Program

Chapter I: Fundamentals of Power Electronics

I.1 Introduction
I.2 Power Semiconductor Devices
I.3 Classifications of Power Switches
I.4 Power Electronic Converters
I.5 Applications fields
I.6 Terminology (table1)

Chapter II : AC-DC converters (Rectifiers)

II.1 Uncontrolled rectifiers
II.1.1 single-phase rectifiers
II.1.2 Three-phase rectifiers
II.2 controlled rectifiers
II.1.1 single-phase rectifiers
II.1.2 Three-phase rectifiers
II.3 PWM Rectifiers
II.4 Terminology (table2)

Chapter III: DC/AC Converters (Inverters)

III.1 single-phase inventers
III.2 Three-phase inventers
III.3 Terminology (table3)

Chapter IV : DC/DC Converters (Chopper)

IV.1 Non-isolated down (buck) chopper
IV.2 Full-bridge non-isolated down (buck) chopper
IV.3 Boost (up) chopper
IV.4 Buck-boost (up/down) chopper
IV.5 Terminology (table4)

1
Chapter I : Fundamentals of Power Electronics
I.1 Introduction
I.2 Power Semiconductor Devices
I.3 Classifications of Power Switches
I.4 Power Electronic Converters
I.5 Applications fields
I.6 Terminology (table1)

2
 Chapter 1 : Fundamentals of Power
Electronics

I.1 Introduction

Power electronic circuits are used to control the power conversion from one or
more AC or DC sources to one or more AC or DC loads. In most power electronics
systems, this conversion is accomplished with two functional modules called the
control stage and the power stage. Figure I.1 shows the topology for a single source
and single load converter application that includes a power processor (the power
stage) and a controller (the control stage).

Fig I.1 . A general power electronic system

The converter, handles the power transfer from the input to output, or vice versa, and
is constituted of power semiconductor devices acting as switches, plus passive
devices (inductor and capacitor). The controller is responsible for operating the
switches according to specific algorithms monitoring physical quantities (usually
voltages and currents) measured at the system input and or output.

 Diode
 Thyristor, (Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)) : invented in 1957
 Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) : invented in 1970
 Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) and Gate turn-off
thyristor (GTO): invented in 1978
 Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) developed in 1983
 Integrated gate commutated thyristor (IGCT) invented in 1997
3
Through the use of this switching technology power electronics systems can operate
in the range from few watts up to GW, with frequency range from some 100 Hz up
to some 100 kHz,

The development of devices and equipment able to individually or in combination

convert efficiently electric energy from:
 AC to DC : Rectifier
 DC to DC : Chopper
 DC to AC: Inverter
 AC to AC : AC controller (transformer) ( if f1=f2) and cycloconverter (f1f2)

Fig I.2. Power converter classification

Figure I.3 shows how electrical energy generation is distributed for the end-user,
showing transmission, distribution, storage, renewable energy sources and users.

4
 Fig. I.3 Power electronics and electrical energy generation transmission, storage, and distribution

In fact, PE is a key technology for all those sub-systems, and has spread in many
applications, examples including:

I.2 Power Semiconductor Devices

An power electronic switch can be represented as a three terminals device as shown

in Fig. I.4. The input, the output, and a control terminal that imposes ON/OFF
conditions on the switch.
If we plot the switch current ( i) with respect to its voltage ( v ) we define four
quadrants. By definition, an ideal switch can operate in all four quadrants. Practical
or real switches do have their.

5
 Fig. I.4 Representation of ideal switch and its v - i plane

I.3 Classifications of Power Switches

1. Uncontrolled switch: The switch has no control terminal. A diode is an example

of such switch.
2. Semi - controlled switch : The switch can be switched (be turned-on and off )by
the operation of the circuit or by an auxiliary circuit that is added. A thyristor or a
SCR is an example of this switch type.
3. Fully controlled switch: The switch can be turned-on and off via the control
terminal. Examples of this switch are the BJT, the MOSFET, the IGBT, the GTO
thyristor, and the MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT).

A) Uncontrolled Switches: a diode, also known as rectifier

6
 Fig. I. 5 Diode: a symbol, b i - v characteristics, and c idealized characteristics

B) Semi-controlled Switches : The thyristor or SCR is a power semiconductor

switch whose turn-on can be activated from the control terminal Gate but once
it turns ON, the control terminal becomes ineffective and the thyristor behaves
similar to a diode.
The triac, shown in Fig. I.7a, is also a semi-controlled switch. A triac can be
modeled as two thyristors connected back-to-back

Fig. I.6 Thyristor : a symbol, b i -v characteristics, and c idealized characteristics

TRIAC = TRIode for Alternating Current

7
Fig. I.7 The triac: a symbol, b two-thyristor-representation, c i –v characteristics, and d idealized
characteristics

C) Fully Controlled Switches

In a fully controlled switch the ON- and OFF-states can be activated externally
through a control terminal.

1. The Bipolar Junction Transistor(BJT), and insulated Gate Bipolar

Transistor (IGBT)
The BJT is a current-controlled device, it has historical importance, but today
most of its function are covered by devices like the IGBT characterized by a
reduced power dissipation and better thermal performance, IGBT’s are
typically used for high power switching applications such as motor controls
and for medium power PV and wind PE

8
 a) b)

Fig. I.8 a) NPN bipolar junction transistor , b) IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

a) b)

Fig. I.9 BJT : Schematic symbol, b) I-V Characteristics curves

b) b)

Fig. I.10 IGBT : a) Schematic symbol, b) I-V Characteristics curves

9
 2. The Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)

The MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device,

Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor MOSFET 3401L -30V -4.2A

Fig. I.10 Schematic symbol, b) ID-VDS Characteristics curves

3. The Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO)

The GTO thyristor is a device that operates similar to a normal thyristor except the
device physics, design and manufacturing features allow it to be turned-off by a
negative gate current which is accomplished through the use of a bipolar transistor.

Gate Turn OFF thyristor (GTO)

10
 Fig. I.11 The GTO : a symbol, b i-v characteristics, and c idealized characteristics

4. The MOS-Controlled Thyristor

Similar to the IGBT, the MCT is a hybrid or double mechanism device that was
designed to have a control port of a MOSFET and a power port of a thyristor.

Fig. I.12 The MCT: a symbol, b i-v characteristics, and c idealized characteristics

The MCTs have the following advantages:

 Low on-state losses
 large current carrying capability ( Comparing with the same voltage rating of
the IGBT, the MCT typically has 10 to 15 times the current carrying capability
at the same voltage drop)
 Controlled turn on and turn off
 Fast switching speeds

11
I.4 Power Electronic Converters
Power electronic converters are switch-mode circuits that process power between two
electrical systems using power semiconductor switches. There are four possible types
of converters; namely DC/DC, DC/AC, AC/DC, and AC/AC. The four converter
types are described below:

Fig. I.13 The four possible types of converters

12
 Chapter 1 : Fundamentals of Power
Electronics
Anglais Français Arabe
Power electronic PE Electronique de puissance ‫إلكترونيات القدرة‬
power conversion Conversion de puissance ‫تحويل الطاقة‬
loads charge ‫حمولة‬
Diode Diode ‫الصمام الثنائي‬
Thyristor Thyristor ‫الثايرستور‬
transistor transistor ‫الترانزستور‬
Gate gâchette )‫مدخل تحكم (قداحة زناد‬
Insulated Isolé ‫معزولة‬
frequency fréquence ‫التردد‬
devices équipements ‫األجهزة‬
Rectifier Redresseur ‫مقوم‬
Chopper hacheur ‫مقطع‬
Inverter Onduleur
cycloconverter Cyclo-convertisseur
storage stockage ‫تحزين‬
Semiconductor Semi conducteurs ‫أنصاف النواقل‬
switch Interrupteur, commutateur ‫التبديل‬
Uncontrolled Non commandé; Incontrôlé ‫غير محكوم‬
Semi - controlled Semi-commandé ‫نصف محكوم‬
Fully controlled Totalement Commandé ‫محكوم بالكامل‬
Curve Courbe ‫منحنى‬
triac TRIAC ‫صمام تحكم كهربائي‬
characteristic Caractéristiques
Modeled Modélisé ‫المنمذجة‬
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor bipolaire a gâchette ‫الترانزستور ثنائي القطب‬ ‫مع زناد‬
Transistor isolée ‫معزول‬
speed La Vitesse ‫السرعة‬
losses pertes ‫الضياعات‬
Field Effect Transistor Transistor a effet du champ
Turn-ON Allumer
Turn-Off Éteindre
Converter Convertisseur
Single- phase rectifiers Redresseur monophasé
Three- phase rectifiers Redresseur triphasé

13
Chapter II : AC-DC Converters (Rectifiers)

II.1 Introduction
II.2 Uncontrolled rectifiers
II.2.1 single-phase rectifiers
II.2.2 Three-phase rectifiers
II.3 controlled rectifiers
II.3.1 single-phase rectifiers
II.3.2 Three-phase rectifiers
II.4 PWM Rectifiers
II.5 Terminology (table2)

14
II.1 Introduction
AC/DC converter is also known as ‘‘Rectifier’’. Usually the AC input to the circuit is
a sinusoidal voltage source that operates at 120 V, 60 Hz or a 230 V, 50 Hz, which
are used for power distribution applications.
The AC voltage is rectified into a unidirectional DC voltage, which can be used
directly to supply power to a DC resistive load or control a DC motor. In some
applications the DC voltage is subjected to further conversion using a DC/DC or
DC/AC converter. A rectifier is typically used as a front-end circuit in many power
system applications. If not applied correctly, rectifiers can cause harmonics and low
power factor when they are connected to the power grid.
As shown in Fig. II.1, rectifiers are usually used in either single-phase or three-phase
applications, but multi-phase topologies are possible for high power applications.

Fig.II.1 Classifications of rectifier circuits

Switches that are used in rectifier’s designs can be either uncontrolled (diode) or
controlled devices (thyristor). Single-phase rectifiers can be classified as either half-
wave or full-wave circuits. Three-phase rectifiers are classified based on the number
of pulses of the rectified output voltage, i.e., 3-pulse rectifiers, 6-pulse, 12-pulse,
…etc.

15
There are circuit topologies, such as one-quadrant, two-quadrant, and four-quadrant,
for half- or full-wave types. Some of them are uncontrolled, and others are fully
controlled depending on the combination of diodes and thyristors, which are usually
classified as semi-controlled or hybrid rectifiers.

II.2 Uncontrolled rectifiers

II.2.1 Single-Phase Rectifiers
Single phase rectifiers, as already discussed, are extensively used in low power
applications particularly for power supplies to electronic circuits. They are also found
useful for supplying small dc loads rarely exceeding 5 KW. Above this power level
three phase ac – dc power supplies are usually employed.

Fig II.2 Single-Phase Rectifiers Diode Bridge

A) half-wave rectifier resistive load

The circuit is illustrated in Fig. II.3(a), and the resulting waveforms are shown in
Fig. II.3(b).

(a) (b)

Fig II.3 (a) Single-phase uncontrolled rectifier, and (b) output voltage waveforms
(Resistive load)
16
The output waveform has an average value (the required DC component), which
can be calculated using Eq. (II.1) as,

(II.1)

 Form factor
The form factor can be calculated using Eq II.2

(II.2)
 Ripple Factor
The ripple factor can be calculated using Eq II.3

(II.3)

B) half-wave rectifier inductive load

In the case of inductive load (inductance L). The circuit is illustrated in Fig. II.4(a),
and the resulting waveforms are shown in Fig. II.4(b).

Fig II.4 (a) Single-phase uncontrolled rectifier, and (b) output voltage waveforms
(inductive load)

17
The output waveform has an average value:

C) Inductive load with freewheeling diode (FWD)

In this half-wave rectifier, freewheeling diode is connected in parallel with the
load.

This diode serves two main functions

1) It prevents reversal of load voltage except for small diode voltage-drop.

2) It transfers the load current away from the main rectifier, thereby allowing all
of its diodes to regain their blocking state.

a) b)
Fig II.5 (a) Single-phase uncontrolled rectifier with freewheeling diode, and (b)
output voltage waveforms (inductive load)

D) Full-wave rectifier resistive load

Single phase uncontrolled half wave rectifiers suffer from poor output voltage
and/or current ripple factor, we can using a full wave rectifier, they use more
number of diode but provide higher average output voltage.

18
 D-1) split supply (Center tap) Full wave Rectifier:
 This circuit consists of two diodes.
 A centre tapped secondary winding is used to conned two diodes
 The centre point is the neutral point.
 The total secondary voltage is divided into two parts.

Fig. II.6 split supply (Center tap) Full wave Rectifier and its waveform (resistive
load)

Fig. II.7 Center tap Full wave Rectifier and its waveform (inductive load)

The Average voltage can be calculated by

And the Ripple factor

19
II.2.2 Full wave Bridge Rectifier (Graetez Bridge)
contains four diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 connected to form a bridge.

a) b)

c) d)
Fig II.8 : a) Diode bridge in various packages, b) A hand made diode
bridge. The wide silver band on the diodes indicates the cathode side of the
diode. c) full-bridge (FB) rectifiers diagram , and d) waveforms

20
Fig II.9 : full-bridge rectifiers diagram and its waveforms (resistive load)

250

200

150

100

50

-50

-100

-150

-200

-250
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Fig II.10 : full-bridge rectifiers diagram and its waveforms (inductive

load)

21
22
II.2.2 Three-Phase Rectifiers
A) three pulses rectifier
The output is defined in terms of the number of pulses per one cycle of the input
voltage. The 3-pulse rectifier is a basic three-phase rectifier circuit (connected to a
three-phase system), and can be used as building block for most of other three-phase
rectifiers. Each of the three-phase input voltages can be determined using Eq. ( II.4 ).
The operation of a three-phase 3-pulse rectifier is shown in Fig. II.4 a, b.

(II.4)

23
 Fig. II.12 3-pulse rectifier circuit (P3): a) circuit and b) waveforms

A diode will turn-on when its voltage is higher than the other two diodes and will
conduct, the output voltage has 3 pulses, during one cycle of the input. Therefore, the
fundamental frequency of the output voltage is three times the frequency of the input
voltage. The DC voltage, given by Eq. (II.5), is higher than the output voltage of a
single-phase full-wave rectifier. Of course, the drawback is the need of a three-phase
source, which is most common for industrial applications.

(II.5)

B) Six pulses rectifier

The circuit shown in Fig. II.13 is known as a 6-pulse rectifier, and it is the building
block for all high power multiple-pulse rectifier circuits.
Two 6-pulse rectifier circuits can be connected for building 12-pulse rectifiers. If the
two rectifiers are connected in series, the resulting circuit is shown in Fig. II.14 a and
24
is suitable for high voltage, whereas the converter is connected in parallel as shown in
Fig.II.6 b, the circuit is suitable for high current

Fig. II.13 6-pulse rectifier circuits (PD3): a Y -connected source, and b D-connected
source

The fundamental frequency of the output voltage is six times the frequency of the
input voltage. The DC voltage, given by Eq. (II.6), is higher than the output voltage
of three pulses rectifier.

25
 (II.6)

C) Twelve-pulse bridge

Fig. II.14 12-pulse rectifier circuits: a high voltage 12-pulse rectifier, and b high
current 12-pulse rectifier

26
II.3 Controlled rectifiers
II.3.1 Single-phase rectifiers

Fig. II.15 Single phase controlled rectifier and its waveforme

II.3.2 Three-phase bridge rectifier controlled

A. Three pulse rectifier

27
 B. Controlled 6 pulses rectifier (B6C)

Fig II.19 Controlled three-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit (B6C)

The output voltage is reduced by the factor cos(α):

Where:
α, firing angle of the thyristor

28
In practice, the supply inductance causes a reduction of DC output voltage with increasing load,
typically in the range 10–20% at full load.
The effect of supply inductance is to slow down the transfer process (called commutation) from one
phase to the next. As result of this, there is a period of overlap during which three devices in the bridge
are conducting simultaneously. The overlap angle is usually referred to by the symbol μ (or u), and
may be 20 30° at full load.

Three-phase Graetz bridge rectifier at alpha=0° without overlap

29
 Three-phase Graetz bridge rectifier at alpha=0° with overlap angle of 20°

Three-phase controlled Graetz bridge rectifier at alpha=20° with overlap angle of 20°

30
 Three-phase controlled Graetz bridge rectifier at alpha=40° with overlap angle of 20°

C . Twelve-pulse bridge
Although better than single-phase rectifiers or three-phase half-wave rectifiers, six-pulse rectifier
circuits still produce considerable harmonic distortion on both the AC and DC connections. For
very high-power rectifiers the twelve-pulse bridge connection is usually used. A twelve-pulse
bridge consists of two six-pulse bridge circuits connected in series, with their AC connections fed
from a supply transformer that produces a 30° phase shift between the two bridges. This cancels
many of the harmonics the six-pulse bridges produce.
The 30 degree phase shift is usually achieved by using a transformer with two sets of secondary
windings, one in star (wye) connection and one in delta connection.

II.3.3 Application
Rectifiers are used inside the power supplies of virtually all electronic equipment. AC-DC power
supplies may be broadly divided into linear power supplies and switched-mode power supplies. In
such power supplies, the rectifier will be in series following the transformer, and be followed by a
smoothing filter and possibly a voltage regulator.
The rectifiers are used for
- Detection of amplitude modulated radio signals.
- For welding, where control of the output current is required;
- Thyristors are used in various classes of railway rolling stock systems so that fine control of
the traction motors can be achieved.
- For higher-power applications, a 12 pulses diode rectifier is usually used. For the very highest
powers, each arm of the bridge may consist of tens or hundreds of separate devices in parallel
31
 (where very high current is needed, for example in aluminium smelting) or in series (where very
high voltages are needed, for example in high-voltage direct current power transmission).

Disassembled automobile alternator, showing the six diodes that comprise a full-wave three-phase bridge rectifier

Three-phase bridge rectifier for a wind turbine.

32
Power transmission rectifier between Hydro One and Hydro-Québec grid for High voltage Direct Current HVDC.

33
II.4 PWM Rectifier
Example : Aircraft electrical system
An aircraft electrical system is mainly composed of
- Power sources
- Components ( control devices, conversion devices, protection devices)
- Power distribution system
- Electrical load

There are many occasion within an aircraft electrical system where it is required to convert power
from one form to another
- Conversion from DC to AC
- Conversion from 115 Vac to 28 Vdc
- Conversion from one Ac voltage level to another
- Battery charging ( from 115 Vac to 28 Vdc)

Following devices are uses for these purposes

- Transformers
- Rectifiers
- Transformer-rectifier units ( TRU)
- Inverters
- Transistors

II.4.1 TRU rectifier

Transformer Rectifier Unit (TRU) is a device with the design circuit that combines rectifier and
transformer to convert AC into relatively smooth DC output.

Most large aircraft AC generator systems have dedicated TRUs, which operate on the same
principle, although they are slightly more sophisticated.
The TRU that is fitted to an aircraft is typically supplied with 115 V 400 Hz three-phase AC,
which is stepped-down through a three- phase star-star wound transformer and changed to
DC by a six-rectifier bridge assembly. The output from the TRU is then fed to the aircraft’s DC
busbars. A typical unit is illustrated below.

34
Fig. II.15 Transformer Rectifier Unit TRU

35
Fig. II.15 Transformer Rectifier Unit TRU 12 pulses for aircraft
36
II.4.2 PWM Rectifier
The major advantage of using the Pulse Width Modulation technique is the reduction of higher
order harmonics. The PWM rectifier is generally used to obtain sinusoidal input currents with
slightest harmonic. The output voltage can be kept constant by a voltage regulator.

Fig. II.18 PWM rectifier

Fig. II.19 Comparison between current specter of PWM rectifiers and those of 12
pulses and 24 pulses rectifiers

37
From figure II.19 we note that:
- The 12 pulses rectifier generates important harmonics (11 and 13).
- .With the 24 pulses rectifiers, the harmonics 11, 13, 35 and 37 are practically eliminated, but
at the expense of an increase in harmonics 23 and 25,
- The PWM rectifier reduces all harmonics less than 0.5% of the fundamental.

38
 Chapter 2 : AC-DC Converters (Table 2-Uncontrolled
rectifiers)
Anglais Français Arabe
Usually ( habitually) habituellement
sinusoidal voltage tension sinusoïdale
operates Fonctionne
Unidirectional unidirectionnel
resistive load Charge résistive
control a DC motor Contrôler un moteur à courant continu
Further conversion conversion ultérieure (supplémentaire)
Typically typiquement
Frond-end L’extrémité frontale
Low Faible
power grid Réseau électrique
High Elevé
Wave Onde, alternance
Half-wave mono-alternance
Full-wave
Pulses Impulsions
waveform Forme d’onde
Average Moyenne
freewheel Roue libre
freewheeling diode Diode a roue libre
Voltage drop Chute de tension
Main Principale
Bridge Pont
Ratio Proportion , fraction
Design Plan
Remain rester
Hybrid Mixte
Efficiency rendement
Peak
Ripple factor Facteur d’ondulation
required suggéré

39
cycle Période
drawback inconvénient
common commun
either Soit

40
 Chapter 2 : AC-DC Converters (Table 2bis)
Anglais Français Arabe
Smelting Fusion
Supply alimentation
Firing angle Angle d’amorçage
Overlap Chevauchement, empiétement
simultaneously simultanément
Most La plupart
Aircraft Aéronef, avion
Although malgré
combines Combine
Smooth lisse
PWM – Pulse width MLI -modulation de largeur
Modulation d’impulsions
Slightly Légèrement
Below Au dessous
Above Au dessus
Fitted Placé, attaché….
Split divisé
stepped-down abaissée
Through A travers
Wound Bobiné
Busbars barres
eliminated éliminé
Reduces Réduit
at the expense au détriment de ‫على حساب‬
distortion Altération
Shift décalage
Cancels Annule, supprime
Sets Ensemble, appareils
welding soudage
railway Réseau ferroviaire
Fine Précis
wind turbine. éolienne
purposes But, fin

41
 Program

Chapter III : DC/AC Converters (Inverters)

III.1 Introduction
III.2 single-phase inventers
III.3 Three-phase inventers
III.4 Applications
III.5 Terminology (table3)

42
 Chapter III : DC-AC converters ( Inverters)

III.1 Introduction

DC/AC Converter: Also described as ‘‘Inverter’’ is a circuit that converts a DC

source into a sinusoidal AC voltage to supply AC loads, control AC motors, or even
connect DC devices that are connected to the grid. The input to an inverter can be a
stiff source such as battery, solar cell, or fuel cell or can be from an intermediate DC
link that can be supplied from an AC source (the output of a rectifier)

Inverters can be usually classified according to their AC output as single phase or

three-phase and also as half- and full-bridge converters.

 A non-controlled rectifier is called " autonomous"

 A controlled rectifier all thyristors can operate as an inverter. This type of
inverter is said "non-autonomous" or "assisted".

43
There are two types of inverter
• Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
• Current Source Inverter (CSI)

The Inverters are constituted by electronic switches such as IGBTs, power transistors or thyristors

III.2 Single-Phase Inverters

A half-bridge converter can be obtained using two DC sources of equal voltages, one
P-Switch and one N-switch as shown in Fig. III.2. the output is a square wave with a
period T, which corresponds to an AC fundamental frequency.

44
  Fig III.2 Half-bridge (HB) DC/AC converter (inverter): a circuit, and b
waveforms

Figure III.3 a represents a full bridge DC/AC inverter. Figure III.3 b shows the
resulting AC waveform when the P- and N-switches operate at a D = 0.5.

45
 Fig III.3 Full bridge (FB) DC/AC converter: a circuit, and b waveforms

The graph shows that the AC waveform is a square wave, a filter such as a resonant
LC-type circuit can be designed to filter most of the harmonics present in the square
wave and prevent them from appearing across load.

Fig III.4 Topology of a single-phase, full-bridge inverter.

46
 simulation

Figure III.4 shows the basic topology of a full-bridge inverter with single-phase
output. This configuration is often called an H-bridge, due to the arrangement of the
power switches and the load. The inverter has two legs, left and right. Each leg
consists of two power control devices (here IGBTs), each one has a diode connected
in antiparallel to it. The diodes provide an alternate path for the load current if the
power switches are turned off.

Fig III.5 Full-bridge (FB) DC/AC converter with variable AC voltage: a circuit, and
b waveforms

47
Fig III.6 Full-bridge (FB) DC/AC converter with variable AC voltage: a circuit, and
b waveforms

In Fig. III.6b. The angle  is a phase-shift between the two transistors and is used to
control the amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage, as demonstrated by Fourier series

By varying  from zero to , the output voltage can be varied from a fixed voltage at
= 0 to zero-voltage at = . This -control introduces a variable AC voltage and also
can eliminate one harmonic voltage:

For example, if the third harmonic voltage is chosen to be eliminated then  = /6.
This method of harmonic elimination is known as active filtering contrasted to
passive filtering that requires actual filter components.

48
III.3.1 Operation of simple square-wave inverter

49
 A) Waveforms and harmonics of square-wave inverter

Study of harmonics requires Fourier series for analyzing wave shapes. The periodic
function can be developed in fourrier series, in terms of sine and cosine

Where,

, is the maximum amplitude of the n harmonic

, is the maximum amplitude of the fundamental harmonic

Effective value of the n harmonic

 Harmonics of square-wave

50
51
B) Filtering
Output of the inverter is “chopped AC voltage with zero DC components”.
For obtaining a sine wave output , an LC section low-pass filter is normally fitted
at the inverter output to reduce the high frequency harmonics.

52
III.3 Three phase inverter

Three-phase inverters are used for variable-frequency drive applications and for high
power applications such as HVDC power transmission. A basic three-phase inverter
consists of three single-phase inverter switches each connected to one of the three
load terminals.
For the most basic control scheme, the operation of the three switches is coordinated
so that one switch operates at each 60 degree point of the fundamental output
waveform. This creates a line-to-line output waveform that has six steps.

Figure III.7 Topology of a three-phase inverter.

Figure III.8, 3-phase inverter switching circuit showing 6-step switching sequence and waveform
of voltage between terminals A and C

53
54
55
III.3.1 Advanced Converter Topologies
Several advanced circuits have been developed and the field of PE is still an
emerging and rapidly growing field with new converters.

a. Multilevel Inverters
To construct inverters with higher power ratings, two six-step three-phase inverters
can be connected in parallel for a higher current rating or in series for a higher
voltage rating. In either case, the output waveforms are phase shifted to obtain a 12-
step waveform. If additional inverters are combined, an 18-step inverter is obtained
with three inverters etc. Although inverters are usually combined for the purpose of
achieving increased voltage or current ratings, the quality of the waveform is
improved as well.

These inverters are modulated in a way such that the output voltage resembles a
staircase as shown by the generalized multilevel inverter in Fig. III.10 a.

Fig. III.10 Multilevel inverter: a generalized multi-level converter, b generalized

waveforms.

As the number of levels increase, the synthesized output waveform adds more steps,
producing a more refined staircase wave with minimum harmonic distortion, as
shown in Fig. III.10 b. Of course, a zero-harmonic distortion of the output wave can
be obtained by an infinite number of levels.
Such multiple switches and circuits usually make multilevel inverters more
expensive than two-level inverters and are cost-effective only for very specific utility
and transmission or distribution power system applications.

Different multilevel inverter topologies can be developed from the basic circuit of
Fig. III.10 for example the Diode Clamped (or Neutral-Point Clamped, NPC), and of
the Capacitor Clamped or flying capacitor (FC) inverters, as shown in Fig. III.11 a, b,
respectively, for three-level inverters. Another popular configuration is the Cascaded
H-Bridge, with separate DC sources that is evolved from the two-level inverter,
56
shown in Fig. III.12 a for five-level inverter. All these inverters can also be controlled
by PWM techniques, of which one example is shown in Fig. III.12 b for the three-
level NPC inverter.

Fig. III.11 Multilevel inverter: a. NPC inverter, b. flying capacitor inverter,

Fig. III.12 Multilevel inverter: a. H-bridge cascaded inverter, and b NPC line voltage
Waveforms.

Capacitors and inductors can be used to filter the waveform. Low-pass filters are applied to allow
the fundamental component of the waveform to pass to the output while limiting the passage of the
harmonic components. If the inverter is designed to provide power at a fixed frequency,
a resonant filter can be used.
Since most loads contain inductance, feedback rectifiers or antiparallel diodes are often connected
across each semiconductor switch to provide a path for the peak inductive load current when the
switch is turned off. The anti-parallel diodes are somewhat similar to the freewheeling diodes used
in AC/DC converter circuits.

57
Fourier analysis reveals that a waveform, like a square wave, that is anti-symmetrical about the 180
degree point contains only odd harmonics, the 3rd, 5th, 7th, etc
Changing the square wave as described above is an example of pulse-width modulation (PWM).
Modulating, or regulating the width of a square-wave pulse is often used as a method of regulating
or adjusting an inverter's output voltage. When voltage control is not required, a fixed pulse width
can be selected to reduce or eliminate selected harmonics. Harmonic elimination techniques are
generally applied to the lowest harmonics because filtering is much more practical at high
frequencies, where the filter components can be much smaller and less expensive. Multiple pulse-
width or carrier based PWM control schemes produce waveforms that are composed of many
narrow pulses. The frequency represented by the number of narrow pulses per second is called
the switching frequency or carrier frequency. These control schemes are often used in variable-
frequency motor control inverters because they allow a wide range of output voltage and frequency
adjustment while also improving the quality of the waveform.
Multilevel inverters provide another approach to harmonic cancellation. Multilevel inverters
provide an output waveform that exhibits multiple steps at several voltage levels. For example, it is
possible to produce a more sinusoidal wave by having split-rail direct current inputs at two voltages,
or positive and negative inputs with a central ground. By connecting the inverter output terminals in
sequence between the positive rail and ground, the positive rail and the negative rail, the ground rail
and the negative rail, then both to the ground rail, a stepped waveform is generated at the inverter
output. This is an example of a three level inverter: the two voltages and ground.[11]

More on achieving a sine wave

Resonant inverters produce sine waves with LC circuits to remove the harmonics from a simple
square wave. Typically there are several series- and parallel-resonant LC circuits, each tuned to a
different harmonic of the power line frequency. This simplifies the electronics, but the inductors
and capacitors tend to be large and heavy. Its high efficiency makes this approach popular in
58
large uninterruptible power supplies in data centers that run the inverter continuously in an "online"
mode to avoid any switchover transient when power is lost. (See related: Resonant inverter)
A closely related approach uses a ferroresonant transformer, also known as a constant voltage
transformer, to remove harmonics and to store enough energy to sustain the load for a few AC
cycles. This property makes them useful in standby power supplies to eliminate the switchover
transient that otherwise occurs during a power failure while the normally idle inverter starts and the
mechanical relays are switching to its output.
III.4 Applications

Inverter in Toyota Prius

 DC power source usage

An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries or fuel cells to AC electricity.
The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular it can operate AC equipment designed
for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at any desired voltage.

Inverter designed to provide 115 V AC from the 12 V DC source provided in an automobile.

59
 Uninterruptible power supplies
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to supply AC power
when mains power is not available. When mains power is restored, a rectifier supplies DC
power to recharge the batteries.

 Electric motor speed control

Inverter circuits designed to produce a variable output voltage range are often used within
motor speed controllers. Motor speed control needs are numerous like: industrial motor
driven equipment, electric vehicles, rail transport systems, and power tools.

 In refrigeration compressors
An inverter can be used to control the speed of the compressor motor to drive variable
refrigerant flow in a refrigeration or air conditioning system to regulate system performance.
Such installations are known as inverter compressors.
 Grid-tied Inverter
Grid-tied inverters are designed to feed into the electric power distribution system. This
inverter converts direct current (DC) into an alternating current (AC) suitable for injecting
into an electrical power grid, Grid-tie inverters are used between local electrical power
generators: solar panel, wind turbine, hydro-electric, and the grid.

Inverter for grid-tied solar panel Three-phase grid-tie inverter for large solar
panel systems
 solar inverter
A solar inverter is a balance of system (BOS) component of a photovoltaic system and can
be used for both grid-connected and off-grid-systems.

Internal view of a solar inverter

60
  Induction heating
Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to higher frequency for use in induction
heating. To do this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The inverter then
changes the DC power to high frequency AC power. .

Induction heating of 25 mm metal bar using 15 kW at 450 kHz.

 HVDC power transmission

With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power is transmitted
to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter converts the power back to AC. The
inverter must be synchronized with grid frequency and phase and minimize harmonic generation.
 Electroshock weapons
Electroshock weapons and tasers have a DC/AC inverter to generate several tens of
thousands of V AC out of a small 9 V DC battery.

A self-defense weapon.

 Miscellaneous
Typical applications for power inverters include:

 Portable consumer devices that allow the user to connect a battery, or set of batteries, to the
device to produce AC power to run various electrical items such as lights, televisions, kitchen
appliances, and power tools.
 Use in power generation systems such as electric utility companies or solar generating systems
to convert DC power to AC power.
 Use within any larger electronic system where an engineering need exists for deriving an AC
source from a DC source.

61
 Chapter 3 : DC-AC Converters (Inverter)

Anglais Français Arabe

Inverter Onduleur
solar cell cellule photovoltaïque
link Lien
stiff Rigide, vive
fuel cell pile à combustible
substituting Substitution, remplacement
phase-shift déphasage
neutral Neutre
staircase escalier
refined Raffiné
contrasted Contrasté, opposé, contrairement
Improved Amélioré
Uninterruptible Sans interruption
expensive coûteux
cost Coût
cost-effective Rentable
evolved Evolué
appearing Apparait
Across ( through) A travers
legs branches
provide Fournir
carrying Porter
towards Pour, vers, dans la direction de
components composantes
Chopped haché
sine wave Onde sinusoïdale
low-pass filter filtre passe-bas
wave shapes Forme d’onde
Even Même, pair
Odd impair
Rating évaluation
available disponible
numerous nombreux
Flow Débit, flux
Tied Lié
several Plusieurs
Electroshock weapons Armes à électrochocs
tasers Pistolet électrique, ‫مسدس الصعق الكهربائي‬
Miscellaneous divers
allow Permettre

62
Chapter IV : DC/DC Converters (Chopper)
IV.1 Introduction
IV.2 Classification of Choppers
IV.3 Buck (down) chopper
IV.4 Boost (up) chopper
IV.5 Buck-boost (up/down) chopper
IV.6 Control strategies
IV.7 Full-bridge converter
IV.8 Multi Quadrant DC-DC Converters
IV.9 Application
IV.10 Terminology (table4)

63
 Chapter IV : DC-DC Converters ( Chopper )

IV.1 Introduction
Is also known as ‘‘Switching Regulator’’. The circuit will change the level voltage available from a
DC source such as a battery, solar cell, or a fuel cell to another DC level, either to supply a DC load
or to be used as an intermediate voltage for an adjacent power electronic conversion such as a
DC/AC converter.
DC/DC converters coupled together with AC/DC converters enable the use of high voltage DC
(HVDC) transmission which has been adopted in transmission lines throughout the world.

Just like a transformer, a chopper can be used to step up or step down the fixed dc output voltage.
Choppers are used in many applications all over the world inside various electronic equipments. A
chopper system has a high efficiency, fast response and a smooth control.

Fig. IV.1 Generalized circuit for DC/DC converter

64
 Fig. IV.2 SWITCHING REGULATOR
.
Switching regulator is the basis of all DC-DC converters

 Devices used in Chopper

- Low power application : GTO, IGBT, Power BJT, Power MOSFET etc.
- High power application : Thyristor or SCR.

IV.2 Classification of Choppers:

Depending upon the direction of the output current and voltage, the converters can be
classified into five classes namely
 Class A [One-quadrant Operation]
 Class B [One-quadrant Operation]
 Class C [Two-quadrant Operation]
 Class D [Two-quadrant Operation]
 Class E [Four-quadrant Operation]

Based on the output voltage of the output, the choppers are classified as

1) Step-Down Chopper
In this case the average output voltage is less than the input voltage. It is also known as step
down converter
2) Step-Up Chopper
Here the average output voltage is more than the input voltage. It is also known as step up
converter

65
 3) Step-Up/Down Chopper
This type of converter produces an output voltage that is either lower or higher than the
input voltage

Depending upon the power loss occurred during turn ON/OFF of the switching device, the
choppers are classified into two categories namely
1) Hard switched Converter
Here the power loss is high during the switching (ON to OFF and OFF to ON) as a result of
the non zero voltage and current on the power switches.
2) Soft switched or resonant converters
In this type of choppers, the power loss is low at the time of switching as a result of zero
voltage and/or zero current on the switches.

IV.3 Buck (step-down) converter

The voltage is equal to the input voltage when the P-switch is ON, and is equal to zero when the N-
switch is ON. The ratio of the ON-time of switch P switch to the period T is defined as the duty
ratio or duty-cycle (D). The waveform of the output voltage vo(t) is shown in Fig. IV.4. Since vo(t)
is a pulsating waveform, an LC circuit is used to filter the voltage to a DC.

Fig.IV.3 Circuit of buck converter

66
 Fig.IV.4 Waveform of the output voltage

Steady - state operation requires that iL at the end of switching cycle is the same at the begining of
the next cycle.

67
IV.4 Boost (step-up) converter
Boost converter produces output voltage that is greater or equal to the input voltage.

Fig.IV.5 Circuit of boost converter

68
 Fig.IV.6 Waveform of the output voltage

- Explanation:
– When switch is closed, diode is reversed. Thus output is isolated. The input supplies energy to
inductor.
– When switch is opened, the output stage receives energy from the input as well as from the
inductor. Hence output is large.
– Output voltage is maintained constant by the large C.

IV.5 Buck-Boost converter

Fig.IV.7 Circuit of buck-boost converter

69
Output of a buck-boost converter either be higher or lower than input.
- If D>0.5, output is higher than input
- If D<0.5, output is lower input
- Output voltage is always negative.
- Energy is stored in inductor when switch is closed and transferred to load when switch is
opened.

Fig.IV.8 Waveform of the output voltage

Comparison between step up and step down chopper:

70
  D can be varied from 0 to one.
When, D = 0; Vo = 0
When D = 0.5, Vo = VS
When, D = 1, Vo = ∞
Hence, in the interval 0 ≤ D ≤ 0.5, output voltage varies in the range 0 ≤ VO ≤ VS and we
get step down or Buck operation.
Whereas, in the interval 0.5 ≤ D ≤ 1, output voltage varies in the range VS ≤ VO ≤ ∞ and we
get step up or Boost operation.

IV.6 Control strategies

For all the chopper configurations operating from a fixed DC input voltage, the average value of the
output voltage is controlled by periodic opening and closing of the switches used in the chopper
circuit. The average output voltage can be controlled by different techniques namely:

 Pulse-width modulation
 Frequency modulation
 Variable frequency, variable pulse width
 CLC control

- Pulse width modulation (PWM)

In pulse-width modulation the switches are turned on at a constant chopping frequency. The total
time period of one cycle of output waveform is constant. The average output voltage is directly
proportional to the ON time of chopper. The ratio of ON time to total time is defined as duty cycle.
It can be varied between 0 and 1 or between 0 and 100%. Pulse-width modulation (PWM), or pulse-
duration modulation (PDM), is a technique used to encode a message into a pulsing signal.
Although this modulation technique can be used to encode information for transmission, its main
use is to allow the control of the power supplied to electrical devices, especially to inertial loads
such as motors.
The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the switch
between supply and load on and off at a fast rate. The PWM switching frequency has to be much
higher than what would affect the load (the device that uses the power), which is to say that the
resultant waveform perceived by the load must be as smooth as possible.

71
 Fig.IV.9 Pulse width modulation (PWM)

IV.7 Full-bridge converter

72
 Fig.IV.10

- Switch “pair”: [S1 & S2];[S3 & S4].

- Each switch pair turn on at a time as shown. The other pair is off.
- “AC voltage” is developed across the primary. Then transferred to secondary via high
frequency transformers.
- On secondary side, diode pair is “high frequency full wave rectification”.
- The choke (L) and (C ) acts like the “buck converter” circuit.

IV.8 Multi Quadrant DC-DC Converters

DC-DC converters may be classified into unidirectional and bidirectional converters. Unidirectional
converters are used to supply power to various onboard loads such as sensors, controls,
entertainment and safety equipments. Bidirectional DC-DC converters are used where
regenerative braking is required. During regenerative braking the power flows back to the voltage
bus to recharge the batteries.
The buck, boost and the buck-boost converters allow power to flow from the supply to load and
hence are unidirectional converters. Depending on the directions of current and voltage flows, dc
converters can be classified into five types: type A, type B, type C, type D and type E.

Among the five converters, the first and second quadrant converrters are unidirectional converters,
third and fourthand four quadrant converters are bidirectional converters

73
 Fig.IV.11

- If output voltage (Vo) and output current (Io) follows the direction as marked in figure
IV.11 then the chopper operation will be restricted in the first quadrant of Vo - Io plane.
This type of operation is also known as forward motoring.
- When output voltage (Vo) follows the marked direction in fig IV.11. but current flows in the
opposite direction then Vo is taken positive but Io as negative. Hence the chopper operates
in the second quadrant of Vo – Io plane. This type of operation is also known as forward
braking.
- It may also happen that both output voltage and current is opposite to the marked direction
in figure – 1. In t his case both Vo and Io are taken as negative. Hence chopper operation is
restricted in third quadrant of Vo-Io plane. This operation is called reverse motoring.
- If output voltage is opposite to the marked direction in fig IV.11. then it is taken as negative.
But output current follows the direction as marked in fig IV.11 and considered as positive.
Hence chopper operates in 4th quadrant of Vo – Io plane. This mode of operation is called
reverse braking.

 Some choppers operate in a single quadrant only, which are called single quadrant
chopper. Some choppers operate in two quadrant also which are known as two quadrant
chopper. It is also possible that a chopper operates in all the quadrants, which are known
as 4-quadrant chopper.

IV.8.1 First Quadrant Converter –type A-

It is a single quadrant chopper whose operation is restricted in first quadrant of Vo – Io plane

74
 Fig.IV.12 Chopper first quadrant

IV.8.2 Second Quadrant Converter

This is also a single quadrant chopper operating in second quadrant of Vo – Io plane. The circuit
diagram is shown in the following figure

Fig.IV.13 Chopper second quadrant

Fig.IV.14: Second Quadrant DC-DC Converter and its Current and voltage waveform

In type B or second quadrant chopper the load must always contain a dc source E . The load voltage
V0 = (E+L .di/dt ) will be more than the voltage Vs so the type B chopper is also known as a
step up chopper .

75
 Fig.IV.15 regenerative braking of dc motor.

When the chopper is on the inductor L stores the energy and when it is off the inductor release the
energy.
If Ea / (1-D) exceeds V0 , the dc machine will work as a dc generator and the armature current will
flow in a direction opposite to the motoring mode. As the power now is flowing from dc machine to
the source V0 it will cause regenerative breaking of the dc motor. Even at decreasing motor speeds,
regenerative breaking can be provided as the motor armature Ea is directly proportional to the field
flux and motor speed.

IV.8.3 Type -C chopper or Two-quadrant converter

This converter is a combination of the first and second quadrant converters. Two such converters
are discussed here:

 operating in first and second quadrant

 operating in first and fourth quadrant

A) First and Second Quadrant Converter

76
 Figure IV.14 : First and Second Quadrant Converter

The average voltage will be always positive but the average load current might be positive or
negative. The power flow may be life the first quadrant operation ie from source to load or from
load to source like the second quadrant operation. The two choppers should not be turned on
simultaneously as the combined action my cause a short circuit in supply lines. For regenerative
braking and motoring these type of chopper configuration is used.

B) First and fourth quadrant converter

Figure IV.15 : First and fourth quadrant converter

IV.8.4 Type –E chopper (Four Quadrant Converters)

Type E or the fourth quadrant chopper consists of four semiconductor switches and four diodes
arranged in antiparallel. The 4 choppers are numbered according to which quadrant they belong.
Their operation will be in each quadrant and the corresponding chopper only be active in its
quadrant.

The circuit is operated as

a. Sequence 1: First and second quadrant operation
b. Sequence 2: Third and fourth quadrant operation

77
 Figure IV.16: Four quadrant converter

Figure IV.17: Waveforms for sequence 1

78
 Figure IV.18: Waveforms for sequence 2

IV.9 Applications
 They are used for DC motor control (battery-supplied vehicles), solar energy conversion and
wind energy conversion.
 Choppers are used in electric cars, airplanes and spaceships, where onboard-regulated DC
power supplies are required.

79
 In g

onvertisseur Boost utilisé dans une calculatrice TI transformant 2,4 V

en 9 V

80
Vue rapprochée d'une alimentation pour processeur AMD sur Socket 939. Cette alimentation
possède 3 convertisseurs Buck entrelacés. On peut distinguer au premier plan les 3 bobines
toroïdales noires. La bobine plus petite sur le côté appartient à un filtre d'entrée.

Convertisseur Buck boost utilisé sur un circuit de conversion vidéo

81
 eneral, Chopper circuits are used as power supplies in computers, commercial electronics,
electronic instruments.

Réglage de vitesse en boucle ouverte du MCC a excitation constante par un hacheur serie

82
 Chapter 4 : DC-DC Converters (Chopper)-Table 4-

Anglais Français Arabe

Chopper hacheur
Step-down converter Convertisseur Abaisseur
Step-up converter Convertisseur élévateurs
Adjacent Adjacent, voisin
Enable Permettre
Throughout the world A travers le monde
Stores stockage
Release Libération
regenerative braking Freinage par récupération
armature current courant d'induit
field flux Flux du champ
Duty cycle Cycle de service
Since puisque
Buck converter Hacheur Dévolteur (série)
Boost converter Hacheur survolteur (parallèle)
explanation Explication
as well as aussi bien que
Hence D’où , Par consequent, donc
Sawtooth en dents de scie
Steady - state État stable
Among Parmi
Depending upon Selon, en fonction de …
spaceships navires spatiaux
onboard À bord
forward Vers l’avant
restricted limité
Fed to the load Fournie à la charge
fast rate taux rapide
perceived Perçu, ‫ ملموس‬- ‫محسوس‬
safety equipments équipements de sécurité
entertainment divertissement ‫تسلية‬
Belong appartenir

83
References:

1) Edison R. C. da Silva and Malik E. Elbuluk; E. R. C. da Silva Departamento de Engenharia

Eletrica, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande,Campina Grande, Brazil, Rua Rodrigues
Alves, 1090—Bela vista, Campina Grande, PB CEP 58428-795, Brazil, M. E. Elbuluk The
University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325, USA
2) Hasnaoui Othman B.A., Support de cours et TD d’électronique de puissance 1MSTGE,
2LAEEA et 2LFEEA, Ecole Supérieure des Sciences et Techniques de Tunis Département
de Génie Electrique.
3) Étude de montages redresseurs polyphasés pour le réseau d’alimentation électrique des
avions, Mémoire Alvaro Ortiz Monroy Maîtrise en génie électrique Maître ès Sciences
(M.Sc.), 2013, université LAVAL
4) S. Simoes, MG Jramer,Power electronics for renewable and distributed Energy Systems, A
sourcebook of topologie, Springer 2013.
5) Michael Giesselmann Texas Tech University, Attila Karpati Budapest University of
Technology and Economics István Nagy Budapest University of Technology and
Economics Dariusz Czarkowski Polytechnic University, Brooklyn Michael E. Ropp South
Dakota State University Eric Walters P. C. Krause and Associates Oleg Wasynczuk Purdue
University, Chapter 5, Inverters, 2002 by CRC Press LLC.
6) Dr. Zainal Salam, Chapter 4 DC to AC Conversion (INVERTER), Power Electronics and
Drives (Version 2), 2002
7) Valery Vodovozoc; Raik Jansikene, Power electronic converters.
8) Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB, Power Electronics and Drives (Version 3-2003)

84