soil to the nearest 1 g. Record this weight as ‘W2’.
After weighing remove the compacted soil from the mould and place it on the mixing tray.
Determine the water content of a representative sample of the specimen. Record the
moisture content as ‘W
Add suitable increments of water and test is continued at least five times
Plot the curve between water content and dry density and the optimum water content and
maximum dry density is obtained.
3 Water content w % 14 16 18 20 22
RESULTS:
Bulk density ρb
g/cc
= 0.864 = 4.372 = 4.376 = 4.380 =4.368
Dry density ρd
g/cc
= 0.757 = 3.768 = 3.708 = 3.65 = 3.58
CONCLUSION:
The maximum dry density MDD of soil 3.75 g/cc with an optimum moisture content OMC of 14
% indicates after 16 % in adding more water there is no gain in strength of soil.
DEFINITION: Shear is defined as the force that causes two contiguous parts of the same body to
slide relative to each other in a direction parallel to their plane of contact. Shear strength is the
stress required to yield or fracture the material in the plane of material cross-section
IMPORTANCE:
In many engineering problems such as design of foundation, retaining walls, slab bridges,
pipes, sheet piling, the value of the angle of internal friction and cohesion of the soil
involved are required for the design. Direct shear test is used to predict these parameters
quickly.
Shear characteristics are also important when characterizing the structural integrity of a
bond between two surfaces. This bond could be a weld, an adhesive bond or a friction
joint. In all of these cases, failure of the bond is primarily dependent on its shear strength,
which can only be experimentally determined by a shear test.
AIM: To determine the shear strength of a sandy soil specimen by direct shear test.
APPARATUS USED:
Shear box, divided into two halves by a horizontal plane, and fitted with locking and
spacing screws
Loading pad
Loading frame
Loading yoke
Spatula
PROCEDURE:
Shear box dimensions is measured, the box is set up by fixing its upper part to the lower
part with clamping screws, and then a porous stone is placed at the base.
For undrained tests, a serrated grid plate is placed on the porous stone with the serrations
at right angle to the direction of shear. For drained tests, a perforated grid is used over the
porous stone.
An initial amount of soil is weighed in a pan. The soil is placed into the shear box in three
layers and for each layer is compacted with a tamper. The upper grid plate, porous stone
and loading pad is placed in sequence on the soil specimen.
The pan is weighed again and the mass of soil used is computed.
The box is placed inside its container and is mounted on the loading frame. Upper half of
the box is brought in contact with the horizontal proving ring assembly. The container is
filled with water if soil is to be saturated.
The clamping screws is removed from the box, and set vertical displacement gauge and
proving ring gauge to zero.
The vertical normal stress is set to a predetermined value. For drained tests, the soil is
allowed to consolidate fully under this normal load. (Avoid this step for undrained tests.)
The motor is started with a selected speed and shear load is applied at a constant rate of
strain. Readings of the gauges are taken until the horizontal shear load peaks and then
falls, or the horizontal displacement reaches 20% of the specimen length.
The moisture content of the specimen is determined after the test. The test is repeated on
identical specimens under different normal stress values.
CALCULATION
The density of the soil specimen is calculated from the mass of soil and the volume of the
shear box.
The dial readings are converted to the appropriate displacement and load units by multiplying
with respective least counts.
Shear strains are calculated by dividing horizontal displacements with the specimen length,
and shear stresses are obtained by dividing horizontal shear forces with the shear area.
The shear stress versus horizontal displacement is plotted. The maximum value of shear
stress is read if failure has occurred, otherwise read the shear stress at 20% shear strain. The
maximum shear stress versus the corresponding normal stress is plotted for each test, the
cohesion and the angle of shearing resistance of the soil is determined from the graph.
Kg/m2 Kg/m2
1 0.5 0.053
2 1.0 0.174
3 1.5 0.162
GRAPH:
0.2
0.18
0.16
0.14
MAX. STRESS kg/m2
0.12
0.1
Series1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
NORMAL STRESS kg/m2
From graph,
S1 = 1.49 kN/m2
S2 = 1.516 kN/m2
S3 = 1.514 kN/m2
RESULTS:
DEFINITION: It is the increase in volume of soil without any external constraint when subjected
to submergence in water
IMPORTANCE:
It is used to determine the silt content of soil particle by submerging the soil in water
APPARATUS USED:
PROCEDURE:
Take two specimens of 10g each of pulverized soil passing through 425 μ IS Sieve and
oven-dry.
Pour each soil specimen into a graduated glass cylinder of 100ml capacity
Pour distilled water in one and kerosene oil in the other cylinder up to 100ml mark.
Remove entrapped air by gently shaking or stirring with a glass rod.
Allow the suspension to attain the state of equilibrium (for not less than 24hours).
Final volume of soil in each of the cylinder should be read out.
where,
Vd = volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder containing distilled water.
Vk = volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder containing kerosene.
Initial volume 10 10
Final volume 14 13
Increase in volume 4 3
= 33.33%
RESULT:
DEFINITION: is the ratio of the force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with a
standard circular piston of 50 mm dia, at the rate of 1.25 mm/min to that of force required to
penetrate sample of compacted stone having CBR of 100%.
IMPORTANCE:
Indian Road Congress (IRC) has standardized the guidelines for the design of flexible
pavements based on CBR test (vide IRC-37) and this method is being followed for the
design of flexible pavements for all the categories of roads in India.
The CBR rating was developed for measuring the load-bearing capacity of soils used
for building roads. The CBR can also be used for measuring the load-bearing capacity of
unimproved airstrips or for soils under paved airstrips. The harder the surface, the higher
the CBR rating.
AIM: Determination of California bearing ratio CBR of soil either in undisturbed or Remoulded
condition
APPARATUS USED:
Compression machine
IS Sieves
Penetration Plunger
PREPARATION SAMPLE
Undisturbed specimen is obtained by fitting to the mould, the steel cutting edge of 150 mm
internal diameter and pushing the mould as gently as possible into the ground. When the mould is
sufficiently full of soil, it shall be removed by under digging. The top and bottom surfaces are
then trimmed flat so as to give the required length of specimen.
The dry density for remoulding should be either the field density or if the subgrade is to be
compacted, at the maximum dry density value obtained from the Proctor Compaction test. If it is
proposed to carry out the CBR test on an unsoaked specimen, the moisture content for remoulding
should be the same as the equilibrium moisture content which the soil is likely to reach subsequent
to the construction of the road. If it is proposed to carry out the CBR test on a soaked specimen,
the moisture content for remolding should be at the optimum and soaked under water for 96 hours.
Soil Sample – The material used in the remolded specimen should all pass through a 19 mm IS
sieve. Allowance for larger material may be made by replacing it by an equal amount of material
which passes a 19 mm sieve but is retained on a 4.75 mm IS sieve. This procedure is not
satisfactory if the size of the soil particles is predominantly greater than 19 mm. The specimen
may be compacted statically or dynamically.
The mass of the wet soil at the required moisture content to give the desired density when
occupying the standard specimen volume in the mould is calculated. A batch of soil is thoroughly
mixed with water to give the required water content. The correct mass of the moist soil is placed
in the mould and compaction obtained by pressing in displacer disc, a filter paper being placed
between the disc & soil.
For dynamic compaction , a representative sample of soil weighing approximately 4.5 kg or more
for fine grained soils and 5.5 kg or more for granular soil shall be taken and mixed thoroughly
with water. If the soil is to be compacted to the maximum dry density at the optimum water
content determined in accordance with light compaction or heavy compaction, the exact mass of
soil required is to be taken and the necessary quantity of water added so that the water content of
soil sample is equal to the determined optimum water content. The mould with extension collar
attached is clamped to the base plate. The spacer disc is inserted over the base plate and a disc of
coarse filter paper placed on the top of the spacer disc. The soil water mixture is compacted into
the mould in accordance with the methods specified in light compaction test or heavy compaction
test.
PROCEDURE:
The mould containing the specimen with the base plate in position but the top face
exposed is placed on the lower plate of the testing machine.
Surcharge weights, sufficient to produce an intensity of loading equal to the weight of the
base material and pavement is placed on the specimen.
To prevent upheaval of soil into the hole of the surcharge weights, 2.5 kg annular weight is
placed on the soil surface prior to seating the penetration plunger after which the
remainder of the surcharge weight is placed.
BE DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING –AGMRCET, VARUR Page 55
INTERNSHIP REPORT 2018-2019
The plunger is to be seated under a load of 4 kg so that full contact is established between
the surface of the specimen and the plunger.
The stress and strain gauges are then set to zero. Load is applied to the penetration plunger
so that the penetration is approximately 1.25 mm per minute.
Readings of the load are taken at penetrations of 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5,
10.0 and 12.5 mm.
The plunger is then raised and the mould detached from the loading equipment.
CALCULATION
Load-Penetration curve:
The load penetration curve is plotted taking penetration value on x-axis and Load values on Y-
axis. Corresponding to the penetration value at which the CBR is desired, corrected load value is
taken from the load-penetration curve and the CBR calculated as follows
Where
PT = Corrected unit (or total) test load corresponding to the chosen penetration curve, and
PS = Unit (or total) standard load for the same depth of penetration as for PS taken from standard
code
6 No. of blows 56
7 Number of layers 5
12 Water content w % 15 10
250
Fro
m
200
gra
phs
150 ,
LOAD IN kN
Tes
100 t 1:
2.5
50 mm
pen
etra
0
tion
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
PENETRATION IN MM =
50
45 45
43
40
39
35 36
LOAD IN kN
32
30
25 26
22
20
15 15
12
10
8
5 5
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
PENETRATION IN MM
kN
2.5mm penetration = 29 kN
5mm penetration = 39 kN
RESULTS:
3.0. CONCRETE
TECHNOLOGY
The aim is to mix these materials in measured amounts to make concrete that is easy to:
Transport, Place, Compact and finish and which will set and harden, to give a strong and
durable product.
The amount of each material (i.e., cement, water and aggregates) affects the properties of
hardened concrete.
c) WATER: Water is mixed with the cement powder to form a paste which holds the
aggregates together like glue.
ADMIXTURES : Admixtures are mixed into the concrete to change or alter its
properties, i.e., the time concrete takes to set and harden, or its workability.
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE:
The properties of concrete are its characteristics or basic qualities. The four main
properties of concrete are:
Workability
Cohesiveness
Strength
Durability
B) COHESIVENESS:
Well made concrete is a naturally strong and durable material. It is DENSE, reasonably
WATERTIGHT, able to resist changes in TEMPERATURE, as well as wear and tear from
WEATHERING.
Plastic
Setting
Hardening
IMPORTANCE:
Compressive strength results are used to determine that the concrete mixture meets the
requirements of the specified strength
Strength is extremely important for any material and any construction project. You need
to have the right amount of strength, in some cases no less and no more, to be able to
accomplish the task. Since concrete is used in key places like foundations, flooring, it’s
important that the concrete is strong enough to hold the weight.
APPARATUS USED:
Representative samples of concrete shall be taken and used for casting cubes 15 cm x 15
cm x 15 cm or cylindrical specimens of 15 cm dia x 30 cm long.
The concrete shall be filled into the moulds in layers approximately 5 cm deep. It would
be distributed evenly and compacted either by vibration or by hand tamping. After the top
layer has been compacted, the surface of concrete shall be finished level with the top of
the mould using a trowel; and covered with a glass plate to prevent evaporation.
The specimen shall be stored at site for 24± ½ h under damp matting or sack. After that,
the samples shall be stored in clean water at 27±20C; until the time of test. The ends of all
cylindrical specimens that are not plane within 0.05 mm shall be capped.
Just prior to testing, the cylindrical specimen shall be capped with sulphur mixture
comprising 3 parts sulphur to 1 part of inert filler such as fire clay.
Specimen shall be tested immediately on removal from water and while they are still in
wet condition.
The bearing surface of the testing specimen shall be wiped clean and any loose material
removed from the surface. In the case of cubes, the specimen shall be placed in the
machine in such a manner that the load cube as cast, that is, not to the top and bottom.
Align the axis of the specimen with the steel platen, do not use any packing.
The load shall be applied slowly without shock and increased continuously at a rate of
approximately 140 kg/sq.cm/min until the resistance of the specimen to the increased load
breaks down and no greater load can be sustained. The maximum load applied to the
specimen shall then be recorded and any unusual features noted at the time of failure
brought out in the report.
CALCULATION
Where
Weight of Compressive
Grade of Age of Contact Load in
Sl. No specimen in strength in
concrete concrete area mm2 kN (P)
kg N/mm2
Specified
Age Strength per cent
Minimum characteristic
Grade of compressive compressive
1 day 16% Concrete strength strength
N/mm2 at 7 days (N/mm2) at 28
days
3 days 40% M15 10.0 15
M20 13.4 20
7 days 67%
M25 16.7 25
M30 20.1 30
14 days 90%
M35 23.5 35
Figure 31: cube after test Figure 30: Soaking of cubes in water
RESULTS:
INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT
DEFINITION: Cement is a binder, a substance used in construction that sets and hardens and
can bind other materials together.
CEMENT PRODUCTION:
Limestone and clay are quarried, crushed, stockpiled and ground separately. In the wet
process, slurries are made and blended. However, this is uneconomical. In the dry
process, the grinding is performed with dry materials but some water may be added to
facilitate handling.
The ground and blended material is fed into a rotating inclined kiln. As the material
slowly moves down the kiln, evaporation, calcinations, clinkering and cooling take place.
(Clinkering is a heat treatment where partial melting
The clinker (dark porous nodules of 6-50 mm diameter) is further cooled with air or
water. It is ground to a powder in a ball mill, along with a small amount of gypsum, to
obtain Portland cement.
STORAGE OF CEMENT:
TESTS ON CEMENT
Open the bag and take a good look at the cement, then it should not contain any visible
lumps.
Color of cement should be greenish grey.
Should get cool feeling when thrusted.
When we touch the cement, it should give a smooth ¬ a gritty feeling.
When we throw the cement on a bucket full of water before it sinks the particles should
flow.
When we make a stiff paste of cement & cut it with sharp edges & kept on a glass plate
under water there won’t be any disturbance to the shape and should get strength after 24
hours.
1) Consistency
2) Setting time
3) Soundness
4) Fineness
5) Compressive strength
DEFINITION: The standard consistency of a cement paste is defined as that consistency which
will permit the vicat plunger to penetrate to a point 5 to 7mm from the bottom of the vicat mould.
IMPORTANCE:
The basic aim is to find out the water content required to produce a cement paste of standard
consistency as specified by the IS: 4031 (Part 4) – 1988.
This test helps to determine water content for other tests like initial and final setting
time, soundness & compressive strength.
Consistency refers to the relative mobility of a freshly mixed cement paste or mortar
or its ability to flow. For a mortar the standard consistency is measured by flow table
test.
AIM: The basic aim is to find out the water content required to produce a cement paste of
standard consistency.
PRINCIPLE: The principle is that standard consistency of cement is that consistency at which
the Vicat plunger penetrates to a point 5-7mm from the bottom of Vicat mould.
APPARATUS USED:
PROCEDURE:
Weigh approximately 400g of cement and mix it with a weighed quantity of water. The
time of gauging should be between 3 to 5 minutes.
Fill the Vicat mould with paste and level it with a trowel.
Lower the plunger gently till it touches the cement surface.
Release the plunger allowing it to sink into the paste.
Note the reading on the gauge.
Repeat the above procedure taking fresh samples of cement and different quantities of
water until the reading on the gauge is 5 to 7mm.
OBSERVATIONS:
1 112 28 10
2 114 28.5 8
3 116 29 7
RESULTS:
DEFINITION: The time at which the cement paste loses its plasticity is termed as initial setting
time and the time at which the cement paste becomes hard mass is termed as the final setting
time.
IMPORTANCE:
Place the test block under the rod bearing the needle.
Lower the needle gently in order to make contact with the surface of the cement paste and
release quickly, allowing it to penetrate the test block.
Repeat the procedure till the needle fails to pierce the test block to a point 5.0 to 5.5 mm
measured from the bottom of the mould.
The time period elapsing between the time, water is added to the cement and the time, the
needle fails to pierce the test block by 5.0 to 5.5 mm measured from the bottom of the
mould, is the initial setting time.
RESULTS:
IMPORTANCE:
PRINCIPLE:
APPARATUS USED:
Vibration machine
Balance
Environmental Conditions
Temperature 27 ± 20 C
Humidity 65 ± 5 %
PROCEDURE:
Take 200 g of cement and 600 g of standard sand and mix them dry thoroughly.
Add [(P/4)+3] of water (where P is % of water required for preparing paste of standard
consistency) to the dry mix of cement and sand and mix thoroughly for a minimum of 3
minutes and maximum of 4 minutes to obtain a mix of uniform color. If even in 4
minutes uniform color of the mix is not obtained reject the mix and mix fresh quantities
of cement, sand and water to obtain a mix of uniform color.
Place the thoroughly cleaned and oiled (on interior face) mould on the vibrating machine
and hold it in position by clamps provided on the machine for the purpose.
Fill the mould with entire quantity of mortar using a suitable hopper attached to the top of
the mould for facility of filling and vibrate it for 2 minutes at a specified speed of
12000±400 per minute to achieve full compaction.
Remove the mould from the machine and keep it in a place with temp of 27±2 0C and
relative humidity of 90% for 24 hours.
At the end of 24 hrs remove the cube from the mould and immediately submerge in fresh
clean water. The cube be taken out of the water only at the time of testing.
Prepare at least 6 cubes in the manner explained above.
Place the test cube on the platform of a compressive testing machine without any packing
between the cube and the plates of the testing machine.
Apply the load steadily and uniformly, starting from zero at a rate of 35 N/mm 2/minute.
CALCULATION:
Where,
156.3 31.36
REUSLTS:
1) Average compressive strength of specimen for 3 days of curing = 32.05 N/mm2
DEFINITION:
TYPES OF AGGREGATES:
Coarse aggregates
Fine aggregates
All In aggregates
I) COARSE AGGREGATES:
Figure 37: Coarse Aggregates Sample
Crushed Stone Sand– it is the fine aggregate produced by crushing hard stone.
Crushed Gravel Sand– it is the fine aggregate produced by crushing natural gravel.
COARSE AGGREGATES
SHAPES OF PARTICLES
1) Sieve analysis
2) Bulk density (Loose and Rodded)
3) Flakiness and elongation index
4) Water absorption
5) Aggregate impact value
6) Aggregate crushing value
7) Los Angeles abrasion resistance
8) Determination of 10% Fines value
IMPORTANCE:
If the water-cement ratio is chosen correctly, a wide range in grading can be used without
a major effect on strength.
When gap-graded aggregate are specified, certain particle sizes of aggregate are omitted
from the size continuum. Gap-graded aggregate are used to obtain uniform textures in
exposed aggregate concrete.
Close control of mix proportions is necessary to avoid segregation.
APPARATUS USED:
IS Sieves set of size 63mm, 40mm, 20mm, 16mm, 12.5mm, 10mm, 4.75mm and pan
Balance
Sieve shaker
Tray
PROCEDURE:
The sample shall be brought to an air-dry condition before weighing and sieving. This
may be achieved either by drying at room temperature or by heating at a temperature of
100‖ to 110°C. The air-dry sample shall be weighed and sieved successively on the
appropriate sieves starting with the largest. Care shall be taken to ensure that the sieves
are clean before use.
Each sieve shall be shaken separately over a clean tray until not more than a trace passes,
but in any case for a period of not less than two minutes. The shaking shall be done with
a varied motion, backward sand forwards, left to right, circular clockwise and anti-
clockwise, and with frequent jarring, so that the material is kept moving over the sieve
surface in frequently changing directions.
Material shall not be forced through the sieve by hand pressure. Lumps of fine material,
if present, may be broken by gentle pressure with fingers against the side of the sieve.
On completion of sieving, the material retained on each sieve, together with any material
aggregate
retained in g
63 0 0 0 100
40 0 0 0 100
Fineness modulus
= = 3.421
RESULTS:
DEFINITION:
IMPORTANCE:
Particle shape and surface texture influence the properties of freshly mixed concrete more
than the properties of hardened concrete.
Rough-textured, angular, and elongated particles require more water to produce workable
concrete than smooth, rounded compact aggregate. Consequently, the cement content
must also be increased to maintain the water-cement ratio. Generally, flat and elongated
particles are avoided or are limited to about 15 % by weight of the total aggregate.
APPARATUS USED:
Metal guage
Balance
Sieves 63mm, 40mm, 20mm, 16mm, 12.5mm, 10mm, 4.75mm and pan etc
PROCEDURE:
In order to separate flaky materials, each fraction is then gauged individually for
thickness on a thickness gauge.
The total amount of flaky material passing the thickness gauge is weighed to an accuracy
of 0.1% of the weight of sample.
1 25 – 20 66 1.32
2 20 – 16 100 2
3 16 – 12 49 0.98
4 12 – 10 11 0.22
5 10 – 6.3 0 0
PROCEDURE
The
sample is
sieved
through IS
sieve
specified in
Table shown below.
In order to separate elongated materials, each fraction is then gauged individually for
length in the length gauge.
The pieces of aggregate from each fraction tested which could not pass through the
specified gauge length with its long sides elongated are collected separately to find the
total weight of aggregate retained on the length gauge from each fraction.
The total amount of elongated material retained by the length gauge is weighed to an
accuracy of 0.1% of the weight of sample
RESULTS:
DEFINITION: The bulk density or unit weight of an aggregate is the mass or weight of the
aggregate that required to fill a container of a specified unit volume.
IMPORTANCE:
If we know the bulk density of the aggregate material then we can easily determine the
mass required to fill a unit volume container.
Bulk density also indicates the percentage of voids present in the aggregate material. This
percentage of voids affects the grading of the aggregates which is important in high
strength concrete.
Bulk density also indicates the compactive effort required to compact the concrete.
APPARATUS USED:
Loose bulk density can be determined by filling the container with dried aggregates until it
overflows from the container. Now level the top surface of container by rolling a rod on it.
After that, weight the aggregate mass that is inside the container and divide it by the volume of
container. This will give you the bulk density of the loose aggregates.
Compacted bulk density can be determined by filling the container in three layers and tamped
each layer with a 16mm diameter rounded nosed rod. After filling in three layers now leveled
the top surface and evaluate compacted bulk density by using the same expression as for loose
bulk density.
Measure the volume of the cylindrical metal measure by pouring water into the metal
measure and record the volume “V” in litre.
Fill the cylindrical metal measure about one-third full with thoroughly mixed aggregate
and tamp it 25 times using tamping bar.
Add another layer of one-third volume of aggregate in the metal measure and give
another 25 strokes of tamping bar.
Finally fill aggregate in the metal measure to over-flowing and tamp it 25 times.
Determine the weight of the aggregate in the measure and record that weight “W” in kg.
Measure the volume of the cylindrical metal measure by pouring water into the metal
measure and record the volume “V” in litre.
Fill the cylindrical measure to overflowing by means of a shovel or scoop, the aggregate
being discharged from a height not exceeding 5 cm above the top of the measure
Level the top surface of the aggregate in the metal measure, with a straightedge or
tamping bar.
Determine the weight of the aggregate in the measure and record the weight “W” in kg.
Maximum Minimum
Capacity of Inside diameter Inside height in
nominal size of Thickness of
cylinder in litres in cm cm
aggregates metal in mm
4.75 mm 3 15 17 3.15
4.74 to 40 mm 15 25 30 4.00
Over 40 mm 30 35 31 5.00
Where,
RESULTS:
DEFINITION:
IMPORTANCE:
APPARATUS USED:
Wire basket
Oven (1500c)
Container for filling water and suspending the basket and an air tight container
Balance[0-10 kg]
PREPARATION OF SAMPLE
The sample to be tested is separated from the bulk by quartering or by using sample divider.
PROCEDURE
About 2kg of the aggregate sample is washed thoroughly to remove fines, drained and
then placed in the wire basket and immersed in distilled water at a temperature between
22 to 320C with a cover of at least 50 mm of water above the top of the basket
Immediately after the immersion the entrapped air is removed from the sample by lifting
the basket containing it 25 mm above the base of the tank and allowing it to drop 25
times at the rate of about one drop per second. The basket and the aggregate should
remain completely immersed in water for a period of 24±0.5 hours afterwards.
The basket and the sample are then weighed while suspended in water at a temperature of
22 to 320C. The weight is noted while suspended in water (W1) g.
The basket and the aggregate are then removed from water and allowed to drain for a few
minutes, after which the aggregates are transferred to one of the dry absorbent clothes.
The empty basket is then returned to the tank of water, jolted 25 times and weights in
water (W2) g.
The aggregates placed in the dry absorbent clothes are surface dried till no further
moisture could be removed by this clothe.
Then the aggregate is transferred to the second dry cloth spread in a single layer, covered
and allowed to dry for at least 10 minutes until the aggregates are completely surface dry.
10 to 60 minutes drying may be needed. The surface dried aggregate is then weighed
W3 g.
The aggregate is placed in a shallow tray and kept in an oven maintained at a temperature
of 1100C for 24 hours. It is then removed from the oven, cooled in air tight container and
weighed W4 g.
RESULTS:
The property of a material to resist impact is known as toughness. The toughness is determined
by aggregate Impact test. The aggregate impact value shall not exceed 45% by weight for
aggregates used for concrete other than for wearing surface and 30% by weight for concrete for
wearing surfaces, such as runways, roads and pavements,
IMPORTANCE:
Due to movement of vehicles on the road the aggregates are subjected to impact resulting
in their breaking down into smaller pieces.
The aggregates should therefore have sufficient toughness to resist their disintegration
due to impact. This characteristic is measured by impact value test.
The aggregate impact value is a measure of resistance to sudden impact or shock, which
may differ from its resistance to gradually applied compressive load.
APPARATUS USED:
Sieves (12.5mm,10mm)
Tamping Rod
Balance (0-10kg)
Figure 43: Impact Testing machine
Oven(1500c)
Test sample consist of aggregate passing a 12.5mm IS sieve and retained on a 10mm IS sieve.
The aggregate to be tested is dried in oven for a period of not less than 4hours.
PROCEDURE
The cylindrical steel cup is filled with 3 equal layers of aggregate and each layer is
tamped 25 strokes by the rounded end of tamping rod and the surplus aggregate struck
off, using the tamping rod as a straight edge.
The net weight of aggregate in the cylindrical steel cup is determined to the nearest gram
(WA) and this weight of aggregate is used for the duplicate test on the same material.
The cup is fixed firmly in position on the base of the machine and the whole of the test
sample is placed in it and compacted by a single tamping of 25 strokes of tamping rod.
The hammer is raised until its lower face is 380 mm. above the upper surface of the
aggregate in the cup, and allowed to fall freely onto the aggregate 15 times, each being
delivered at an interval of not less than one second.
The crushed aggregate is removed from the cup and sieved on 2.36 mm. IS sieve until no
further significant amount passes in one minute.
CALCULATIONS:
Classification
Aggregate Impact Value
10 – 20% Strong
RESULTS:
CONCLUSION:
The aggregates used in wearing surfaces should have the aggregate impact value less than 30%
DEFINITION: Coarse aggregate crushing value is the percentage by weight of the crushed
material obtained when test aggregates are subjected to a specified load under standardized
conditions. The aggregate impact value shall not exceed 45 percent by weight for aggregates
used for concrete other than for wearing surfaces and 30 percent by weight for concrete for
wearing surfaces, such as runways, roads and pavements.
IMPORTANCE:
The aggregates used in roads and Figure 44: Cylindrical mould and tamping rod
pavement construction must be
strong enough to withstand crushing under roller and traffic. If the aggregate crushing
value is 30 or higher’ the result may be anomalous and in such cases the ten percent fines
value should be determined instead.
APPARATUS USED:
Steel Cylinder
Figure 45: Mould and specimen under UTM
Sieves
(12.5mm,10mm)
Tamping Rod
Balance (0-10kg)
Oven (1500c)
PREPARATION OF SAMPLE
Test sample consist of aggregate passing a 12.5mm IS sieve and retained on a 10mm IS sieve.
The aggregate to be tested is dried in oven for a period of not less than 4 hours.
PROCEDURE
The cylindrical steel cup is filled with 3 equal layers of aggregate and each layer is
tamped 25 strokes by the rounded end of tamping rod and the surplus aggregate struck
off, using the tamping rod as a straight edge.
The net weight of aggregate in the cylindrical steel cup is determined to the nearest gram
(WA) and this weight of aggregate is used for the duplicate test on the same material.
The cup is fixed firmly in position on the base of the machine and the whole of the test
sample is added in thirds, each third being subjected to 25stokes from tamping rod.
The surface is leveled and the plunger is inserted so that it rests horizontally on the
surface. The whole assembly is then placed between the platens of testing machine and
loaded at a uniform rate so as to reach a load of 40 tones in 10 minutes.
The load is then released and all aggregate is removed from the cup and sieved on 2.36
mm. IS sieve until no further significant amount passes in one minute. The fraction
passing the sieve is weighed to an accuracy of 0.1 g (WB)
CALCULATION
Soling 50
The table below shows limits of aggregate crushing value for different types of road
construction:
RESULTS:
CONCLUSION:
The aggregates used in wearing surfaces should have the aggregate crushing value less than 30%
DEFINITION:
IMPORTANCE:
The Los Angeles (L.A.) abrasion test is a common test method used to indicate aggregate
toughness and abrasion characteristics.
Aggregate abrasion characteristics are important because the constituent aggregate in
HMA must resist crushing, degradation and disintegration in order to produce a high
quality HMA. Aggregate used in highway pavement should be hard and must resist wear
due to the loading from compaction equipment, the polishing effect of traffic and the
internal abrasion effect.
The road aggregate should be hard enough to resist the abrasion of aggregate. Resistance
to abrasion is determined in laboratory by loss angles abrasion test.
To choose the best type of aggregate due to abrasion value and to calculate the hardness
of aggregates.
To produce the abrasive action by use of standard steel balls which when mixed with the
aggregate and rotated in a drum for specific number of revolution cause impact on aggregate.
The %age wear due to rubbing with steel balls is determined and is known as abrasion value.
Prepare the sample by the portion of an aggregate sample retained on the 1.70 mm (No. 12) sieve
and place in a large rotating drum that contains a shelf plate attached to the outer wall.
AIM: Determination of abrasion value of coarse aggregates using los angeles machine.
APPARATU USED:
Los Angeles machine - The Los Angeles abrasion testing machine shall consist of a
hollow steel cylinder, closed at both ends, having an inside diameter of 700 mm and an
inside length of 500 mm. The cylinder shall be mounted on stub shafts attached to the
ends of the cylinders but not entering it, and shall mounted in such, a manner that it may
be rotated about its axis in a horizontal position. An opening in the 37 cylinder shall be
provided for the introduction of the test sample. A removable steel shelf, projecting
radially 88 mm into the cylinder and extending its full length, shall be mounted along one
element of the interior surface of the cylinder. The shelf shall be of such thickness and so
mounted, by bolts or other approved means, as to be firm and rigid. The 1.70 mm IS
Sieve
Balance.
Sieves of No. 12, 12.5 mm and 10mm
Iron or metallic balls (11) numbers, diameter is (4.8)mm and weight of each is
(445)gm.
Oven.
Abrasive Charge-The abrasive charge shall consist of cast iron spheres or steel spheres
approximately 48 mm in. Diameter and each weigh% between 390 and 445 g.
The abrasive charge, depending upon the grading of the sample as described above shall be as
follows.
A 12 5000+/-25
B 11 4584+/-25
C 8 3330+/-20
D 6 2500+/-15
E 12 5000+/-25
F 12 5000+/-25
G 12 5000+/-25
Test Sample
The test sample shall consist of clean aggregate which has been dried in an oven at 105 to
110°C to substantially constant weight and shall conform to one of the gradings shown in
Table II. The grading used shall be those most nearly representing the aggregate furnished for
the work.
TABLE II
PROCEDURE:
The test sample shall consist of clean aggregate which has been dried in an oven at
105 to 110°C to substantially constant weight and shall conform to one of the gradings
shown in Table 3.22. The grading or gradings used shall be those most nearly
representing the aggregate furnished for the work.
The test sample and the abrasive charge shall be placed in the Los Angeles abrasion
testing machine and the machine rotated at a speed of 20 to 33 rev/min. For gradings A,
B, C and D, the machine shall be rotated for 500 revolutions; for gradings E, F and G, it
shall be rotated for 1 000 revolutions.
At the completion of the test, the material shall be discharged from the machine and
a preliminary separation of the sample made on a sieve coarser than the l.70 mm IS Sieve.
The material coarser than the 1.70 mm IS Sieve shall be washed dried in an oven at
105 to 110°C to a substantially constant weight, and accurately weighed to the nearest
gram
Sl. No. Group Sieve size in mm Weight retained Weight passing % abrasion
in g in g index
RESULTS:
CONCLUSION:
The Los Angeles abrasion resistance value shall not be more than 50% for Concrete and 30% for
Wearing surfaces.
DEIFINTION: Ten percent fines value is a measure of the resistance of aggregate crushing
subjected to loading and it is applicable to both weak and strong aggregate.
IMPORTANCE:
Granular sub-base is subjected to repeated loadings from truck types. The stress level at
the contact points of aggregate particles is quite high. The sub-base in pavement is a
structural layer used for distribution of traffic loads into larger area.
Ten percent fines value can be used to reveal the aggregate properties when subjected to
mechanical degradation.
AIM: For determination of the aggregates 10% fines value of coarse aggregate, which passes
12.5 mm. IS sieve and retained on 10 mm IS sieve
APPARATUS USED:
Steel cylinder
Sieves (12.5mm,10mm)
Tamping Rod
Balance (0-10kg)
Oven (1500c)
Test sample is dried in oven for a period of four hours at a temperature of 100 to 1100C.
PROCEDURE
The cylindrical measure is filled by the test sample of aggregate in three layers of
approximately equal depth, each layer being tamped 25 times.
The test sample in the cylinder with the plunger in position is placed in the compression
testing machine. The load is applied at a uniform rate so as to cause a total penetration of
the plunger of about 20mm for normal crushed aggregates in 10 minutes.
For rounded or partially rounded aggregates, the load required to cause a total penetration
of 15mm is applied where as for honeycombed aggregates a penetration of 24mm is
applied in 10 minutes.
After the maximum specified load is reached, the load is released and the aggregate from
the cylinder is sieved from 2.36mm IS sieve.
10 % FINES VALUE
Sl. No. Sieve size in mm Weight retained in g Weight passing in g % finer value
RESULTS:
DEFINITION: Those particles passing the 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) sieve, almost entirely passing the
4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve, and predominantly retained on the 75 µm (No. 200) sieve are called fine
aggregate.
Particle passing 75
Up to 15% (IS: 383 - 1970) Up to 3% (IS:383 - 1970)
micron
a) SIEVE ANALYSIS
b) SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER ABSORPTION
c) BULK DENSITY (LOOSE AND COMPACTED)
d) SILT CONTENT
River sand
IMPORTANCE:
If the water-cement ratio is chosen correctly, a wide range in grading can be used without
a major effect on strength.
When gap-graded aggregate are specified, certain particle sizes of aggregate are omitted
from the size continuum. Gap-graded aggregate are used to obtain uniform textures in
exposed aggregate concrete.
Close control of mix proportions is necessary to avoid segregation.
APPARATUS USED:
IS Sieves set of size 10mm,4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600μ, 300 , 150 μ μ and pan
Balance
Sieve shaker
Tray
PROCEDURE:
The sample shall be brought to an air dry condition. This may be achieved either by
drying at room temperature or by heating at a temperature of 100 to 110°c. The air-dry
sample shall be weighed and sieved successively on the appropriate sieves starting with
the largest. Care shall be taken to ensure that the sieves are clean before use.
Each sieve shall be shaken separately over a clean tray for a period of not less than two
minutes. The shaking shall be done with a varied motion, backward and forwards, left to
right, circular clockwise and anti-clockwise, and with frequent jarring, so that the
material is kept moving over the sieve surface in frequently changing directions.
On completion of sieving, the material retained on each sieve, together with any material
cleaned from the mesh, shall be weighed.
The amount of aggregate placed on each sieve shall be such that the weight of the
aggregate retained on the sieve at completion of the operation is not greater than the
value given for that sieve in TABLE Below.
IS SIEVE MAX. WT IN gm
2.36mm 200
1.18mm 100
600 microns 75
300 microns 50
150 microns 40
75 microns 25
Fineness modulus
= = 2.47
RESULTS:
The fineness modulus of fine aggregates is 2.47 and it comes under zone 2
Water Absorption is the ratio of weight of water absorbed to the weight of dry sample
expressed as a percentage. It will not include the amount of water adhering to the surface
of the particles.
IMPORTANCE:
The main objective of these test is to measure the
strength or quality of the material and to
determine the water absorption of aggregates
Aggregate specific gravity is used in a number of
applications including Superpave mix design,
deleterious particle identification and separation,
and material property change identification.
Specific gravity of aggregates is require to be
considered when we deal with light weight and
heavy weight concrete.
Specific gravities can vary widely depending upon
aggregate type. Some lightweight shales can have
specific gravities near 1.05, while other aggregate
Figure 52: Pycnometer bottle
can have specific gravities above 3 The specific
gravity of sands is considered to be around 2.65.
AIM: determining the specific gravity, apparent specific gravity and water absorption of
aggregates.
APPARATUS:
Balance
Oven-A well ventilated oven, thermostatically controlled, to maintain a temperature
of 100 to 110°C.
Pycnometer of about 1 liter capacity having a metal conical screw top with a 6mm
hole at its apex . The screw top shall be watertight .
Dry soft cloths Filter papers and funnel.
A means of supplying a current of warm air, such as a hair drier
A tray of area not less than 325 cm2.
An airtight container large enough to take the sample.
PROCEDURE:
A sample of about 1 kg for 10 mm to 4-75 mm or 500 g if finer than 4.75 mm, shall be
placed in the tray and covered with distilled water at a temperature of 22 to 32°C. Soon
after immersion, air entrapped in or bubbles on the surface of the aggregate shall be
removed by gentle agitation with a rod. The sample shall remain immersed for 24 ± 1/2
hours.
The water shall then be carefully drained from the sample, by decantation through a filter
paper, any material retained being return& to the sample. The aggregate including any
solid matter retained on the filter paper shall be exposed to a gentle current of warm air to
evaporate surface moisture and shall be stirred at frequent intervals to ensure uniform
drying until no free surface moisture can be seen and the material just attains a ‘free-
running’ condition. Care shall be taken to ensure that this stage is not passed. The
saturated and surface-dry sample shall be weighed (weight A).
The aggregate shall then be placed in the pycnometer which shall be ‘filled with distilled
water. Any trapped air shall be eliminated by rotating the pycnometer on its side, the hole
in the apex of the cone being covered with a finger. The pycnometer shall be topped up
with distilled water to remove any froth from the surface and so that the surface of the
water in the hole is flat. The pycnometer shall be dried on the outside and weighed
(weight B).
The contents of the pycnometer shall be emptied into the tray, care being taken to ensure
that all the aggregate is transferred. The pycnometer shall be refilled with distilled water
to the same level as before, dried on the outside and weighed (weight C). The difference
in the temperature of the water in the pycnometer during the first and second weighing
shall not exceed 2°C.
The water shall then be carefully drained from the sample by decantation through a filter
paper and any material retained returned to the sample. The sample shall be placed in the
oven in the tray at a temperature of 100 to 110°C for 24 ± 1/2 hours, during which period
it shall be stirred occasionally to facilitate drying. It shall be cooled in the air-tight
container and weighed ( weight D ).
OBSERVATIONS:
A = weight of SSD sample = 520 gm
CALCULATIONS:
= 2.48
=4%
RESULTS:
The water absorption of fine aggregate sample is 4 % and the specific gravity of fine aggregate
sample is 2.48
IMPORTANCE:
If we know the bulk density of the aggregate material then we can easily determine the
mass required to fill a unit volume container.
Bulk density also indicates the percentage of voids
present in the aggregate material. This percentage
of voids affects the grading of the aggregates
which is important in high strength concrete.
Bulk density also indicates the compactive effort
required to compact the concrete.
APPARATUS USED:
Balance
Cylindrical Metal Measure-The measure shall preferably be machined to accurate internal
dimensions and shall be provided with handles. It shall also be watertight, and of
sufficient rigidity to retain its form under rough usage, and should be protected against
corrosion.
The measure shall be of 3j 15 or 30 litres capacity,, according to the maximum nominal
size of the coarsest particles of aggregate and shall comply pith the requirements given in
Table I.
Tamping Rod- A straight metal tamping rod of cylindrical cross section 16 mm in
diameter and 60 cm long, rounded at one end
Over 40 mm 30 35 31 5.0
.PROCEDURE:
Condition of Specimen-The test shall normally be carried. out on dry material when
determining the voids, but when bulking tests are required material with a given
percentage of moisture may be used.
Rodded or Compacted Weight - The measure shall be filled about one-third full with
thoroughly mixed aggregate and tamped with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the
tamping rod. A further similar quantity of aggregate shall be added and a further tamping
of 25 strokes given. The measure shall finally be filled to over-flowing, tamped 25 times
and the surplus aggregate struck off, using the tamping rod as a straightedge. The net
weight of the aggregate in the measure shall be determined and the bulk density
calculated in kilograms per litre.
Loose Weight - The measure shill be filled to overflowing by means of a shovel or
scoop, the aggregate being discharged from a height not exceeding 5 cm above the top of
the measure. Care shall be taken to prevent, as far as possible, segregation of the particle
sizes of which the sample is composed. The surface of the aggregate shall then be
levelled with a straightedge. The net weight of the aggregate in the measure shall then be
determined and the bulk density calculated in kilogram per litre.
RESULTS:
DEFINITION: Free swell or differential free swell, also termed as free swell index, is the
increase in volume of soil without any external constraint when subjected to submergence in
water. Silt content is a fine material which is less than 150 micron. It is unstable in the presence of
water.
IMPORTANCE:
It is unstable in the presence of water. If we use silty sand for bonding, it will reduce the
strength and cause rework. Excessive quantity of silt, not only reduces the bonding of
cement and fine aggregates but also affects the strength and durability of work
APPARATUS USED:
Water
First, we have to fill the measuring cylinder with 1% solution of salt and water up to 50 ml.
Add sand to it until the level reaches 100 ml. Then fill the solution up to 150 ml level.
After 3 hours, the silt content settled down over the sand layer
Now note down the silt layer alone volume as V1 ml (settled over the sand)
CALCULATIONS:
Initial volume 42
Final volume 46
Increase in volume 4
= 8.69%
RESULT:
BLOCK — A concrete masonry unit, either hollow (open or closed cavity), or solid (other than
units used for bonding, such as a half block), any one of the external dimension of which is
greater than the corresponding dimension of a brick as specified in IS 3952, and of such size and
mass as to permit it to be handled by one man. Further more, to avoid confusion with slabs and
panels, the height of the block shall not exceed either its length or six times its width.
Cement
Aggregates
Water
Admixtures
Solid load bearing C(5.0) Not less than 1.8 5.0 4.0
unit C(4.0) 4.0 3.2
Drying shrinkage
Moisture movement
IMPORTANCE:
Water absorption for blocks should not be greater than 10% by weight as per IS: 2185
(Part I) – 2005 (RA-2015)specifications.
Water absorption test is conducted to determine the durability property of the concrete
block and also the quality of the block.
SAMPLING:
For control purposes the number of tests and sampling procedure shall confirm with the
given control requirements. Whole blocks shall be used for testing.
The specimen is dried out, weighed and then submerged in a water bath for a period.
Water absorption is the difference in mass between soaked and dry condition.
APPARATUS USED:
PROCEDURE:
The specimens shall be clean and free from mortar, otherwise no preparations are
needed.
The dry mass (m) is measured after the test specimen has been dried to constant mass in
the ventilated oven at a temperature of 105 ± 2 º C Constant mass is considered to be
reached when the mass over a period of 2 h does not differ more than 0.1%.
After drying, the specimen is cooled and placed in the water bath. It shall be stored with
half the specimen height submerged in water for 1 day, and completely under water for 2
days. Then the specimen is removed from the water, wiped with a damp cloth, and the
wet mass m1 is measured within two minutes.
CALCULATIONS:
m1 is the wet mass determined by weighing in air after the specimen has been submerged in
water for 3 days.
RESULTS:
The water absorption of given aggregates is 4.22%
DEFINITION: It is the ratio of mass of the concrete block to the volume of the same block
AIM: To determine the block density of the given concrete hollow or solid blocks
APPARATUS USED:
Weighing balance
scale
PROCEDURE:
3 blocks shall be taken to conduct this test. To determine the density of block, first heat the block
in the oven to 100oc and then cooled it to room temperature. Now take the dimensions of block
and from that find out the volume and weigh the block. The density of block is determined from
the below relation and the average density of 3 blocks will be the final block density.
OBSERVATIONS:
RESULTS:
IMPORTANCE:
Concrete gains strength with time after casting. It takes much time for concrete to gain
100% strength and the time for same is still unknown. The rate of gain of concrete
compressive strength in higher during the first 28 days of casting and then it slows down.
Strength is extremely important for any material and any construction project. You need
to have the right amount of strength, in some cases no less and no more, to be able to
accomplish the task.
APPARATUS:
1) TESTING MACHINE: The testing machine shall be equipped with two steel bearing
blocks one of which is a spherically seated block that will transmit load to the upper
surface of the masonry specimen, and the other a plane rigid block on which the
specimen will rest. When the bearing area of the steel blocks is not sufficient to cover the
bearing area of the masonry specimen, steel bearing plates meeting the requirements of
(2) shall be placed between the bearing blocks and the capped specimen after the centroid
of the masonry bearing surface has been aligned with the centre of thrust of the bearing
blocks
NOTE — It is desirable that the bearing faces of blocks and plates used for compression
testing of concrete masonry have a hardened of not less than 60 (HRC).
2) STEEL BEARING BLOCKS AND PLATES The surfaces of the steel bearing blocks
and plates shall not depart from a plane by more than 0.025 mm in any 15 mm
dimension. The centre of the sphere of the spherically seated upper bearing block shall
coincide with the centre of its bearing face. If a bearing plate is used, the centre of the
sphere of the spherically seated bearing block shall lie on a line passing vertically through
the centroid of the specimen bearing face. The spherically seated block shall be held
closely in its seat, but shall be free to turn in any direction. The diameter of the face of
the bearing blocks shall be at least 15 cm. When Steel plates are employed between the
steel bearing blocks and masonry specimen the plates shall have a thickness equal to at
least one-third of the distance from the edge of the bearing 7 block to the most distant
corner of the specimen. In no case shall the plate thickness be less than 12 mm.
TEST SPECIMENS:
Each full size units shall be tested within 72 h after delivery to the laboratory, during
which time they shall be stored continuously in normal room air.
Units of unusual size, shape, or strength may be sawed into segments, some or all of
which shall be tested individually in the same manner as prescribed for full size units.
The strength of the full size units shall be considered as that which is calculated from the
average measured strength of the segments.
For the purpose of acceptance, age of the testing the specimens shall be 28 days. The age
shall be reckoned from the time of the addition of water to the dry ingredients.
Bearing surfaces of the units shall be kept by one of the methods described in A and B.
NOTE — The use of oil on capping plates may be omitted if it is found that plate and unit can
be separated without damaging the cap.
A neat paste of special high-strength plaster and water shall be spread evenly on a non-absorbent
surface that has been lightly coated with oil. Such gypsum plaster, when gauged with water at the
capping consistency shall have a compressive strength at a 2 h age of not less than 25 N/mm 2,
when tested on 50 mm cubes. The casting surface plate shall conform to the requirements
described in ‘A’. The surface of the unit to be capped shall be brought into contact with the.
capping paste; the specimen which is held with its axis at right angles to the capping surface,
shall be firmly pressed down with a single motion. The average thickness of the cap shall be not
more than 3 mm. patching of caps shall not be permitted, imperfect caps shall be removed and
replaced with new ones. The caps shall be aged for at least 2 h before the specimens are tested.
PROCEDURE:
Positioning of Specimens: Specimens shall be tested with the centroid of their bearing
surfaces aligned vertically with the centre of thrust of the spherically seated block of the
testing machine. Except for special units intended for use with their cores in a horizontal
direction, all hollow concrete masonry units shall be tested with their cores in a vertical
direction. -Masonry units that are hundred percent solid and special hollow units intended
for use with their hollow cores in a horizontal direction may be tested in the same
direction as in service.
NOTE — for homogeneous materials, the centroid of the bearing surface shall be
considered to be vertically above the centre of gravity of the masonry units.
Speed of Testing The load up to one-half of the expected maximum load may be applied
at any convenient rate, after which the control of the machine shall be adjusted as
required to give a uniform rate of travel of the moving head such that the remaining load
is applied in not less than one nor more than two minutes.
The compressive strength of a concrete masonry unit shall be taken as the maximum
load, in Newtons, divided by the gross cross-sectional area of the unit, in square
milIimetres. The gross area of a unit is the total area of a section perpendicular to the
direction of the load, including areas within cells and within re-entrant spaces unless
these spaces are to be occupied in the masonry by portions of adjacent masonry.
Report be results to the nearest 0.1 N/mm2 separately for each unit and is the average for
the 8 unit
RESULTS:
3.E. BRICKS
DEFINITION: A brick is building material used to make walls, pavements and other elements
in masonry construction.
Bricks can broadly be categorized into two types as follows on the basis of how its
manufactured:
1. Unburnt or sun-dried bricks
2. Burnt bricks
UNBURNT BRICKS:
Unburnt bricks or sun-dried bricks are the types
which are dried with the help of heat received from sun
after the process of moulding. These bricks can only be
used in the construction of temporary and cheap structures.
Such bricks should not be used at places exposed to heavy rains.
BURNT BRICKS
Burnt bricks are prepared by burning the brick-mould in the kiln inside the factory. These
are the most commonly used bricks for construction works.
They can be further classified into following four categories:
ADVANTAGES OF BRICKS
Aesthetic: Bricks offer natural and a variety of colors, including various textures.
Strength: Bricks offer excellent high compressive strength.
Porosity: The ability to release and absorb moisture is one of the most important and
useful properties of bricks, regulating temperatures and humidity inside structures.
Fire Protection: When prepared properly a brick structure can give a fire protection
maximum rating of 6 hours.
Sound Attenuation: The brick sound insulation is normally 45 decibels for a 4.5 inches
brick thickness and 50 decibels for a nine-inch thick brick.
Insulation: Bricks can exhibit above normal thermal insulation when compared to
other building materials. Bricks can help regulate and maintain constant interior
temperatures of a structure due to their ability to absorb and slowly release heat. This way
bricks can produce significant energy savings, more than 30 percent of energy saving
when compared to wood.
Wear Resistant: A brick is so strong, that its composition provides excellent wear
resistance.
Efflorescence: Efflorescence forms on concrete structures and surfaces when soluble
salts dissolved in water are deposited and accumulated on surfaces forming a visible
scum.
Durability: Brick is extremely durable and perhaps is the most durable man-made
structural building material so far.
DISADVANTAGES OF BRICKS
Following tests are conducted on bricks to determine its suitability for construction work.
1. Absorption test
3. Hardness test
5. Color test
6. Soundness test
7. Structure of brick
DEFINITION: The water absorption is the increase in mass from dry condition to a soaked
condition.
IMPORTANCE:
Water absorption test on bricks are conducted to determine durability property of bricks
such as degree of burning, quality and behavior of bricks in weathering.
A brick with water absorption of less than 7% provides better resistance to damage by
freezing.
The degree of compactness of bricks can be obtained by water absorption test, as water is
absorbed by pores in bricks.
The water absorption by bricks increase with increase in pores. So, the bricks, which
have water absorption less than 3 percent can be called as vitrified.
This test provides the percentage of water absorption of bricks and procedure of the
same is discussed below.
APPARATUS USED:
SPECIMEN: Three numbers of whole bricks from samples collected for testing should be
taken
PROCEDURE:
Dry the specimen in a ventilated oven at a temperature of 105 °C to 115°C till it attains
substantially constant mass.
Cool the specimen to room temperature and obtain its weight (M1) specimen too warm to
touch shall not be used for this purpose.
Remove the specimen and wipe out any traces of water with damp cloth and weigh the
specimen after it has been removed from water (M2).
Specimen 1: W1 = 2346g
Specimen 2: M1 = 2350g
Specimen 1: W2 = 2700g
Specimen 1: 354g
Specimen 2: 370g
Specimen 2: M = 15.74%
WAvg = 15.41 %
Water absorption, % by mass, after 24 hours immersion in cold water in given by the formula,
RESULT:
When tested as above, the average water absorption shall not be more than 20% by weight up to
class 12.5 and 15% by weight for higher class.
DEFINITION: Compressive strength test on bricks are carried out to determine the load
carrying capacity of bricks under compression. This test is carried out with the help of
compression testing machine.
IMPORTANCE:
Bricks are generally used for construction of load bearing masonry walls, columns and
footings. These load bearing masonry structures experiences mostly the compressive
loads. Thus, it is important to know the compressive strength of bricks to check for its
suitability for construction
The bricks, when tested in accordance with the procedure laid down in IS 3495 (Part I ) :
1992 shall have a minimum average compressive strength for various classes as given in
below table.
The compressive strength of any individual brick tested shall not fall below the minimum
compressive strength specified for the corresponding class of brick. The lot shall be then
checked for next lower class of brick.
Class designation
N/mm2 Kgf/cm+
35 35 350
30 30 300
25 25 250
20 20 200
17.5 17.5 175
15 15 150
12.5 12.5 125
10 10 100
7.5 7.5 75
5 5 50
3.5 3.5 35
APPARATUS USED:
Water bath
Cement mortar
PROCEDURE
Unevenness observed in the bed faces of bricks is removed to provide two smooth and
parallel faces by grinding. It is immersed in water at room temperature for 24 h.
The specimen is then removed and any surplus moisture is drained out at room
temperature. The frog and all voids in the bed face are filled with cement mortar (1
cement, clean coarse sand of grade 3 mm and down). It is stored under the damp jute
bags for 24 h followed by immersion in clean water for 3 days.
The specimen is placed with flat faces horizontal, and mortar filled face facing upwards
between two 3 ply plywood sheets each of 3 mm thickness and carefully centered
between plates of testing machine.
Load is applied axially at a uniform rate of 14 N/mm 2 per minute till failure occurs. The
maximum load at failure is noted down. The load at failure is considered the maximum
load at which the specimen fails to produce any further increase in the indicator reading
on the testing machine.
Formulae used:
Crushing
RESULTS:
Concrete is strong under compression, but has weak tensile strength. Rebar significantly
increases the tensile strength of the structure. Rebar's surface is often deformed to
promote a better bond with the concrete.
The most common type of rebar is carbon steel, typically consisting of hot-rolled round
bars with deformation patterns. Other readily available types include stainless steel, and
composite bars made of glass fiber, carbon fiber, or basalt fiber
Carbon 0.30 0.25 0.25 0.30 0.25 0.25 0.30 0.25 0.30
Sulphur 0.060 0.045 0.045 0.055 0.040 0.040 0.055 0.040 0.040
Phosphorus 0.060 0.045 0.045 0.055 0.040 0.040 0.050 0.040 0.040
Sulphur and 0.110 0.085 0.085 0.105 0.075 0.075 0.100 0.075 0.075
phosphorus
Nominal size, 4 mm, 5 mm, 6 mm, 8 mm, 10 mm, 12 mm, 16 mm, 20 mm, 25 mm, 28
mm, 32 mm, 36 mm, 40 mm, 45 mm, 50 mm
4 12.6 0.099
5 19.6 0.154
6 28.3 0.222
8 50.3 0.395
10 78.6 0.617
12 113.1 0.888
16 201.2 1.58
20 314.3 2.47
25 491.1 3.85
28 615.8 4.83
32 804.6 6.31
36 1018.3 7.99
40 1257.2 9.86
TERMINOLOGY
For the purpose of this standard, the following definitions shall apply.
1. BATCH— Any quantity of bars/wires of same size and grade whether in coils or bundles
presented for examination and test at one time.
2. BUNDLE— Two or more coils or a number of lengths properly bound together.
3. ELONGATION— The increase in length of a tensile test piece under stress. The
elongation at fracture is conventionally expressed as a percentage of the original gauge
length of a standard test piece.
4. LONGITUDINAL RIB— A uniform continuous protrusion, parallel to the axis of the
bar/wire (before cold-working, if any)
5. NOMINAL DIAMETER OR SIZE— The diameter of a plain round bar/wire having
the same mass per meter length as the deformed bar/wire.
6. NOMINAL MASS— The mass of the bar/wire of nominal diameter and of density
0.00785 kg/mm2 per meter.
7. NOMINAL PERIMETER OF A DEFORMED BAR/WIRE = 3.14 times the nominal
diameter.
8. PERCENT PROOF STRESS— The stress at which a non-proportional elongation
equal to 0.2 percent of the original gauge length takes place.
9. PERCENTAGE TOTAL ELONGATION AT MAXIMUM FORCE— The
elongation corresponding to the maximum load reached in a tensile test (also termed as
uniform elongation).
10. TENSILE STRENGTH— The maximum load reached in a tensile test divided by the
effective cross-sectional area of the gauge length portion of the test piece (also termed as
ultimate tensile stress).
11. TRANSVERSE RIB— Any rib on the surface of a bar/wire other than a longitudinal
rib.
12. YIELD STRESS— Stress (that is, load per unit cross sectional area) at which elongation
first occurs in the test piece without increasing the load during the tensile test. In the case
of steels with no such definite yield point, proof stress shall be applicable
Modulus of Elasticity: Steel has high modulus of Elasticity i.e. 200GPa (200 x 10⁹
N/m²). This helps the steel to stretch in tension(upto 200GPa) without breaking and
regain its shape on removal of load.
Ductility of Steel: Ductility of steel is high. i.e. Steel rebar will behave ductile under
higher loads.
Ductility is the ability of material to allow plastic deformations (i.e. permanent change in
its dimensions) under application of load before breaking.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion: Steel and concrete has almost same coefficient of
thermal expansion (change in dimension due to temperatures). Due to this both (concrete
and steel) will experience same length changes in high temperatures.
Resistance: Steel is resistant to rough conditions during transport, storage, bundling and
placing on construction site. If minor damage happens, it does not significantly affect its
performance.
Readily Available: Structural Steel industry has enough production capacity to meet the
demands of construction industry and is available at ease for any house construction.
Ready Build: These days ready build steel is also available. Ready build steel eliminate
the time of cutting and bending. This saves lots of construction time as well as minimizes
the wastage of steel in bending and cutting.
High Cost: Steel is expensive and considerably increases the cost of structure.
High Temperatures: Steel show tendency to melt in extremely high temperatures. This
is also one of the reasons; steel is tied and not welded.
Reaction: Too little concrete cover allows the water to penetrate and react with steel
rebars causing concrete to crack. Occasionally concrete aggregates react with steel
causing concrete to spall.
Rust: Steel exposed to weather rusts and reduces the strength of reinforced concrete.
When rusts start building up around the steel rebars, it causes severe internal pressure on
the surrounding concrete, leading to cracks in concrete.
TESTS ON REBARS:
1. Tensile test
2. Bend and Rebend test
DEFINITION: The test involves straining a test piece by tensile force, generally to fracture, for
the purpose of determining tensile strength, yield strength, event ductility and reduction of area.
GAUGE LENGTH (L) - length of cylindrical or prismatic portion of the test piece on
which elongation is measured at any moment during the test [m].
ORIGINAL GAUGE LENGTH (L0) - gauge length before application of force [m].
FINAL GAUGE LENGTH (LU) - gauge length after rupture of the test piece [m].
ELONGATION - increase in the original gauge length at the end of the test.
DUCTILITY – percentage elongation after fracture (A) - permanent elongation of the
gauge length after fracture, expressed as the percentage of the original length.
MAXIMUM FORCE (FM) - the greatest force which the test piece withstand during the
test [N].
STRESS (Σ) - force at any moment during the test divided by the original cross-sectional
area (S0) of the test piece
AIM: This method shall be used to determine the yield point, ultimate strength, and percent
elongation.
APPARATUS USED:
Test Pieces
The shape and dimensions of the test pieces depend on the shape and dimensions of the
metallic products the mechanical propertbartait leies of which are to be determined.
The test piece is usually obtained by machining a sample from the product. However
product of constant cross-section may be subjected to test without being machined. The
cross section of the test pieces may be circular, square, rectangular, annular or, in special
cases, of some other shape.
The original cross-section area S0 shall be calculated from measurements of the dimensions
of the test piece.
For products of circular cross-section and smooth surface S0 may be calculated from
formula:
S0 = [mm2 ]
Where d is the arithmetic mean of two measurements carried out in two perpendicular direction
For products of ribbed surface S0 may be determined from the mass of a known
length L and its density (7850 kg/m3) according the formula :
[m²]
Elongation is not equal through the whole length of the test piece. At the point of fracture is
biggest and decreases with the distance from this point. This is the reason, why the
percentage elongation after fracture is determined on special length – original gauge length.
Test pieces could be proportional and non-proportional.
Proportional test pieces have the original gauge length in relation with the original
cross-section area according the formula
L0= k*
* In the case of test pieces with the circular cross-section this formula gives:
Lo = 5 d (For k = 11,3 Lo = 10 d )
Non-proportional test pieces may be used if specified by the product standard. Test
pieces of circular cross-section shall preferably have the dimensions given in Tabular
column
Standard EN 1002 – 1 says that measurement of final gauge length is valid only if the
distance between the fracture and the nearest gauge mark is not less than one third of the
original gauge length. In order to avoid having to reject test pieces in which fracture may
occur outside the limits, the method based on sub-division of L0 into N equal parts may be
used:
Before the test sub-divide the original gauge length into N equal parts. Recommended value
of N is 10 and the size of one part is than L0/10. Make the complementary scale (scale
division is equal to one part) along the total test piece.
After fracture the two broken pieces of the test piece are carefully fitted back together so that
their axes lie in a straight line. Special precaution shall be taken to ensure proper contact
between the broken parts.
From the point of fracture measure five parts on each side (together 10 parts) and it is final
gauge length Lu. If there is not enough parts (less than five) at one side, than final gauge
length is determined in this way (see Fig.:37):
on the shorter piece measure the distance from the fracture to the last mark. This distance is La
on the longer piece measure the distance from fracture to the mark, corresponding to five parts -
Lb
on the longer piece find the parts, symmetrically (from fracture) corresponding to the
parts, which miss on the shorter part. This distance is Lc
Lu = La + Lb + Lc
Lc
Lb La Lc
Lu
PROCEDURE:
Before testing measure diameter of the test piece, determine cross-sectional area S0 and
original gauge length L0. Complementary scale shall be marked along the whole test
piece. The marks could not result in premature fracture.
Grip the test piece in the jaws of the test machine. Ensure that test pieces are held in such
a way that the force is applied as axially as possible.
Prepare writing device for making of stress-strain diagram
Apply load by prescribed rate of stressing. Within the elastic range the rate of stressing
shall be within the limits given in Tab below. Within the plastic range the straining rate
shall not exceed 0.0025/s for determination of yield strength and 0.008/s for
determination of tensile strength.
After fracture put down the maximum force Fm, measure the final gauge length Lu and
minimum diameter after fracture. From stress-strain diagram find the force at the point of
yield Fy
Determine tensile strength Rm, yield strength Ry, percentage elongation after fracture A,
minimum cross-sectional area and percentage reduction of the area Z according chap.
RATE OF STRESSING
N/mm2 N/mm2/s
< 150 2 10
≥150 6 30
RESULTS:
1) Area =
2) yield stress =
DEFINITION:
BEND TEST: The bend test consists of submitting a test piece of round, square,
rectangular, or polygonal cross section to plastic deformation by bending, without
changing the direction of loading, until a specified angle of bend is reached. This bend
test is conducted for determining the ability of metallic materials to undergo plastic
deformation in bending.
REBEND TEST: Concrete reinforcing steel bars are generally produced in strands 6 to
12 meter in length so that bending for transportation and handling purposes becomes
necessary. At the site bars are straightened, and then sometimes re-bent for assembling
purposes. This process will result in a loading and re-loading of steel. Thus, bend and/or
re-bend test is necessary to gain information about the ductility of the steel bar.
IMPORTANCE:
The severity of the bend test is primarily a function of the angle of bend and inside
diameter to which the specimen is bent, and of the cross-section of the specimen. These
conditions are varied according to location and orientation of the test specimen and the
Figure 62: Bend test sample under UTM and sample after test
chemical composition, tensile properties, hardness, type, and quality of the steel
specified.
The purpose of re-bend test is to measure the effect of strain ageing on steel. Strain
ageing has embrittlement effect which takes place after cold deformation by diffusion of
nitrogen in steel. Hence, there is limitation stated in some design codes to restrict the
nitrogen content of steel to 0.012%.
APPARATUS USED:
The bend test shall be carried out in testing machines or presses equipped with the following
devices:
Bending device with two supports and a mandrel: The length of the supports and the
width of the mandrel shall be greater than the width or diameter of the test piece. The
diameter of the mandrel is determined by the material standard. The test piece supports
shall be rounded to a radius between 1 and 10 times the thickness of the test piece and
shall be sufficiently hard.
* Unless otherwise specified, the distance between the supports, I shall be taken as
approximately:
Bending device with a V-block and a mandrel: The tapered surfaces of the V-block
shall form an angle of 180” - α
* The edges of the V-block shall be rounded to a radius between 1 and 10 times the
thickness of the test piece and shall be sufficiently hard.
Bending device with a clamp: The device consists of a clamp and a mandrel of
sufficient hardness; it may be equipped with a lever for applying force to the test piece.
Figure 64: Simple bend, Bend by use of V-block and Angle bend over a specified Radius
PROCEDURE:
In general, the test is carried out at ambient temperature between 10 and 35%. Tests
carried out under controlled conditions shall be made at a temperature of 23 f 5°C.
The bend test is carried out using one of the following methods specified in the relevant
standard:
That a specified angle of bend is achieved under the force and for the given conditions
That the legs of the test piece are parallel to each other at a specified distance apart while
under the force
That the legs of the piece are in direct contact while under the force
In the bend test to a specified angle of bend, lay the test piece on the supports or on the
V-block and bend it in the middle between the supports by the action of a continuously
increasing force.
Apply the bending force slowly so as to permit free plastic flow of the material
If it is not possible to bend the test piece to the specified angle , complete the bend by
pressing directly on the ends of the legs of the test piece.
5.0. TILES
General properties
Durability: Ceramic tile is more durable as compared to other types of tiles that are used
as floor and wall tiles.
Dirt Resistance: Ceramic tiles do not retain dust or residues as easily as many
another flooring It can be cleaned with common household materials.
Colour Permanence: Ceramic tile that is exposed to sunlight will not lose their colour or
began to fade. Due to this property, it helps to ensure that it will remain in original
condition for their entire lifetime.
Slip Resistance: Unglazed ceramic tiles have greater slip resistance than glazed ceramic
tiles and are recommended for areas subjected to high water spillage. Many glazed and
unglazed ceramic tiles also feature an abrasive grit on their surface, increasing their slip
resistance significantly. These tiles are best suited to public areas with direct access to the
outdoors. Ceramic tiles for bathroom are more popular as it is more slip resistant.
Fire Resistance: Ceramic tiles are completely fireproof at any temperature. The surface
will not alter, nor will it give off any toxic gases, smoke or fumes during a fire. Also, tile
has also been found to protect structural surfaces during fires.
Heat Resistance: It has low electrical conductivity, low thermal conductivity, low and
poor thermal expansion.
Hygiene: The surface of ceramic tiles will not retain liquids; absorb fumes, odours or
smoke. They are also easy to clean and this helps in achieving good hygiene. This tile is
suited for any environment where hygiene is necessary, i.e. ceramic tiles for bathroom.
Chemical Resistance: Ceramic tiles are highly resistant to chemical agents. It has better
resistance to alkalise and acids.
Stain Resistance: The stain resistance of ceramic tiles depends on its capacity to absorb
moisture. It has a low resistance to stain. Glazed ceramic tiles are stain resistant. Ceramic
tile stain is difficult to remove if the oil drops on the floor.
Water Absorption: It is very porous and hence absorbs water easily. So the tiles may get
damaged quickly.
Frost Resistance: These types of tiles have less frost resistance because it absorbs water
easily.
TEST ON TILES
AIM: Determination of modulus of rupture and breaking strength of a whole tile by means of
three point loading, the central point being in contact with the glazed surface of the tile.
APPARATUS USED:
Two support cylindrical rods – These rods are made up of metal and the part of the rod
which will be in contact with the test specimen must be covered with rubber having
required hardness. One of theses two rods should be slightly pivotable and the other one
should be slightly rotatable about its own axis. The dimension of the rods and the
thickness of the rubber covering the metal rod should be as per table-1.
Central cylindrical rod – The construction of this rod is same as that of support rod
and it should be slightly pivotable.
The dimension of the rods and the thickness of the rubber covering the metal rod should be as
per table-1.
Table – 1
Overlap of
Diameter Thickness Tile
of Rod of Rubber Beyond
Dimension of Tile (mm)
(d), in (t), in the edge
mm mm supports
(l), in mm
≥ 95 20 5 10
< 95 ≥ 48 10 2.5 5
< 48 ≥ 18 5 1 2
Table-2
≥ 48 7
< 48 ≥ 18 10
Each sample consists of 7 or 10 no’s of test specimens depending upon their dimension.
(see the table-2)
Preferable whole tile should be tested to find the accurate test result. But if the length of
any tile is more than 300 mm or if it is non rectangular in shape, then cut it, so that it fits
in the testing machine.
Dry the cut specimens in the oven maintained at a temperature of 110±5 0C until it attains
constant mass.
TEST PROCEDURE
Place a test specimen on two support rods with the glazed surface facing upward. It should be
placed in such a way so that the specimen projects by the length ‘l’ (as given in tbla-1)
beyond each support rod.
Note: For extruded tiles, place the tiles so that the projecting ribs are at right angles to the
support rods. For all other rectangular tiles the greater side is at right angle to the support
rods.
Position the central rod on the glazed surface of the test specimen and make sure that it is
equidistance between the two support rods.
Note: If the tile has relief surfaces, then place a 2 nd layer of rubber of appropriate thickness
(as given in table-1), on the central rod.
Apply the load evenly in such a way as to obtain a rate of increase of stress of 1±2 N/mm 2/s.
Flexural strength
Where,
t = Minimum thickness of the test specimen measured after the test along the broken edge, in mm
RESULTS:
6.0. REFERENCE
SOIL:
CONCRETE CUBES:
CEMENT:
COARSE AGGREGATE:
FINE AGGREGATE:
BRICKS:
REINFORCED STEEL:
TILES: