DRAFTING

DESIGN
AND

BA SICS FOR INTERIOR DE SIGN

T R AV I S K E L LY W I L S O N
00_WILSON_FM.indd 2 1/10/11 2:20 PM
 DRAFTING AND DESIGN
BASICS FOR INTERIOR DESIGN

TRAVIS KELLY WILSON, idec

Western Kentucky University

Bowling Green, Kentucky

FAIRCHILD BOOKS New York

00_WILSON_FM.indd 3 1/10/11 2:20 PM

 CONTENTS

v
Preface  000 Chapter 9 ELEVATIONS  000

Acknowledgments  000
Chapter 10 SCHEDULES  000

Chapter 11 ELECTRICAL AND LIGHTING  000

Chapter 1 WHY DO WE NEED TO LEARN
TO MANUALLY DRAFT?  000 Chapter 12 KITCHEN AND BATH DESIGN  000

Chapter 2 UNDERSTANDING THE USE Chapter 13 PRODUCT DESIGNING:

OF DESIGN EQUIPMENT  000 CASE GOODS, LIGHTING,
FURNITURE, AND
Chapter 3 MEASURING AND THE
SMALL FIXTURES  000
USE OF THE SCALE  000
Chapter 14 PROJECTION DRAWINGS
Chapter 4 QUALITY DRAWING  000
ON A 2-D SURFACE  000

Chapter 5 SYMBOLS, LETTERING, AND

Chapter 15 PRESENTATION DRAWINGS  000
TYPOGRAPHY IN DRAFTING  000

Chapter 6 PLANNING A BUILDING  000 Abbreviations  000

Basic Metric Conversion Table  000

Chapter 7 FLOOR PLANS  000
Glossary  000

Chapter 8 SECTIONS  000 Index  000

00_WILSON_FM.indd 5 1/10/11 2:20 PM

 PREFACE
The intent of this book is to provide a
beginning for a designer who is learn-
ing the basics of drafting and design.
This is achieved through learning to
read drawings and use basic steps
to create a design. It is simply learn-
ing what is needed to conceptualize
and develop a process that leads to a
final product. This is the method that
has worked successfully in my office
by helping the beginning designer
understand that one drawing leads to
another, creating a continuing educa-
tional process for every project. The
approach of copying a design to learn
drafting does require practice, but this
method allows designers to critically
think through a project in a single step.
Being able to creatively design a project
while learning to draft is far more re-
warding and meaningful than copying
someone else’s work. Today’s designers
have more information available at a
faster pace than ever before; therefore,
drafting education can be integrated
into design as a single step with begin-
ning designers having the ability to take
in more information and multitask.
The first objectives of the book
are learning what the profession is
about and conceptual development. I
approach the basic principle and ele-
00_WILSON_FM.indd 11
xi
ments of design from an architectural The room within is the great
view point. All designers are creating fact about the building.
architecture in one form or another. It —FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
could be how the physical structure is
designed or how the light reflects off
of a dining room table. As designers,
we work within the constraints of a plot
of land, then a building, finally ending
with a space inside a room; therefore,
this text refers to architectural elements
that are applied to the interior and ex-
terior of a design. When the principles
and elements of design can be applied,
I suggest sketching existing elements.
This could be anything as long as there
is a process to creating the design,
breaking down the structure of an ob-
ject and defining all of its elements.
The next step to drawing is to
understand measurements and learn
to visualize sizes of objects on the cor-
rect scale. After a designer learn the
basic sizes of standard objects, such
as doors and furniture, drafting will be
simplified. No need to constantly refer
to a resource for standard information.
However, a designer needs to apply
their own creativity and not rely on ba-
sic designs when creating a structure or
space. Standards help frame the basic
structure, but creativity should guide
the design.
1/10/11 2:20 PM
 The process of programming is a
step that helps beginners clarify what
is required in a project. Limitations at
a beginner level allow the designer to
focus on what a client needs and not
becoming hindered by total conceptual
development. The intent is to learn the
design process in small steps and not
having to focus on completing every-
thing at once. This can become over-
whelming to the beginning designer.
When the programming basics are
understood the actual designing of
the structure can take place. Sketch-
ing a design is important because the
xii
designer is visualizing what is being
thought. Sketching the plan, eleva-
Preface
tions, and sections teaches the new
designer that lines have meaning and
are used to develop their ideas. It al-
00_WILSON_FM.indd 12
lows for new thoughts through design
experimentation.
The final steps of the process are
drawing the different components to
create a set of presentation drawings.
By drawing to a correct scale, the work
can be quickly converted or redrawn
for a final presentation. Throughout the
process, levels of refinement increase
and the designer begins to see what
will work in a design. Every designer’s
first projects are always an education
in applying the principles of design
to their work. However, the designer
sees the process and understands
the commitment to creating a quality
project. This is the purpose of drafting
and designing—learning to think like a
designer and develop the skills required
to become a quality draftsperson.
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 CHAPTER 1

WHY DO WE NEED TO
LEARN TO MANUALLY DRAFT?

1
After reading this chapter, you will understand why [A designer is] an emerging
synthesis of artist, inventor,
drafting and manual drawing is important to the design mechanic, objective economist
and evolutionary strategist.
process. You will also understand the differences among —BUCKMINSTER FULLER,

ARCHITECT, DESIGNER, INVENTOR

architecture, interior design, and drafting, as well as un-

derstand the principles of design. You will also learn the

best methods for designers to communicate design ideas.

DRAFTING
Why do we need to learn hand draft-
ing when everything can be completed
on a computer? This is the question
that everyone thinks about as they
begin their design education. The
idea that designing is inherent to an
individual is true to an extent. People
have the ability to rationalize concepts
such as symmetry, spacing, and color
without significant help from others.
However, having a particular point of
view and style aesthetic differs among
individuals. It can be difficult for the
beginning designer to realize that cli-
ents may not have the same desire for
their style and point of view as others.
This understanding is part of the edu-
cation process, and learning the basic
design concepts is the beginning. After
these basic concepts are understood,
the designer can then work toward
more complex design problems. A
beginning designer must learn the
basics of drafting to understand how
to properly establish the process of a
design.
There is more to design than learn-
ing item placement or wall dimensions.
The design process is far more complex
because the designer must work with
the most intricate creation on earth—
the human being. Clients have incred-
ibly different tastes and emotional
states that must be exploited during the
design process. Designers must learn to
work with the client, but also coordinate
the designer’s own developed skills and
personal design characteristic.

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 2
Why Do We Need to Learn to Manually Draft?
{1.1} Designers are trained to understand
First floor plan showing the creation of space according to the
dimensions, living area,
needs of a program. The program is the
kitchen, master suite,
first tool that a designer creates with a
and garage.
client to layout the requirements of the
project. A design is then created, and a
drafter draws the design according to
the specifications presented. (See Figure
1.1.) A designer organizes an existing
drawing for production of a project. A de-
signer is an individual with two respon-
sibilities—the creator and the drafter.
Therefore, designers must learn to
think through a problem and create the
final product. They must understand all
aspects of the process to become profes-
sionals. A designer must understand the
process of developing an idea and the
technical requirements for implementa-
tion of a design. But what are the differ-
ences in designers? Not all drafters are
designers, but all designers are drafters.
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 2
WHAT ARE THE PRINCIPLES
BEHIND ARCHITECTURAL AND
INTERIOR DESIGN DRAWING?
First, the designer must understand the
occupations of architects and interior
designers. Architecture is a broad term
that applies to all design and con-
struction. The architect is the overall
encompassing designer of the struc-
ture. Traditionally, the architect was the
designer and administrator of construc-
tion, which meant that he created the
entire structure from the ground up and
then followed through the process of
construction. In today’s work environ-
ment the architect has specific roles
depending on the size of the firm. Many
architects specialize in one area of the
building process: construction manage-
ment, specifications, interiors, lighting,
environmental controls, or building
design. The roles are dependent on the
1/10/11 2:20 PM
 CHAPTER 2
UNDERSTANDING THE
USE OF DESIGN EQUIPMENT
After reading this chapter, you will be able to use
traditional drafting equipment in an effective manner.
DRAFTING TOOLS
Pencils
Pencils are the key to producing qual-
ity drawings. Low-quality pencils pro-
duce low-quality line work, and high-
quality pencils produce high-quality
lines. The quality of lead, wood, and
coatings take the project in one
direction or another. When drawing
conceptual and schematic design, any
pencil type can be used. You should
always sketch with any available in-
strument because your first priority is
getting the idea onto paper. Quality is
secondary to creating an initial design
concept sketch. Finding a pencil that
sharpens well will improve the ease
of use and the quality of the line. If a
pencil lead sharpens and then breaks
constantly, the grade is normally low
and will have hard spots that can cre-
ate extra marks and cut the drawing
surface. These surface cuts are minor
but may create issues if the drawing is
rendered. The small surface scratches
cause the rendering medium to gather
and create a darker spot, causing an
uneven rendering.
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 25
25
To create architecture is
to put in order. Put what in
order? Function and objects.
—LE CORBUSIER, ARCHITECT
Having a comfortable feel is im-
portant because it helps with grip and
overall performance. The comfort of
the pencil is important for the stamina
of the designer. If using a poor-quality
tool, the process can be tiresome and
require multiple corrections. Comfort is
an important part of producing quality
projects.
Pencil leads can have a variety of
different feels, in part because of the
different grades of graphite used. Try
several brands to find one that fits your
drawing style. Placement in the hand
along with a preferred lead type can
make designing more pleasurable. When
purchasing pencils generally choose a
British- or American-made pencil. The
lead is smoother, the wood is more eas-
ily sharpened, and the nonsharpened
end is capped. Woodless pencils are one
solid piece of graphite. These pencils
sharpen well and can be used to shade
with the side of the point. The drawbacks
of a woodless pencil are they are fragile
when dropped and susceptible to smear-
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TECHNIQUES OF EQUIPMENT USE
Using the Tools
When using any of the tools, you
should always use them as they
were intended. The straight edge is
used to draw lines and glide over the
triangles. Many people use the scale
as a straight edge, but this can
damage the scale and create marks
that can cause mistakes in measuring.
(See Figure 2.17.) One of the main
pieces of advice is to always be
comfortable. Tension will lead to
mistakes.
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 37
37
Understanding the Use of Design Equipment
{2.17}
The direction that a person
moves the pencil or pen
should be opposite of the
drawing hand to help keep the
object perpendicular to the
drawing surface.
Benefits of Tracing and Not Redrawing
One of the greatest benefits of manual
drafting is the ability to trace. Tracing an
original work can help with refining and
seeing other design solutions. When
drawing, you can become focused on
one avenue of design while forget-
ting that other solutions could present
themselves. As a design evolves, new
concepts and solutions may arise. With
layering trace paper designers become
more prone to draw several potential
solutions. Throw that extra sheet down
and see where the design goes.
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 Design Scenario

Learning to use the equipment properly is the focus of this chapter. Learning to tear the tracing paper

with a straight edge to taping down the sheet is the goal.

EXERCISE ONE

Tape down an A-size sheet of paper and divide it into 6 spaces. With the straight edge, proceed to draw in

each box with pencil the following lines.

1. Horizontal lines 4. Diagonal lines starting from bottom left

2. Vertical lines 5. Diagonal lines starting from bottom right

3. Crosshatched lines 6. Diagonal crosshatched lines

Draw the next three sets of lines with pen. Be sure to use the 45-degree triangle for precision. (See Figure 2.18.)

{2.18}
Line exercise.

EXERCISE TWO

Draw two lines 1 inch apart across a sheet of paper. Starting with the highest H pencil, divide the lines

into seven boxes. In each of the boxes select a different pen and shade, starting with the highest H and

working to the highest B. Reference Figure 2.19 when selecting pencil hardness. You will have your own

scale based on the pressure applied when shading. (See Figure 2.20.)

{2.19} right
Lead hardness scale.

{2.20} below
Sample lead hardness exercise.

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 CHAPTER 3
MEASURING AND
THE USE OF THE SCALE
After reading this chapter, you will be able to
measure, use a scale, and dimension a drawing.
WHAT IS SCALE?
Everything has a scale. It is what the
object is scaled against that can change
a person’s perception. (See Figure 3.1.)
Buildings are designed for humans and
human interaction. Designers work in
a human scale; therefore, objects are
designed for human use, focusing on
reach, height, and comfort. Within this
realm of the design world, human bod-
ies are the reference for sizing objects.
Most designers reduce a scale down
to the basic elements and principles,
but it must always be converted into a
scale for human habitation. This is why
we have forms of measurement. It is to
create and understand how to design
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 41
41
The details are not the details.
They make the design.
—CHARLES EAMES, ARCHITECT,
GRAPHIC AND INDUSTRIAL
DESIGN, FILMMAKER
for humans. Therefore, what is scale?
It is a representation of an object’s full
size.
DIFFERENCES IN SCALES
There are many different types of
measuring devices, from the standard
school ruler to complex electronic rul-
ers. Most designers use a basic scale.
There are several types of scales pro-
duced for designers: architect, engineer,
and metric. (See Figure 3.2.) Designers
use several models such as flat, double
beveled, and triangular. The triangular
is the most common because it con-
tains 11 different measuring scales.
{3.1} opposite
Humans scale objects based on
their use. The house could be
at any scale without a person
to give it reference; however,
most buildings do have scale
such as doors and windows.
{3.2} left
Shapes of scales.
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 Engineer Scale
Engineer scale is slightly different. It is
designed around the civil engineering
industry and represents feet divisible
by 10 instead of 12. (See Figure 3.5.)
Drafters use this scale for land survey
drawings.
The scale is broken down into 10,
20, 30, 40, 50, 60 divisions of an inch.
SI Metric Scale
The SI metric scale is based on units
divisible by 10. The unit of measure-
ment is the millimeter. The metric scale
is based on ratios of millimeters. 1:10
scale could represent 1 mm = 10 mm,
or 1:100 ratio is 1 mm = 100 mm.
Chart of Metric Scale
• 10 mm = 1 cm
• 1000 mm = 1 meter
ACCURACY
An important part of any job is accura-
cy. When preparing drawings a mistake
as minimal as sixteenth of an inch can
be dramatic to a built project. Imagine
a drawing is off 1/8 of an inch. That 1/8
inch in real life represents a foot. The
construction crew builds the foundation
by measuring your drawing. You entire
project is off 1 foot. Precision is at the
utmost importance. Always measure
once and double check again.
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 43
Precision is achieved by reading the {3.5}
architect’s scale properly. When placing The scale is located in the
left corner and is broken into
the scale, count to the largest whole
units of five to measure the
foot unit. Then count back with the
distance. 43
graduation starting at zero to mark the
inches. So from your original perpen-
Measuring and the Use of the Scale
dicular line, you will be able to locate
the precise point to mark using feet and
inches.
USING STANDARD AND METRIC
IN THE UNITED STATES
Because the construction industry
uses the standard method of feet and
inches, the interior design profession
must follow. This system of measure-
ment is based on construction using
2-, 4-, 8-, and 10-foot increments.
This has been a standard because
the industry has been slow to ac-
cept the metric system. The National
Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) determines the usage of the
metric system in the United States.
As the metric system is implemented
in the United States, the construc-
tion industry will eventually have to
change. This will require training and
a complete overhaul of construction
products within the building materials
industry. Currently, most large-scale
projects use the metric system in the
United States, and all federal govern-
ment projects are required to include
metric measurements.
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 44
Measuring and the Use of the Scale
{3.6} A calculator conversion can be diffi-
A plan with the cult to do when using the standard sys-
dimensions noted.
tem of feet and inches. Calculators are
designed to work off a decimal system
of 10. However, the standard system
is divisible by units of 12. Conversion
can be achieved in a multiple of ways:
using conversion formulas, memorizing
multipliers, or construction calcula-
tors simplify the process. Construction
calculators are helpful when calculating
materials and finishes in the industry.
Directly imputing feet and inches into
the calculator negates having to use a
decimal conversion.
DIMENSIONS
Dimensions are the actual measure-
ments for a given distance. (See Figure
3.6)Dimensions are required on draw-
ings for construction documents. These
construction documents are called
working drawings. The main issue with
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 44
working drawings is the slight variation
within the design industry. Interior de-
sign is focused on drawing interior ele-
ments such as plans, interior elevations,
and interiors sections within a space.
This gives interior designers a standard
that is simple to follow and practical
to understand. Because interior design
is part of the architectural and con-
struction industry, most designers use
the same dimension standards, thus
allowing seamless transition between
reading architecture and interior design
plans. The main objective is to convey
accurate information in a logical man-
ner. The main component of a dimen-
sion is the dimension line, which is the
actual distance between two point. The
dimension line is continuous and con-
nects the extension line. This creates an
exact point to measure between lines.
The exact point is where the dimension
and extension line cross. The exten-
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 CHAPTER 4
QUALITY DRAWING
After reading this chapter, you will be able to plan and
execute drawings that are developed and refined and that
have a professional line quality.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF DRAWING
Developing a quality drawing has as
much to do with skill as it does design.
The essential elements of drawing are
forethought, planning, patience, and
practice. Forethought is the first step in
creating quality work. You must always
be thinking of the next line to help
prevent needless erasing and smudges.
When using ink always be one step
ahead of your line. This will help reduce
smears and smudges. Therefore, plan-
ning your drawing is critical to develop-
ing a clean, final product. The simple
step of drafting from one corner of the
sheet and working your way up the page
reduces many potential errors. After de-
veloping a layout and the initial outline
of the structure, you can plan on which
sections will require the least amount
of backtracking. This will reduce the
amount of wear on the paper’s surface
from the straight edge and triangles.
Every time you push a T-square over the
paper, you drag debris over the surface
and create extra lines. With this you still
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 55
55
Whether it’s fine arts or
music or architecture, the
most compelling works are
finessed and manipulated
so subtly that you’re barely
aware of the artist’s hand.
—SCOTT JOHNSON, ARCHITECT,
need to keep your patience. Constantly ARCHITECTURAL DIGEST
changing plans and making mistakes can
build high levels of anxiety. Just stay pa-
tient and keep going. Mistakes happen,
but with practice you can start recogniz-
ing those problems before they occur.
Practice is the key to quality. Continued
drawing and using your equipment will
teach you to avoid problems before they
arise. Practice, practice, practice. It is the
key to a quality product. (See Figure 4.1.)
LINE WEIGHTS
To create a quality drawing, you need
to learn the difference in line weights. A
line weight is the width of a line. In pen-
cil, drawing a line’s width is measured
by the sharpness of the lead. With
pencils, a variation can occur unless
being diligent about keeping a sharp
lead. To resolve this many people use
mechanical pencils for the consistent
lead width. Keeping a consistent line {4.1} opposite
weight will improve the overall quality A partial floor plan with a
of the work. Being able to distinguish variety of line width and types.
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 {4.2a}
An elevation that was drawn in
pencil smudges on the job site.
{4.2b}
The second drawing was
scanned and edited on the
computer and printed with ink.
the various lines is how the drawing
achieves visual depth. Pencil work must
be dark enough to be visible, but light
enough to be erased. Everyone makes
mistakes. The point is not to fret over
small issues. When using pencils the
intended purpose needs to be identi-
fied. Pencils are great for initial design
work. The problem comes when trying
to copy or scan drawings. Much of the
detail is lost. Using a higher B lead will
create a darker drawing, but may smear
and smudge. (See Figure 4.2a.) A 2–4H
pencil will provide a light clear crisp
line, but does not copy well. The solu-
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 56
tion is to do preliminary design work
with the hard pencil and then do pre-
sentation with pens. Pens provide dark,
clean lines that scan and copy well. For
designing while drafting, a 4H lead pro-
vides a great foundation drawing. The
lead is hard enough to avoid smear-
ing and light enough to draw over. An
HB lead can be drawn over with pen,
but will erase the ink. A 4H or higher
lead can be inked and erased without
destroying the line quality. Always test
the lead and ink before drawing the
final product. Leads and inks vary by
manufacture. (See Figure 4.2b)
1/10/11 2:21 PM
 CHAPTER 5
SYMBOLS, LETTERING, AND
TYPOGRAPHY IN DRAFTING
After reading this chapter you will understand the
importance of hand lettering and symbol use in drafting.
THE IMPORTANCE
OF HAND LETTERING
Hand lettering is an art form, and those
who master it have the ability to merge
hand lettering into computer lettering
seamlessly. The predominate style of
architectural computer fonts mimic
traditional hand drafting styles Many
people have a difficult time interpreting
drawings, but quality lettering can make
a drawing more easily understood.
Being able to draw and legibly note the
important features is key for clarity. Re-
member—drawings provide necessary
information to convey an idea to others;
the lettering fills in the gaps to provide
more explanation. (See Figure 5.1.)
Hand lettering also provides a solu-
tion for missing text in computerized
drawings. Mimicking a lettering font will
help when items are left out. When a fi-
nal set of working drawings is complete
and printed, items may need further
explanation. Many times, it is before
the presentation or during the actual
construction process. This is a common
occurrence after the final documents
are drawn or printed. Adding a similar
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 65
text style provides professionalism and
quality to the work. Adding notes that
blend will look like additions rather
than errors or omissions. Standard
lettering is always more refined than
something scribbled in the drawings.
In addition, notations that are added
by the contractor or subcontractor may
cause the next reader to doubt that the
designer understands the construction
process; therefore, it’s important that
the designer always provide sufficient
notation to any type of drawing.
Freehand lettering is something that
develops over time with practice. Being
able to write consistently in a specific
style adds a level of professionalism to
a drawing. (See Figure 5.2.) Making a
sketch that has clean text identifies you
as a quality designer, so always strive
to produce quality documents even if it
is a simple sketch.
METHODS, TYPES, AND GUIDE LINES
When the lettering style has been
chosen, the next task is to determine
65
The essential function of the
(design) profession in our
society is to enhance and cul-
tivate communication toward:
Easier understanding of ideas
and complex problems, in the
shortest possible time and
higher visual and auditory
retention of data.
—WILL BURTON,
GRAPHIC DESIGNER
{5.1} opposite top
As clear as a drawing may
be to the drafter, the image
may not be clear to the
builder until text is added.
{5.2} opposite bottom
Freehand lettering requires
practice and patience.
1/10/11 2:21 PM

return to their use. Guide lines also add
an additional design element to a set
of drawings. The extra lines provide a
light framework behind the titles, draw-
ings, and notations that ties everything
together to create a system called
regulating lines. These lines provide a
reference between edges of the various
drawings on the sheet.
INCREASE SPEED
WITHOUT LOSS OF QUALITY
The elements that help with speed
and quality are guide lines, the use of
straight edges, and practice. Tape down
your drawing and then measure the
area for the ¼- or 1/8-inch guide lines.
(Hint: Make sure there is adequate
space for the text. A common problem
is judging how much room is required
for lettering.) If the drawing is the final
product, make sure to use a light pencil
for the initial layout. Everything is an
exercise in design, from the drawings
to the guide lines. Always approach
all parts of the process as if it’s a final
presentation. Lettering can make a proj-
ect better or worst, depending on the
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 67
67
Symbols, Lettering, and Typography in Drafting
skill. The best way to increase speed {5.4}
is by using the tools properly. Using a Lettering advice.
straight edge for horizontal or vertical
guide lines is a key to being consistent.
Moving the triangle across the parallel
rule for verticals will provide precision
and help you judge the visual spac-
ing. Visual spacing is perceived equal
spacing. Mechanical spacing is based
on equal distances between letters. Me-
chanical spacing can appear static and
require a larger area. If equal distances
are required they should be used only
in titles not notations.
As for application, letters should be
drawn by pulling, never pushing, the
pencil across the paper. Use smooth
vertical strokes, followed by horizontal
and diagonal lines. A quality consis-
tent line weight will also develop with
practice. The main quality issue is being
clean and crisp. A sharp 2H pencil is
optimal for lettering. The pencil is hard
enough to not require constant sharp-
ening, but also dark enough for a copier
or scanner. The other main technical
factor is the type of pencil. Although
pencils are appropriate for many drafts,
1/10/11 2:21 PM

FPO
68
Symbols, Lettering, and Typography in Drafting
{5.5}
Legend section symbol.
FPO
{5.6} sometimes the best solution is to use
Section symbol format. a pen. The best solution is to use pen.
This will always provide a consistent
dark line. If using a pen, first letter
with a 6H to 9H pencil. Then rewrite to
resolve any potential errors. Pens are
great because drafters are slightly more
cautious by not making careless mis-
takes. If using a lead holder the point
can become dull unless the user can
slightly roll the holder to keep the point
consistent. Follow and practice these
basic rules to increase quality.
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 68
NOTATION AND
SYMBOL USE IN PLANS
Notation and symbols are a mixture
of drawing and lettering. The intent of
both is to provide information that is
not conveyable on the drawing. Nota-
tions are simply textual support of the
drawings whereas symbols provide
standard information. Symbols are
mainly used to reference other infor-
mation on the drawing or to other
drawings.
Most symbols corresponding to text
are used to reference where drawings
are located on the sheet. For example,
elevation symbols are a combination of
circles, arrows, and text.
Section symbols are can vary de-
pending on the firm and the creativity
of the design. An arrow must point in
the direction that the section is viewed.
(See Figures 5.5 and 5.6.) This orients
the viewer to read the drawing from the
correct direction.
North arrows are graphic symbols
that are placed on the floor plan. This
is important because the understand-
ing of orientation can provide solar
advantages to the interior design.
Using the solar orientation for light-
ing is critical to a quality design. Day
lighting is an important part of an
energy-efficient design. However, this
design feature may not be applicable
with the given site nor existing build-
ing. If possible provide notations with
solar design features explained. It
gives the readers evidence that you
are designing for a specific outcome.
(See Figures 5.7 and 5.8.)
The use of a graphic scale is
important because a drawing may be
copied, reduced, and enlarged many
times, causing the scale to change. The
traditional scale with numerical conver-
sion is adequate for working drawings
that are copied the same size; however,
1/10/11 2:21 PM
 CHAPTER 6
PLANNING A BUILDING
After reading this chapter and completing the design
scenario, you will be able to analyze a client’s needs,
conceptualize a space, and create basic diagrams.
QUALITY PLANNING
Being an interior designer requires
more than an understanding of build-
ing design. It requires an understand-
ing of people, types of spaces, and
all the facets of human interaction.
Designers know how people interact in
different settings. They study prox-
imities, anthropometrics, barrier-free
design, residential and commercial in-
teraction, and how all affect buildings.
Using these and other simple tools will
help develop a quality plan and quality
product.
Designers must develop a thorough
understanding of building planning.
This is the critical factor in making a
space usable and livable. All buildings
and projects are different, so the de-
signer’s skills must accommodate this
variety of needs. The building program
is the essence of any project. What,
when, where, and how the ideas work
together is the basis of creating quality
design. Developing a base knowledge
of building systems, materials, and
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 75
75
Architecture is really about
well-being. I think the
people want to feel good in a
space. . . . On the one hand
it’s about shelter, but it’s also
about pleasure.
—ZAHA HADID, ARCHITECT
construction techniques is an asset for
any designer, but knowing all aspects of
all these areas is impossible. Many de-
signers, therefore, focus on one distinct
area, such as residential, commercial,
merchandising, hospitality, and so on.
The fundamentals of how spaces work
together are similar, but have different
requirements. Every project has dif-
ferent clients, needs, preferences, and
requirements. (See Figure 6.1.)
This chapter focuses on residential
design. Every person is familiar with
homes and housing based on their own
experiences. This is the best starting
point. Everyone has likes and dislikes
based on growing up in a household.
Using those experiences and relating
the positive elements and principles to
a design project is the basis of residen-
{6.1} opposite
tial design.
A designer should always work
with the requirements of the
THE BUILDING PROGRAM client, but design with a level
A basic overview of a building program of creativity that is satisfying.
is required. This overview consists of: (Illustration credit: Sheila Flener)
1/10/11 2:21 PM
 SINGLE-FAMILY DWELLING
DESIGN FOR A FICTIONAL FAMILY
1. For the design scenario, develop
a series of sketches based on
a fictional family who wants
to design a new single-family
dwelling.
2. Draw a series of bubble dia-
grams to show the family’s
relationships based on required
rooms. (See Figure 6.3.)
3. Create a parti and spatial
analysis chart that analyzes each
room for the family.
4. Using the bubble diagrams and
spatial analysis chart create block-
ing diagrams. (See Figure 6.4.)
5. Draw a simplistic diagram based
on the typical sizes of spaces
chart.
6. Study the typical sizes of spaces
and fixture. The fixtures are items
that are attached or fixed to a wall
or floor and are not moved on a
regular basis: kitchen appliances,
sinks, washer/dryer, and so on.
7. Be sure to address furniture and
fixtures in your spatial analysis
chart.
8. Create an overlay of furniture
and fixtures using the blocking
diagram.
Living and livability are the basic
principles that create a quality space
for clients. Understanding humans and
their interaction is the key to creating
quality spaces. Living is how people
live within an environment. Livability
is the quality of life of the inhabitants.
Expanding on the concepts of comfort
and circulation, designers can enhance
client living conditions. The following
section discusses simple principles of
design and construction that can be ap-
plied to any type of project.
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 83
83
Planning a Building
Comfort {6.10}
The living and livability issues are A bubble diagram that
compares private and public
concerns that are addressed in a
circulation within a home.
variety of ways. Each individual has
his or her own ideas about comfort. It
could be natural lighting, a soft chair,
or privacy from others. The ideas of
comfort and livability create the basic
functions of a project. These must be
defined in the program. A designer
can then respond by creating a com-
fortable space.
Areas
The classifications of rooms are based
on activities and the lifestyle of the
family. Many families develop the need
for large open spaces in their environ-
ments. The living area may include a
combined dining and kitchen to make
the space appear larger. Children need
spaces in bedrooms for play and study.
Private activities that occur in bed-
rooms and bath require isolation from
the families’ public areas. Vehicular
access areas need to be related to
kitchen and entrances. All of these
simple concepts must be addressed.
(See Figure 6.10.)
1/10/11 2:21 PM
 {6.11} Climatic Conditions
Diagram studying the sun The effect of the sun is a major design
exposure on a pod house.
consideration in the layout of a house.
People’s preferences to live in sunny
spaces require areas to be brightly lit.
This normally provides for a friendly
atmosphere.
Lighting and weather can affect
people’s attitudes. Providing a balance
of natural and artificial light will help
enhance the space. Rain and snow
is critical for material selection. Cold
winds will dictate the areas that have
fewer windows. Study the layout of the
structure to maximize the potential of
the space. (See Figure 6.11.)
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 84
Materials
The selection of materials will vary some
from region to region. The uses of
interior and exterior spaces also help
determine the wear that will occur to
the building. The reduction of noise
from living spaces and bedrooms can
be help with the selection of materials.
The color of materials can affect the
activities. Children’s rooms use bright
and cheerful colors whereas adults
may want wood tones for a sense of
maturity.
1/10/11 2:21 PM
 CHAPTER 7
FLOOR PLANS
After reading this chapter, you will be able to use
traditional drafting equipment to design and draw
floor plans.
The process of developing relation-
ships with public and private spaces
is constantly evolving, and an archi-
tectural and interior designer should
always be thinking of the plan. The task
of the designer is to refine the plan
so that it can be turned into a three-
dimensional design. The floor plan is
the main source of developing space
planning. Space planning is a process
of organizing functions related to use,
furnishing, and circulation for a design
project. (See Figure 7.1.) Designers
have different involvements with a floor
plan. An architect draws the outside
and walls. The interior designer focuses
on non-load-bearing walls and space
planning. The drafters draw the plan
with the specifications and design de-
tails supplied by the architect or interior
designer. The floor plan is of critical
importance to the success of a project.
With a well-developed plan, the design
of the exterior and interior will success-
fully accommodate the client’s needs
and preferences.
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 91
91
Always design a thing by
considering it in its next
larger context—a chair in a
room, a room in a house, a
house in an environment, an
environment in a city plan.
BASIC OVERVIEW OF PLANS —ELIEL SAARINEN, ARCHITECT
What is a floor plan? Simply, it is a
drawing of the floor; however, the
floor plan is much more complex. This
drawing type is the main design ele-
ment in any structure. It encompasses
all the human relationships with the
structure and its fixtures and furnish-
ings. The floor plan is the feature that
makes the building function. Without
the plans, the layout of the structure
is just a building without a purpose.
With a plan the building has a purpose
and, therefore, has an identity that
satisfies the needs of a client. (See {7.1} opposite top
An analysis of a space
Figure 7.2.)
focusing on interaction
The floor plan is a key to building
within the facility.
and designing. It is used for construct- (Illustration credit:
ing a building, planning a layout, Sheila Flener)
organizing traffic patterns, measuring
distances of travel, and so on. It is a {7.2} opposite bottom
A narrow-lot floor plan with
document that has endless possibili-
an outside living space. This
ties. It is the tool for organizing spac-
project needed to meet the
es. (See Figure 7.3.) Architects create setback requirements of
the plan for construction whereas the the property and the use of
interior designer uses it for construc- an outdoor living area.
1/10/11 2:22 PM
 tion, space planning, and analysis of
human traffic patterns. The interior
designer brings in the human element
to the spaces within the structure.
(See Figure 7.4)

Information on a Floor Plan

The floor plan is the major construction
and design document. The plan is what
gives the viewer the size of the building
and the room placement. Included in
the plan are various technical details.
Floor plans are separated in different
layers of information. The different
contractors will have separate plans for
92
their specific purpose. The following
list provides a basic overview of what is
Floor Plans

included on the various sheets of floor

plans.
{7.3}
Organizing space may take place in an existing plan. A bubble diagram may Foundation plan or basement
clarify to a client how the rooms are organized within a space.
plan: This plan is a layout of where
columns and walls are needed to
support the structure being built.

Construction or structural plan: The

construction plan is the layout and
{7.4} direction of structural components
Large-scale bubble diagram. that make up the floor and roof of
(Illustration credit: Sheila Flener)
the building.

Electrical plan: The electrical plan

is the layout of the items that cre-
ate the electrical, communication,
security, emergency, and lighting
networks.

Plumbing plan: The plumbing plan

shows the bath, kitchen, utility, and
other items that require water and
drains.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 92 1/10/11 2:22 PM

 Reflected ceiling plan: Lighting plans
are viewed as if there is no roof. The
information included is the lights,
electrical, receptacles, switches, and
circuit wiring. (See Figure 7.5.)

Roofing plan: This shows the slope

of the roof and the direction of
drainage.

Kitchen plan: An enlarged plan

provides the details of the layout
that focuses on the work triangle.
The enlarged plan may include {7.5}

detailed information such as cabinet Reflected ceiling plan.

nomenclature (the size and type of

cabinet). (See Figure 7.6.)

Bath plan: This enlarged plan pro-

vides the details of the bath.

HVAC plan: This plan is graphic in

nature, but does provide the central
heating system, return air, and reg-
isters for each space.
{7.6}
Furniture layout: This graphic plan Kitchen plan with cabinet sizes noted.
is designed to show the space plan-
ning capabilities of the space. (See
Figure 7.7.)

Many of these plans are combined

depending on the scope and scale of the
project. Residential plans generally com-
bine many of the services into one draw-
ing. (See Figure 7.5.) As shown in the fig-
ure, an electrical plan is layered onto the
construction plan. These service plans
provide the general locations for many
items. Plumbing and HVAC plans provide
exact locations for equipment, return
vents, and registers, but may not be able
to locate precise placement of plumbing
and ventilation lines. The engineering
firm that handles the systems supplies {7.7}

this type of information. The basic layout Furniture layout.

is the main focus of the designer.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 93 1/10/11 2:22 PM

 CHAPTER 8

SECTIONS

After reading this chapter, you will understand the use of

103
Now architecture consists
section drawings, create sections from floor plans using of order, which in Greek is
called taxis. . . . Order is the
typical sections and materials, interior specific sections balanced adjustment of the
details of the work separately,
and conventions, typical kitchen and bath sections, and and, as to the whole, the
arrangement of the proportion
stair construction. with a view to a symmetrical
result.
SECTION DRAWING —VITRUVIUS, ENGINEER,

The section of a building is a main tool structure. The height and relationship of ARCHITECT

for the designer to understand the scale
of a space. A section drawing is a verti-
cal cut through an object, revealing its
interior. An interior designer uses this
drawing to see heights and widths of
areas. It is also the key to seeing the
types of floor and ceiling structures.
It reveals the thicknesses of walls and
provides a frame for the space be-
ing designed. The vertical plane cuts
through the building, showing the
building in relationship to human scale.
Doors, windows, and furniture can pro-
vide references if no humans are in the
drawing. (See Figure 8.1.)
each floor is directly viewed through the
cut. A wall section is normally provided
with the vertical section, and provides
the information on building materials
and construction methods. The wall sec-
tion shows the foundation up through
the roof, providing the basis for con-
structing the building. The wall section
provides the details for the foundation
such as wall size, anchors, drainage, and
waterproofing systems. (See Figure 8.2.)
The next area is the type of wall ma-
terial, wall insulation, exterior sheeting, {8.1} opposite top
interior surface, and exterior material. People and objects within a
The roof generally shows the structural section provide scale for the

system, overhang construction, insula- building and its spaces.

CONSTRUCTION KNOWLEDGE tion, and roofing type. An important

The section drawing is a tool that shows
vertical height of a building. The vertical
section provides the necessary informa-
tion as it relates to the exterior of the
part of the wall section is the notations
for the building. These notes describe
the materials and methods used to
construct the building.
{8.2} opposite bottom
A typical section should be
a drawing that all designers
have memorized and could
sketch when confusion arises.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 103 1/10/11 2:22 PM

 DESIGN SCENARIO—
SECTIONS FROM THE PLAN
Developing a building in section is
one method that many designers find
beneficial toward understanding the
space. They can scale room heights
and widths to visually accommodate
their concepts. Seeing a design in a
vertical form helps many people see
if the scale of the space fits the needs.
Having a living room with a greater
height than the bath is easy to design
on a floor plan, but need to be sensible
in the overall design. Drawing rooms at
various heights throughout the building
107
can create complex construction issues.
However, if well planned it will create

Sections
a wide variety emotional responses
between spaces. A simple way for
most designers to reflect an exterior
is through elevation and section with
the use of a human scale factor. The
human scale factor is a human placed
in a drawing giving a sense height
and width. Designing using the scale
method allows for the creation of
multiple heights, such as the American
split-level house. The housing type is
based on three levels within a two-story
{8.6}
house. Split-level homes give freedom A section detail showing
to create various ceiling heights within a roof overhang.

BOX 8.2  Punch List for Interior Section

• Is the room a complete section • Are the wall and ceiling con- • Windows and door placed.
across a space? struction methods represented?

BOX 8.3  Punch List for All Sections

• Using the floor plan, check if • Check if windows and doors • All cabinets and built-in
drawing is correct in length and align correctly. furnishings indicate door
height. • Check if section symbols match swings.
drawings.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 107 1/10/11 2:22 PM

 108
Sections
{8.7} a traditional framework. Using the vari-
A transverse section showing ous ceiling heights changes the propor-
stairs and window heights.
tions of a space. Some spaces will have
a horizontal feel whereas others a sense
of verticality. A design concept will help
determine the feel that needs to be
achieved. (See Figure 8.7.)
STAIRS
Stairs are the main source of travel to
the upper and lower levels of a resi-
dential building. This, in turn, requires
more emphasis as a design feature.
Because interior designers are con-
cerned with the circulation of spaces,
the vertical movements are central
components to design. Many designers
treat stairs as a secondary idea, simply
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 108
leaving an adequate opening for a later
addition. The stairs can be a central
focal point of the home while acting
as the main transportation to the other
floors. Understanding the components
of a staircase will help in the design
process.
• Treads: The horizontal step of the
staircase.
• Risers: The vertical portion under
each step that provides the height.
• Rise: The vertical distance between
two floors.
• Run: The horizontal length of the
staircase.
• Stringer: The structural component
that supports the treads and risers.
1/10/11 2:22 PM
 CHAPTER 9
ELEVATIONS
After reading this chapter, you will be able to
understand both exterior and interior elevations
and, dimensions of elevations and conventions; and
create elevations from the plan.
UNDERSTANDING THE
IMPORTANCE OF ELEVATIONS
An elevation is a view that looks
straight at a structure or group of
objects. Many elevations are drawings
created from the plan. The drawing
is derived from the plan by using the
features that provide width or height.
Many drawing types are labeled as
elevations an exterior view or an
interior detail. Identifying the scope
and intent of the drawing will help
determine if a drawing is an elevation.
A complete drawing could be an el-
evation of a built-in wall unit, or even
a view of the kitchen. The main differ-
ence between an elevation and section
is that the elevation has no cuts into
the structure. Instead, it is a drawing
that looks straight at the structure or
object.
Elevations are a key to under-
standing the visual design intent of
a project. The elevation is the draw-
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 115
115
Put very succinctly,
architectural effect depends
upon a nice balance of
horizontal, vertical, and
oblique. No rules can say
how much of each, so nothing
can really take the place of
feeling and good judgment.
—WILLIAM MORRIS,
DESIGNER, ARTIST
ing type that illustrates the materials
of the design. Material selection is
important to the visual character of a
drawing. Using the proper symbols
gives the drawing a sense of character.
Without proper symbols, the elevation
loses it potential to be understood and
possibly the original intent of the de-
sign. This drawing type must be easily
understood by anyone reading the
drawings. An elevation can also be the
main conveyance of the design intent
to a client. It shows the balance of a
space, proportion, and other design el-
ements as well as principles of design.
(See Figure 9.1.)
The First Elevation Drawing
To start a complete elevation, you must
{9.1} opposite
have a floor plan that shows the layout A micro office elevation that
of the space. The first elevation draw- uses the plan for width and
ing is a preliminary layout, consisting locating of the door.
1/10/11 2:22 PM
 119

Elevations
{9.6} {9.7}
Materials symbols used in elevation. An entry elevation using a variety of materials.

{9.8}
An interior wall design for a media center.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 119 1/10/11 2:22 PM


120
Elevations
{9.9}
Kitchen elevation with tele-
scoping kitchen cabinets for
wheelchair accessibility.
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 120
DIMENSIONING ELEVATIONS
Exterior elevations require major
features and an overall dimension. If a
building is symmetrical, only one side
needs dimensions. If a building has var-
ious heights and different features, it is
beneficial to dimension both sides. Al-
ways dimension from the ground up to
the floor line; next, dimension from the
floor line to the ceiling. Then, dimen-
sion from the ceiling to the top of the
roof. These are the dimensions impor-
tant to the bid process. When contrac-
tors bid documents, they need to have
all heights noted for material selection.
Most projects are complex and require
multiple lines of dimension. A second
stage would be to include dimensions
from floor line to bottom of the window
seal; then continue up the building,
noting all important features. The roof
overhang should also be included as a
separate drawing. Many designers pre-
fer to include the overhang dimension
in a typical wall section; however, if the
room is available attempt to include it
on every outside elevation. Other items
to note are the grade line of the ground,
floor line (FL), and roof pitch symbol
indicating the rise of the roof.
Interior elevation dimensioning can
be more complex. Because most interior
elevations are drawn for a distinct pur-
pose, many details must be dimensioned.
A good rule of thumb is this: If it is un-
usual, provide dimensions. Kitchen and
bath elevations are normally drawn in an
enlarged form and require a higher level
of detail. (See Figure 9.9.). This level of
dimensioning is addressed in Chapter 12.
For architectural drawings, however, a ba-
sic kitchen elevation requires a minimum
amount of dimensions. Because cabinet
and appliance dimensions are standard,
a simple sequence of dimensions is
required. From finished floor (AFF ) to the
counter top is 3' - 0". From the counter
top to the bottom of the lower cabinets is
1' - 6". The next dimension is the height
of the upper cabinets, which is normally
2' - 6". Provide an overall ceiling height to
the outside. (See Figure 9.10.)
1/10/11 2:22 PM
 CHAPTER 10
SCHEDULES
After reading this chapter, you will be able to understand
and create schedules for the design industry.
UNDERSTANDING THE
IMPORTANCE OF SCHEDULES
A schedule is a list of information that
allows the document user to refer-
ence specific details about a product.
Schedules traditionally have been
drawn onto the set of working draw-
ings; however, most designers use
spreadsheets on a computer to create
booklets or appendices for construc-
tion documents. The scale of the
project can determine if the schedule
should be drawn onto the project.
In residential design, most people
include the schedule on the relevant
working drawings. Residential sched-
ules normally focus on windows,
doors, and finishes. Interior design-
ers develop schedules of furnishings,
fixtures, finishes. Fixtures can include
everything from toilets and lighting to
kitchen appliances.
Residential schedules should be
simplistic in regards to the information
that is provided. Much of the informa-
tion is provided by the manufacture
of the product selected. The schedule
should include only basic information
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 125
125
Design is not making beauty,
beauty emerges from selection,
affinities, integration, love.
—LOUIS KAHN, ARCHITECT
such as typical sizes. This will allow
changes of manufactures and not the
structure. If a building has custom
designs, the schedule would need to be
more developed.
DOOR SCHEDULE
Always approach schedules as if you
are walking into a structure. Doors
are the first product a designer needs
to specify because people encounter
the doors first. Doors are available in
standard sizes, but the materials can
vary: metal, wood, and fiberglass.
Glass in the door can be of various
shapes and sizes. Glass in the door is
specified in terms of lites, which are
specified according to the number of
divided sections in the door. The list-
ing should include the opening size,
type of door frame, and the type of
door. The first notation is to identify
if it an exterior or interior door. Many
new designers do not understand
the concept that doors have different
levels of insulation. Metal-skinned
1/10/11 2:22 PM
 WINDOW SCHEDULES
Windows are referenced with a pen-
tagon and a number on the floor plan.
(See Figure 10.2 and Figure 10.3.) This
distinguishes the windows from the
doors and lessens confusion for con-
tractors. A window schedule should list
basic information. {10.2}
Sample window and door schedule. (Illustration credit: Sheila Flener)

127

Schedules
{10.3}
Symbols on a floor plan that relates to various schedules.

BOX 10.2  Window Punch List

1. Number identification: Pentagon surrounding a 7. Glazing: Low E, tinted, reflective.

number. 8. Window frame: Wood, aluminum, vinyl.
2. Rough opening (RO): Height in elevation. 9. Remarks: Designers should always leave a
3. Rough opening (RO): Width in elevation. blank area for comments and additional
4. Actual window height: information.
5. Actual window width: 10. Blanks: At the bottom of the schedule, provide
6. Window type: Casement, double hung, awning, a series of blanks to add additional doors or list
etc. changes that occur through the project.

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 FINISH SCHEDULES
The finish schedule provides the
information for materials and finishes
needed for each room, such as surface
coating and flooring for each space
within a house. The complexity of the
finish selection will determine if more
detail is needed. If rooms have differ-
ent materials for each wall, a separate
notation will need to be used to distin-
guish the different selections. The use
of abbreviations or acronyms helps in
the schedule to lessen the amount of
written descriptions. (See Figure 10.4)
Because space is limited, attempt to
simplify the description unless the
information is not clear. The use of a
legend to describe special materials
may be used. If using a legend, create
a set of alphanumeric designations
that can be referenced on the sched-
ule. Then place it on the plan by label-
ing rooms and walls to match. (See
Figure 10.5.)

BOX 10.3  Finish Punch List

1. Room number: 6. Ceiling finishes: Acoustical ceiling, painted,

2. Room name or type:
3. Flooring materials and type of finish:
4. Baseboard or base cove: Is the base a painted
wood, stained, or synthetic?
5. Wall finishes: Include the wall material along
with the finish product.
popcorn.
7. Remarks: Designers should always leave a blank
area for comments and additional information.
8. Blanks: At the bottom of the schedule provide
a series of blanks to add additional doors or
changes that occur through the project.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 128 1/10/11 2:22 PM

 CHAPTER 11

ELECTRICAL AND LIGHTING

After reading this chapter, you will understand electrical
symbols and reflected ceiling plans.
LIGHTING DESIGN
Lighting system design involves many
facets of the overall design process.
Lighting design has a distinct purpose
and many implications. Lighting should
have the capabilities to alter the percep-
tion of any space. Many designs are for
simple utility. The lighting is applied as a
the sensation of uneasiness whereas
bright light gives the feeling of security.
Not all lighting design is intended for a
response. Much is planned for a distinct
purpose. Reading areas require a differ-
ent lighting than bathrooms; therefore,
the purpose should drive the type and
137
We’re not trained to think
about time in a systematic
way, as a design dimension.
But it’s everything to the
circadian system because it
matters when you give users
the light, not just whether
it’s blue or white. Design
professionals are not real
comfortable with thinking in
the temporal dimension yet.
—MARIANA FIGUERIO, ARCHITECT,

layer of light for general use. Light for this amount of lighting required. LIGHT RESEARCH CENTER

purpose generally is not a design feature.

A light placed in the center of a room is
there to provide a general lighting for the
purpose of traveling and safety within
the space. The intent is to maximize light
from a central location. There is an intent,
but not in the realm of design. it is for the
purpose of simple utility.
An interior designer, on the other
hand, will create an emotional response
to the space and provide the utility
function. What is an emotional re-
sponse? It is the sensation or feeling
one has when entering and using a
space. A designer has the intent of
creating a space to invoke a feeling
or mode, and lighting is the simplest
method because people react to chang-
es in light. Darkness generally causes
UNDERSTANDING THE SYMBOLS
Lighting symbols and their application
can become confusing if a designer
is not familiar with the varieties of
symbols. Many symbols have similar
appearances but may have a slight vari-
ation. Understanding the purpose of the
basic set will help in development of
the reflected ceiling plan. The reflected
ceiling plan is an aerial view down into
a space showing all the electrical com-
ponents. Lighting, circuits, receptacles ,
switches, fire, security, and communica-
tions are normally shown on a reflected
ceiling plan. (See Figure 11.1.)
A basic understanding of electric- {11.1} opposite
ity and wiring will help in the design Residential reflected
process; however, the responsibilities ceiling plan.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 137 1/10/11 2:22 PM

 Determine how the light fixture will
be mounted and then select the corre-
sponding symbol. Note that each sym-
bol has a specific mounting method:
recessed, surface, and wall. Design
the lighting around any key design
features. Create a series of layers with
the lighting, and end with the utility
lighting. This means that light is orga-
nized so different levels of intensity can
create different effects. This layering is
achieved by ceiling heights, switching,
and fixtures. Specifying different types
of lighting at different heights, each for
its own purpose, will create lighting in
layers.
Draw the reflected ceiling plan as
if you were looking down through the
ceiling and the roof was missing. This
plan will include lights, switching, and
electrical receptacles on a residen-
tial plan. A commercial or complex
residential plan will be broken up into
several drawings. One may be the
suspended ceiling with lighting and
circuits shown. The second drawing
may show electrical, mechanical, and
security. If the structure does not use
a suspended ceiling, all the additional
information may be shown on one
drawing. This is as long as the infor-
BOX 11.1  Punch List for the Electrical/Reflected Ceiling Plan
1. Receptacle symbols and identification of 220 volts.
a. Electric range
b. Water heater
c. Air conditioners
d. Heat pumps
e. Clothes dryer
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 139
mation is not too confusing to the
contractors.
The first step in preparing the
reflected ceiling plan is to determine
the ceiling type. A traditional ceiling in
residential application is gypsum board;
a traditional ceiling in a commercial
application is a suspended acoustic
ceiling. A suspended ceiling is designed
to be flexible and easy to maintain.
Suspended ceilings can be used in resi-
dential applications if a designed look
is desired. Many basements in houses
use a suspended ceiling for easy access
to plumbing and electrical for the upper
139
floors.
The second step is to determine
Electrical and Lighting
what is included in the ceiling: lights,
HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning) , security, and electrical.
Residential plans are simple because
of the requirements of the home. The
receptacles are placed every 6 feet. Any
wall over 2 feet must have receptacle.
Light switches are placed at the entry
of the door, the appliances must have
proper power, and GFCI are located in
wet locations. Outside electrical must
be weatherproof. An interior designer
needs to learn and draft these basics of
electrical design.
6. All lighting with proper symbols.
7. Switches with circuits.
8. Special symbols, such as telephone, broadband,
satellite, security, and fire systems.
9. Electrical schedule, if necessary.
1/10/11 2:22 PM
 Design Scenario—Lighting and Electrical Plans

The main objective to this chapter is to provide electri-

cal symbols and examples of their use. There is no clear

step-by-step method to specifying electrical; therefore, {11.3} below

Commercial reflected
referencing drawings and legends is the best way for the
ceiling plan. (Illustration
designer to learn symbols and their usage. Make sure all credit: Sheila Flener)

areas of the electrical and ceiling plan are included. (See

{11.4} opposite
Figures 11.3–11.7.) Lighting schedule.
(Illustration credit: Sheila Flener)

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 CHAPTER 12

KITCHEN AND BATH DESIGN

145
After reading this chapter, you will be able to understand In most people’s
vocabularies, design
and create elevation and sections of kitchens and baths, means veneer. It’s interior
decorating. It’s the fabric of
complete with fixtures and furniture. This includes the the curtains of the sofa. But
to me, nothing could be fur-
application of increasing scale plans and elevations, ther from the meaning
of design. Design is the
anthropometrics, proxemics, and human scale (adults, fundamental soul of a
human-made creation that
children, and infants). ends up expressing itself in
successive outer layers of the
INTRODUCTION TO KITCHEN DESIGN product or service.
The kitchen is the most complex room for maximum efficiency when working —STEVE JOBS, FOUNDER

in a house, in part because it contains in the kitchen. The preparation zone AND CEO, APPLE

large amounts of equipment along with
dining facilities. This is the one area
where people constantly encounter
and work with each other for extended
periods of time. The kitchen should be
designed for a level of efficiency while
focused on safety. The design of this
space should be developed according
to the needs of the users. Because it
is the most expensive per-square-foot
portion of the home, the design must
focuses on the refrigerator and food
prep area. The washing zone is de-
signed around the sink and dishwash-
ing area. The third zone is the cooking
area that requires maximum clearances
and a central location to distribute food.
These three zones should create an un-
broken triangle with all sides adding to
less than 26 feet. (See Figure 12.2.) The
next area of importance in the kitchen
is storage. Designers should always be {12.1} opposite top

maximize many features.
The kitchen is designed around
three main work areas: preparation,
washing, and cooking zones. (See Fig-
ure 12.1.) These three zones create the
work triangle, which is a zone designed
concerned with storage in a kitchen, not The three kitchen work
zones—the pre, washing,
only for food storage, but for kitchen
and cooking zones.
tools and small appliance storage as
well. Being able to carefully organize {12.2} opposite bottom
these spaces to allow for easy accessi- The work triangle with
bility is critical to a functional design. maximum distances noted.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 145 1/10/11 2:23 PM

 Kitchen floor plan.
{12.11e}

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 162
Kitchen and Bath Design
{12.12}
Levels of comfort according
to the space bubble by
Edward T. Hall. (Illustration
credit: Sheila Flener)
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 162
ANTHROPOMETRICS,
PROXEMICS, AND ERGONOMICS
The study of humans and comfort
levels has provided designers many
avenues to create a higher standard of
living. Humans have a wide variety of
cultural living conditions, which gives
the designer opportunity to refine their
designs. The study of proxemics is the
understanding of space as it is used in
specific cultures. Designing for people
and their specific needs is the goal of
a designer. The understanding of per-
sonal space and distances of comfort is
critical in most designs. In residential
design, most people understand the
need for personal space and how a
house functions. Generally, houses are
designed for a distinct family interact-
ing with each other. In nonresidential
spaces, the criteria changes because
the comfort level involves no family
and friends. Edward Hall bases his
designs around four zones of human
interaction in the book The Hidden
Dimension. This breaks down the four
zones as intimate, personal, social,
and public. (See Figure 12.12.) Design-
ing and planning workspaces revolves
around distances and the activities that
take place.
Anthropometrics is the study of
physical and psychological comfort lev-
els. The use of anthropometrics is what
determines what space is needed for
certain activities. The research defines
typical human heights, widths, and
postures for the design of ergonomics.
(See Figure 12.13.)
Ergonomics is the study of people
and their working conditions. The
information is collected to provide data
for the design of seating and other
furniture. (See Figure 12.14.) Ergonomic
design has benefitted people through
the development of office furniture
to improve productivity and comfort
levels.
1/10/11 2:23 PM
 CHAPTER 13
PRODUCT DESIGNING:
CASE GOODS, LIGHTING,
FURNITURE, AND SMALL FIXTURES
After reading this chapter, you will be able to design
small products that complement the design of a project.
Case goods, fireplaces, equipment, and details are the
focus of the chapter.
BASIC PRODUCT DESIGN PROCESS
When developing a building design,
many items are custom built to fit the
situation. Many designers find solu-
tions by designing custom pieces for a
project. These custom pieces show the
creative nature of designers. Product
design was traditionally industrial
design , but is quickly being overtaken
by interior designers. Because most
interior designers are specialist in space
planning, it is only natural to find solu-
tions in furniture and product design
that accent and improve an interior.
Interior designers are designing the
furniture and fixtures to complement
their own designs as well as meet a cli-
ent’s needs.
The design process is dependent on
the individual; however, one method
is to approach the idea with simple
shapes. How do those simple shapes in-
teract with the space? Round forms are
comfortable for most people because
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 167
167
What works good is better
than what looks good.
Because what works
good lasts.
—RAY EAMES, ARCHITECT,
GRAPHIC AND INDUSTRIAL
DESIGNER, FILMMAKER
of the reduction of sharp corners. They
give the space a sense of flowing. De-
signs with a radius give the sensation
that they are leading you to a destina-
tion. (See Figure 13.1.) When a simple
form has been identified, clarify that it
fits the composition of the building. Will
this form be out of place with the theme
of the space? Will this element contra-
dict other elements and principles of
the space?
The other side of the industrial de-
sign portion of a project is the detailing.
Many details in the construction of a
building may be new concepts in build-
ing design. It may simply be a creative
use of a material that is not traditionally
used in construction such as a steel ex-
terior panel in the kitchen for notes and
magnets. This is because some stain-
less steel refrigerators are nonmag-
netic. With detail design, many items {13.1} opposite
need to be custom-made and require Radius designed bar area.
an engineer’s or architects approval. (Illustration credit: Sheila Flener)
1/10/11 2:23 PM
 (See Figure 13.4.) The cabinet has the
overall dimensions and detail notations.
These notations determine what materi-
als will be used and color specifications.
The details on the front view describe
all the components. Cabinets are con-
sidered a furniture piece, and the de-
signer must remember that individuals
of different heights will be using them.
Always research the furniture type and
sizes that are required for the end user.
The product will need to be creative yet
functional.
Lighting is an area where designers
find themselves creating new products
171
because there is no product available
to fit the space. In specialty design, a

Product Designing: Case Goods, Lighting, Furniture, and Small Fixtures

fixture may need to be created to fit a
space. Designers need to ask questions
before going too far with a lighting
design: will the object be functional? Is
it too complex for a local fabricator to {13.4} opposite

build? Many designers design electri-
cal fixtures to make sure they create a
specific look for the space. The other
issue is the size of the object. Will it
overwhelm a space, or is it too small
to be effective. Designers have a good
The materials provide not only the structure,
but also the decorative elements of a design.
(Illustration credit: Sheila Flener)
{13.5} right
A simple light fixture based on wrapping
metal and tucking into a slot for support.

sense of scale and find that lighting

product design can be based on simple
geometric shapes and matching an
existing light base. (See Figure 13.5.)

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 171 1/10/11 2:23 PM

 {13.6}
An enlarged detail describing a radiant floor heating system.
Labeling helps identify materials at small scales.

Detail design for construction is im-

portant when trying to achieve a speci-
fied custom look. Basic measurements
172
are important to the details and the
actual construction. (See Figure 13.6.)
Product Designing: Case Goods, Lighting, Furniture, and Small Fixtures

When a draftsperson is drawing the de-

sign, all facets that make it unique need
to be labeled. (See Figures 13.7–13.9.)

{13.7} left
A detail that describes the shape and bracket
type for a column and rafter connection.

{13.8} bottom left

A mobile kitchen island designed to move
from kitchen to dining area.

{13.9} bottom right

A leg detail of the mobile kitchen island in 13.8.

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 CHAPTER 14
PROJECTION DRAWINGS
ON A 2-D SURFACE
After reading this chapter, the student will be able to
create a basic perspective and axonometric drawing.
PROJECTION DRAWINGS
Projection drawings are three-dimen-
sional (3-D) representations of two-di-
mensional (2-D) drawings. This drawing
type is the main method of conveying
the intended design. Three-dimensional
images are the most true to life and
easiest for clients to understand. The
two main types that designers use are
perspective and axonometric drawings.
Perspective drawing distorts the image
towards a vanishing point, and axono-
metric provide a measurable image. (See
Figure 14.1.) Simple projection drawings
are the clearest images to create and
refine. Complex drawing can be confus-
ing to clients and expensive to create.
This chapter addresses the simple and
informative type of drawings.
PERSPECTIVE DRAWINGS
Perspective drawings are used as a
planning and presentation tool. The
drawings show a realistic view of the
design to a client. Perspectives are tools
used to increase the understanding of
three-dimensional space by studying
how a building relates to its surround-
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 175
175
All of the environment should
express a higher, more-
ordered, broadly-complete
dedication to the well-
designed.
ings. (See Figure 14.2.) This chapter is —JOHN MASSEY, GRAPHIC-DESIGN
focused on the practical application of PIONEER AND EDUCATOR
drawing perspectives, not the theory.
The focus is the step-by-step application
that allows the user to create sketches
and proportional 3-D drawings.
To understanding perspective
drawings, start by learning basic terms.
Perspective drawings can frustrate the
beginner, so start with a simple one-
point perspective of a room. This will
help you grasp the terminology and the
step-by-step technique used to cre-
ate the framework of the drawing. The
following definitions are helpful when
learning the perspective framework.
Station point: The point which a person {14.1} opposite top
views the space A perspective drawing focuses
on the vanishing point and is
Vanishing point: A point on the horizon
drawn out toward the viewer.
line where parallel lines converge
{14.2} opposite bottom
Horizon line: The line that is at eye level
Perspective drawings provide
Ground line: Where the ground plane a sense of space because the
meets the picture plane image is created as if someone
is viewing the space from a
Picture plane: The surface where the stationary point. (Illustration
drawing is projected credit: Jordan Bartek)
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 An isometric drawing initially ap-
pears complex because of the three-
dimensional form, but the drawing
type is the simplest to construct after
the framework is started. The major
obstruction most beginners deal with
is learning that all lines need precise
measurement to accurately complete
the frame. Incorrect measurements
lead to frustration and poor design.
Understanding the basics eases the
process, such as learning the height
of the ceiling. Normal ceilings start at
8 feet. Imagine looking down into a
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 179
space with the ceiling removed. This
is the principle behind an isometric
drawing. Clients can visualize them-
selves within the space because they
see the plan simply extruded up to
the ceiling height. Door and windows
headers begin at 6' - 8". Exact win-
dow sizes can then be measured up
to the 6' - 8" mark. (See Figure 14.12.)
The final component is wall material.
Drawing the walls to correct width will
simplify the process. If the wall thick-
ness is correct, the wall heights will
intersect correctly.
179
Projection Drawings on a 2-D Surface
{14.12}
Windows and door are mea-
sured from a standard height.
Residential door height is 6’ - 8”.
1/10/11 2:23 PM
 Steps to drawing an isometric area
as follows.

1. Complete the floor plan and

window schedule.
2. Place the floor plan at a 45-de-
gree angle. Using the 45-degree
triangle, align the edge with a
corner of the drawing. Make
sure the corner is aligned per-
fectly. (See Figure 14.13.)
3. Draw a line from the outside
corners up 8 feet; then connect
all the corners with a line using
the 45-degree triangle. (See
180
Figure 14.14.)
4. With the outside walls in place,
Projection Drawings on a 2-D Surface

continue with the interior walls.

{14.13}
Make sure all wall thicknesses
Using the plan, tape down the are correct for the wall type.
drawing at a 45-degree angle. (See Figure 14.15.)
5. Erase all lines hidden behind
walls. (See Figure 14.16.)
6. Add doors and windows. (See
Figure 14.17.)
7. Add kitchen and bath cabinetry.
(See Figure 14.18.)
8. Poché all objects cut through.

{14.14}
Draw the lines up from the
corners to the ceiling height.

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 CHAPTER 15

PRESENTATION DRAWINGS

185
After reading this chapter and completing the scenario, Architecture should speak of
its time and place, but yearn

Presentation Drawings
a beginning designer will possess an understanding of for timelessness.
—FRANK GEHRY, ARCHITECT

basic design presentation. Layout skills will be based

on presentation and working drawings. The goal is to

organize and present information in a logical format

for presentation and delivery to a client.

COMMUNICATION OF
DRAWING TYPES
The presentation of drawings is the
main conveyance of information to
a client. Creating a presentation that
is informative and interesting is the
designer’s objective. Convincing a client
that the design will meet their needs is
achieved through quality drawings and
a knowledgeable presentation. After the
presentation drawings are approved, a
set of working drawings or construction
documents are created.
What Is a Set of Working Drawings?
Working drawings are the documents
that are created for the actual construc-
tion of a structure. They are designed
to be read by the various subcontrac-
tors and laborers; therefore, standard
symbols are used that apply to all fields
of construction, architecture, and interior
design. Using standard symbols while
developing a creative design is one of the
goals of the scenario method. By using a
methodical process when designing, and
by drawing designs in standard sizes,
much of the work is completed and only
needs refinement. Drawing residential
floor plans and elevations in ¼ inch
is easy for contractors to understand
because the measurement is a residential
standard. Drawing kitchen and bath plans
and elevations at ½ inch is also standard.
{15.1} opposite
For the various contractors involved in
This board is a
the construction process, standard mea- presentation with
surements make the process of drawing programming
working documents uniform. development.

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When creating construction docu-
ments, the standard order is based on
the Uniform Drawing System (UDS).
The UDS reduces confusion and allows
multiple disciplines to work on a stan-
dard set of drawings. The initial letter
represents the different disciplines:
A-Architecture, C-Civil, S-Structural, P-
Plumbing, and E-Electrical. This system
of clear identification crosses disci-
plines and countries.
What Is a Presentation Drawing?
A presentation drawing is designed to
sell a project to potential clients. Design
students are taught various methods
to creating presentation drawings, lay-
outs, and boards. Most involve creative
methods that are graphically attractive
and convey the intent of the design to
the audience. Always understand the
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 187
187
Presentation Drawings
client; it will allow and encourage the {15.3}
creation of presentations specifically This composite drawing has
a mixture of perspective and
for clients. Most people discover that a
plan drawings at various
simple, comprehensible presentation
scales. Computer-generated
works best for the majority of clients. titles have been added to
Complex composite drawings with increase the quality of the pre-
overlapping images are perfect for sentation. Hand drawing with
presenting to designers. A composite ink on mylar.
drawing is a presentation drawing that
combines multiple drawing types with
images merging onto each other. It is
a graphic system used to create one
massive image, and it is the predomi-
nant form of presentation with digital
methods. The merging of drawings can
be accomplished with manual methods;
however, the level of refinement may
be lacking when compared to a digital
presentation. (See Figure 15.3.) A single
drawing that is graphic, but can be
added to, is the design scenario method
1/10/11 2:23 PM
 {15.4}
Hand-drawn images that
were scanned and arranged
with photo editing software.

188
Presentation Drawings

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