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THERMODYNAMICS

THERMODYNAMICS

1 . INTRODUCTION
Ø The branch of science in which the macroscopic properties such as Pressure, volume, temperature of a system
are studied is defined as thermodynamics.
Ø The branch of science in which the conversion of heat into mechanical work and vice versa is studied is known
as thermodynamics.
1.1 Thermodynamic System
Ø The system which can be represented in of pressure (P), volume (V) and temperature (T), is known as
thermodynamic system.
Piston
Ø 1 mol of gas contained in a cylinder with frictionless piston as shown in fig. is known as
thermodynamic system.
Ø Thermodynamic systems are of three types on the basis of mass and energy transfer–
1 mole gas
(a) Open system (b) Closed system (c) Isolated system
(a) Open system – The system in which both heat and matter can be exchanged, is defined
as open system.
(b) Closed system – The system in which only heat is exchange is defined as closed system.
(c) Isolated system – The system in which neither heat can be exchanged nor work can be done, is defined
as isolated systems,
(i) The damage in internal energy in this system is zero i.e. dU = 0
(ii) Any thermodynamic process happening in this system can not change its internal energy.
2. ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Ø According to it if two systems A and B are, separately in thermal equilibrium with
C
a third system C, then the systems A and B when brough into thermal contact will
A B
also be in thermal equilibrium.
Ø This law indicates that for systems in thermal equilibrium there must exist a common Thermal
contact
property which remains the same. This property is the “temperature”. Thus zeroth
Thermal
law, defines temperature. Insulator
Ø For two bodies or systems in contact, heat flows from higher temperature to
lower temperature.
Ø Temperature gives a measure of the hotness or coldness of a body.
3. JOULE’S LAW
Ø Whenever heat is converted into mechanical work or mechanical work is converted into heat, then the ratio
of work done to heat produced always remains constant. i.e. W ∝ Q
W
or = J this is joule’s law
Q
Here J = Joule’s constant.
Ø Mechanical equivalent law
(a) The amount of work done necessary to produced unit amount of heat is defined as the mechanical equivalent
of that, i.e., if Q = 1, then J = W
(b) J is neither a constant nor a physical quantity, rather it is a conversion factor with used to convert joule
or erg into calorie or Kilocalorie and vice versa.

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THERMODYNAMICS

(c) Values of J = 4.2 joule/calorie


= 4.2 × 107 erg/calorie
= 4.2 × 103 Joule/kilocaloie
(d) The units of J are joule/calorie or erg/calorie.
Example based on TTransfer
ransfer of work in to Heat
Ex.1 A block of ice of mass 50 kg is pushed out on a horizontal plane with a velocity of 5m/s. Due to friction
it comes to rest after covering a distance of 25 meter. How much ice will melt?

W mv 2 50 × 25
Sol. m = = =
JL 2JL 2 × 4.2 × 80

m = 1.86 gm
Ex.2 M kilograms of a material are to be kept in melted state at melting point and power required for this purpose
is P. When the power source is disconnected then the sample completely solidifies in t second. The latent
heat of fusion of the material will be -
Sol. Heat released in t second Q = ML
Q
Loss of heat per second P =
t
ML
From eqn. (1) and (2) P =
t
Pt
∴ L =
M
Ex.3 A bullet, moving with velocity v, is stopped by the target and then completely melts. If the mass of bullet
is m, its specific heat is s, initial temperature is 25ºC, melting point is 475ºC and latent heat is L, then the
velocity v is given by the relation -
Sol. Q W = JQ
mv 2
W = and Q = mL + ms (θ2 – θ1)
2
mv 2
= J [mL + ms (θ2 – θ2)]
2

mv 2
= mL + ms (475 – 25)
2J

Ex.4 The height of a water spring is 50 m. The difference of temperatures at the top and bottom of the spring will be

mgh
Sol. = ms∆θ
J

gh 9.8 × 50
∆θ = =
Js 4.2 × 103
= 0.117ºC
Ex.5 The radiator of a car contains 20 litre water. If the motor supplies 2 × 105 calorie heat to it, then rise in
its temperature will be -

Q Q
Sol. ∆θ = =
mc specific dVc

2 × 105
1× ( 20 × 10 3 ) × 1

∆θ = 10 º C

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THERMODYNAMICS

4. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Ø This law is based on law of conservation of energy.

Ø If δQ = Heat supplied to a thermodynamical system

δW = Work done by thermodynamical system


dU = Change in internal energy δQ = δW + dU
Note :
(i) δQ, δW and dU must be in the same units.
Heat supplied to the system = (+) ve
Heat rejected by the system = (–)ve
Work done by the system = (+)ve
Work done on the system = (–)ve
If temperature increased dU = (+)ve
If temperature decreases dU = (–)ve

Ø Heat is the energy which is transferred between a system and its environment because of the temperature
difference between them. It is given by
δQ = mS∆T
where S is molar specific heat

Ø Work is defined as the energy that is transferred from one body to the other owing the force that acts between
them.
It is given by δW = PdV

Ø Internal energy of a system if the energy possessed by the system due to molecular motion and molecular
configuration. It is given by,

Pf Vf − PiVi
∆U = µCv∆T = ( γ − 1)

Now if we substitute all the above the value in the first law of thermodynamics, it becomes,
µCpdT = PdV + µCv∆T
On the basis of this equation we prove mayor’s relation Cp – CV = R

Example based on first law of thermodynamics

Ex.6 In a thermodynamic process, the pressure of a certain mass of gas is changed in such a way that 20 Joule
heat is released from it and 8 Joule work is done on the gas. If the initial internal energy of the system is
30 joule then the final internal energy will be -

Sol. dQ = dU + dW

dQ = Ufinal – Uinitial + dW

Ufinal = dQ – dW + Uinitial

or Ufinal = –20 + 8 + 30

of Ufinal = 18 Joule

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THERMODYNAMICS

Ex.7 A gas is contained in a vessel fitted with a movable piston. The container is placed on a hot stove. A total
of 100 cal of heat is given to the gas & the gas does 40 J of work in the expansion resulting from heating.
Calculate the increase in internal energy in the process.
Sol. Heat given to the gas is ∆Q = 100 cal = 418 J.
Work done by the gas is ∆W = 40 J
The increase in internal energy is
∆U = ∆Q – ∆W
= 418J – 40 J = 378 J
Ex.8 When 1 gm of water changes from liquid to vapour (gas) state at 1 atmosphere pressure, then its volume
increase from 1cm3 to 1671 cm3. On this pressure Latent heat of vaporization is 540 calorie/gm. The work
done and change in internal energy in this process will be
Sol. (a) Because the process is isobaric, so

W = ∫ P dV = P[V2 − V1] = 1.01× 106 [1671 − 1] {1 atm. pressure = 1.01 × 106 dyne/cm2}

= 1686.7 × 106 erg. = 168.7 J


(b) By first law of thermodynamics
δQ = dU + δW
δQ = mL = 1 × 540 cal = 2268 J
∴ dU = δQ – δW = 2268 – 168.67
= 2099.33 J
Ex.9 A gas is compressed from volume 10 m3 to 4 m3 at constant pressure 50N/m2. Gas is given 100 J energy
by heating then its internal energy.

Sol. P = 50 N/m2

dV = 10 – 4 = 6 m3

δW = PdV = 6 × 50 = 300 J ( Q Volume is decreasing, δQ = 100 J)

W = – 300 J

δQ = δW + dU

100 + 300 = dU

dU = increased by 400 J

Ex.10 A gas whose γ = 4/3 is heated at constant pressure. How much percent of given heat is used in external
work done.

Sol. δW = P∆V = µR∆T


δQ = µCP∆T
δW R CP − C V
= =
δQ CP CP
CV 1
= 1 – C = 1 – γ
P

3 1
1 – = = 25%
4 4

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THERMODYNAMICS

5. HEAT (Q OR H)

Ø The form of energy which is exchanged among various bodies or systems on account of temperature difference
is defined as heat or

The form of energy, which when given to a body or system increase its internal energy and consequently its
thermal state changes, is defined as heat energy.

Ø When heat is given to a body then its temperature increases and when heat is taken from it even its temperature
falls.

Ø The amount of heat Q given to a body or system depends upon it mass, change in its temperature and nature
of material. i.e. Q = mS∆θ

= mS (θ2 – θ1) {There is no change of state}

where m = mass of body or system

S = specific heat of material

θ1 and θ2 = initial and final temperature of body

Ø The amount of heat given or taken for change of state

(solid → liquid → gas or solid → gas or gas → liquid → solid)

Q = mL {There is change of state}

Where m = mass of system

L = latent heat

Ø The amount of heat given to a system depends upon the thermodynamic path. (It is path dependent function)

Ø The units of heat are Joule erg, calorie or Kilocaloire etc.

Ø Heat is a scalar quantity.

Ø Heat always flows from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature till their temperatures
becomes equal.
6. WORK
This is the most important of the three.

Ø In thermodynamics work is actually done due to pressure of the gas.

dx

PA

Ø If a gas is allowed to expand from the state A to the state B when pressure and volume are P and V. During
expansion, piston moves by small distance dx so that work done is -
dW = PA (dx) = PdV
v2

W = ∫ PdV
v1

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THERMODYNAMICS

Ø If V increases then work done by the gas is positive.

If V decreases then work done by the gas is negative.

Ø The shaded area represents work done which is positive. So we can say that, P

Word done = Area bounded by PV curve and V axis V

Case 1. When volume is constant


P P
B A

or
A B
V V
V = constant WAB = 0
Case 2. When volume is increasing
P P
B A

A or B

V V
V in increasing WAB > 0 WAB = shaded area
Case 3. When volume is decreasing
P P
B A

A or B

V V
V is decreasing WAB < 0 WAB = – shaded area

Case 4. Work done in cyclic process P


A
Ø Wcyclic = Area enclosed by closed path ABCDA P1 B

= Area enclosed by P – V curve P2 D


C
Ø Wcyclic = can be positive if the P – V curve is traced in clock wise direction.
V
Ø Wcyclic = will be negaive if the P – V curve is traced is anticlock wise direction. V1 V2

Ø Thermal mechanical work depends upon the path between the intial and final P
A(P1,V1,T1)
states of the system. P1 B

From P – V curve E
D
(a) WABC ≠ WADC ≠ W AEC P2 C(P2 ,V2,T2 )

(b) Area ABFGA ≠ DCFGD ≠ AECFGA G F


V
O V1 V2
(c) The work done along path ADC is minimum and along path ABC it is maximum.
Case 5. Incomplete cycle
P P
C
B
B
A or C
V V

WABC = +shaded area WABCD = – shaded area

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THERMODYNAMICS

7. INTERNAL ENERGY

Ø The energy associated with configuration and random motion of the atoms and molecules with in a body is
called internal energy. It is the property of the system which depends on the equilibrium state of a system.

Ø The internal energy of gas is defined as the sum of kinetic energy and intermolecular potential energy of the
molecules of gas.

Ø For an ideal gas the intermolecular forces acting between the molecules is negligible. So internal energy of
an ideal gas is wholly kinetic in nature. If f is degrees of freedom of a gas molecule than
fKT
Ø Total kinetic energy of each molecule =
2
fRT
Ø Total kinetic energy of one mole =
2

µ f RT
Ø Therefore internal energy of µ moles of a gas at temperature TK is, U =
2
Ø Internal energy depends only on the temperature. Therefore it is a point property.

Ø If temperature of a gas changes from T1 to T2. Change in its internal energy is

µf R
dU = (T2 – T1) = µ CV (T2 – T1) {CV = fR/2}
2

8. APPLICATIONS OF FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS


THERMODYNMICS PROCESS
8.1 Isochoric process

Ø Volume of a gas remains constant (v = constant)

Ø It is valued for a given mass of a gas.

P
Ø Process equation is,
T
= constant

Ø If a system undergoes changes from A to B such that volume remains constant i.e. under the isochoric process then,
Isochoric
A (P1, V1, T1) 
→ B (P , V , T )
Pr ocess2 1 2

P1 P2
∴ T1 = T
2

Ø In an isochoric process, work done by a gas is zero

i.e. W = 0 [V = constant]

Ø The change in internal energy is given by dU = µCV (T2 – T1)

Ø Heat supplied to a gas by first law of thermodynamics becomes, dQ = dU = µ CV (T2 – T1)

Hence for an isochoric process, heat supplied to the system is completely utilized to increase the internal
energy.

Ø A graph is plotted between pressure versus volume and pressure versus temperature which is,

P P
θ
V T

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THERMODYNAMICS

8.2 Isobaric process

Ø Pressure of a gas remains constant. (P = constant)

Ø Process equation is,

V
= constant
T

Ø If a system undergoes change from A to B such that pressure remains constant i.e.under the isobaric process,

A (P1,V1,T1)  → B (P , V , T )
Isobaric
Pr ocess 1 2 2

V1 V2
∴ T1 = T2

Ø In an isobaric process, work done by a gas is,

W = P (V2 – V1)
= µR (T2 – T1)

Ø The change in internal energy is given by dU = µCV (T2 – T1)

Ø Heat supplied to a gas, dQ = µCP (T2 – T1)

8.3 Isothermal process

Ø In this process, temperature remains constant

Ø Process equation is, PV = constant

Ø If a system undergoes change from A to B, such that temperature remains constant i.e. in isothermal surface then,

A (P1,V1,T1) → B (P2, V2, T1)


Isothermal
Process

P1V1 = P2V2 = µRT

v2

Ø Work done by the gas is given by, δW = ∫ PdV


v1

K
But, PV = K (constant) P =
V
v2
K V2 V2
∴ δW = ∫
v1
V
dV
= K In V
1
= µRT In V
1

Ø The change in internal energy of gas is zero i.e.

dU = 0

Ø By first law of thermodynamics,

δQ = δW + dU
δQ = δW
Hence heat supplied in an isothermal process is used to do work against external surroundings.

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THERMODYNAMICS

Ø Specific heat of isothermal process is infinity

Since PV = K
On differentiating
PdV + VdP = 0
PdV = – VdP

−dP
P =
dV / V

−dP
Ø ∴ Bulk modulus B =
dV / V

1 1
Ø Compressibility is given by, =
B P

8.4 Adiabatic Process

Ø Heat supplied or taken by the system is zero i.e. the system is well insulated so that no heat enters or leaves
the system.

Ø Process equation is, PVγ = Constant

dRT
Using PV = µRT and P = M we have,
w

(a) TVγ – 1 = Constant (b) P1 – γTγ = Constant (c) d1 – γ T = Constant (d) Pd–γ = Constant

Ø If a system undergoes change from A to B in an adiabatic process, then

A (P1,V1,T1 ) 
Adiabatic
Pr ocess
→ B (P2 ,V2 ,T2 )

P1V1 P2 V2
= µR
T1 = T2

and P1V1γ = P2V2γ

Ø Heat supplied to a gas is zero i.e. δQ = 0

Ø The change in internal energy

µR(T2 − T1 )
dU = µCV(T2 – T1) =
γ −1

Ø Work done by the gas is dW = – dU {from Ist law of thermodynamics}

 µR(T2 − T1 ) 
W = −
 γ − 1 

Ø Specific heat for an adiabactic process is zero.

Ø Bulk modulus of adiabatic process = γ P

Ø The equation of first law of thermodynamics is,

µCpdT = µCVdT + PdV

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THERMODYNAMICS

for adiabatic process dQ = µCpdT = 0

∴ µCVdT + PdV = 0 ....(1)

Now PV = µRT (gives)

µRT
P=
V
Substitute the value of P in eqn. (1)

µRT dT dV
µCV dT + dV = 0 or µC V + µR =0
V T V

R
But CV =
γ −1

µR dT dV dT dV
∴ . + µR =0 or µR + ( γ − 1) µR =0
γ −1 T V T V

dT dV
µR = (1 − γ ) µR
T V
On integrating the above expression

dT dV
∫ µR T = (1 − γ ) µR
V
ln T = (1 – γ) ln V + C = ln V1 – γ + C

T
ln =C
V1−γ
ln TVγ – 1 = C
Vγ – 1T = Constant
or PVγ = Constant
V2
Ø Work done is given by W =
∫ PdV
V1

But PVγ = K

K
P=

V2
 V 1−γ 
V2
K K
∴ W= ∫V V γ dV =k
 1 − γ
 =
 V1 1 − γ
[V21−γ − V11−γ ]
1

As P1V1γ = P2V2γ = K

P2 V2 − P1V1 P1V1 − P2 V2
∴ W= =
1− γ γ −1

8.5 Cyclic Process

Ø In cyclic process, Final state of gas = Initial state of gas

Ø For one complete cycle in cyclic process dU = 0

Ø Work done by the gas is equal to the area enclosed by the curve on P – V chart

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THERMODYNAMICS

W=(+)ve W=(–)ve
Ø
P P
V V

Ø Here net heat in the process is given by,

Net heat = Total heat supply + total heat rejected (with sign)

Ø Efficiency of cyclic process

Total work done in cycle


η= × 100%
Total heat supplied

8.6 Special point about thermodynamics process


Isobaric
Ø For same volume expansion, work done by the gas is maximum in isobaric Isothermal
P Adiabatic
process and least in adicabatic process i.e. isothermal process is in between
both of them. V

Ø For same compression in volume, work done by the gas is maximum in adiabatic Adiabatic
Isothermal
P
Isobaric
V

Ø Two isothermal curve for given mass never intersect each other. P
T2 T2 > T1
T1
V

A
Ø For a given mass, isothermal curve and adiabatic curve intersect each other.
P Isothermal
Adiabatic
V
Ø At A, Slope of isothermal curve = γ(slope of adiabatic curve)

P
∴ Slope of isothermal curve = −
V
γP
Slope of adiabatic curve = −
V
Note :- Adiabatic process is the fastest process and isothermal process is slow process.
Example based on thermodynamics process
Ex.11 5 gm air is heated from 4ºC to 6ºC. If the specific heat of air at constant volume is 0.172 cal/gm/ºC, then
increase in the internal energy of air will be -
Sol. dU = mCvdT
dU = 5 × 0.172 × 2
dU = 1.72 calorie

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THERMODYNAMICS

Ex.12 In the following indicator diagram, the net amount of work done will be -

1 2
P

V
Sol. The cyclic process 1 is clockwise and the process 2 is anti clockwise. Therefore W1 will be positive and
W2 will be negative area 2 > area 1, Hence the net work will be negative .
Ex.13 Two gram-mole of a gas, which are kept at constant temperature of 0ºC, are compressed from 4 liter to
1 liter. The work done will be

V2
Sol. W = 2.303 µ RT log10 V
1

1
W = 2.303 × 2 × 8.4 × 273 log10
4

W = 2.303 × 2 × 8.7 × 273 × (log10 – log410) Q log410 = 0.6021


∴ W = –6359 Joule
Ex.14 Air is filled in a motor car tube at 27ºC temperature and 2 atmosphere pressure. If the tube suddenly bursts

 1 2 / 7 
then the final temperature will be  2  = 0.82
  

γ −1
 P2  γ
Sol. T2 = T1  
 P1 
0.4 2/7
 1  1.4  1
T2 = 300   = 300  
2 2

= 300 × 8.2 ⇒ T2 = 246 K


Ex.15 One liter of air at NTP is suddenly compressed to 1 c.c. the final pressure will be.

γ
 V1 
Sol. P2 = P1  V 
 2

P2 = 105 (103)5/3
= 105 × 105
P2 = 1010 Pascal
E.16 In the following fig. the work done by the system in the closed path ABCA is
Sol. Work done in closed path ABCA P
A
WABCA = Area of ∆ABC P2
Su

1
flix

= AB × BC
2 P1
B C
1 V
WABCA = – (P2 – P1) (V2 – V1) V1 V2
2

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THERMODYNAMICS

Ex.17 According to the fig. if one mole of ideal gas in cyclic process the work done by the gas in the process
will be P
B
Sol. Work done W = area of PV curve 3P0

1
= [3P0 – P0] [2V0 – V0] = P0V0 P0 C
2 A

Ex.18 In above question, heat given by the gas is V0 2V0

Sol. δQ = µCpdT, µ = 1, dT = TA – TC, and for monoatomic ideal gas CP = 5/2 R

5 5
∴ (δQ)CA = R [TA – TC] = [P V – PCVC]
2 2 A A

But PA = P0, VA = V0, VC = 2V0, PC = P0

PV
and =R
T

5 5
∴ (δQ)CA = [P V – P02V0] = – PV
2 0 0 2 0 0

Ex.19 In above question, the heat taken by gas in the path AB will be
Sol. (δQ)AB = µCVdT (process is on constant volume)

3
CV = R, µ = 1
2

3
(δQ)AB = R[TB – TA]
2

3
= [3P0V0 – P0V0]
2

= 3P0V0
Ex.20 In above question, the absorbed heat by gas in path BC will be
Sol. If the heat given for complete process is δQ then
(δQ) = (δQ)AB + (δQ)BC + (δQ)CA
dU = 0 in cyclic process, thus by first law of thermodynamics δQ = δW
∴ (δQ)AB + (δQ)BC + (δQ)AC = δW
(δQ)BC = δW – (δQ)AB – (δQ)BC
5
= P0V0 + P V – 3P0V0
2 0 0
P0 V0
=
2
Ex.21 For a given cyclic process as shown in fig. the magnitude of absorbed energy for the system is
Sol. In cyclic process
30
Q = W ( Q dU = 0) V
10 B
Q = area of closed loop D

Q = 102π Joule 10 30
P(kpa)

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THERMODYNAMICS

9. SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS


This law gives the direction of heat flow.

Ø According to Classius : It is impossible to make any such machine that can transfer heat from an object
with low temperature to an object with high temperature without an external source.

Ø Accoding to Kelvin : It is impossible to obtain work continuously by cooling an object below the tempreature
of its surroundings.

Ø Statement of Kelvin-Planck : It is impossible to construct any such machine that works on a cyclic process
and absorbs heat from a source, converts all that heat into work and rejects no heat to sink.
9.1 Heat engine :

Ø The device, used to convert heat energy into mechanical energy, is called a heat engine.

Ø For conversion of heat into work with the help of a heat engine, the following conditions have to be met with

Ø There should be a body at higher tempreature ‘T1’ from which heat is extracted. It is called the source.

Ø Body of the engine containing working substance.

Ø There should be a body at lower temperature ‘T2’ to which heat can be rejected. This is called the sink.

9.2 Working of heat engine :

Ø Schematic diagram of heat engine


Source Engine Sink

T1 E T2
Q1 Q2

W = Q1 – Q2

Ø Engine derives an amount ‘Q1’ of heat from the source.

Ø A part of this heat is converted into work ‘W’.

Ø Remaining heat ‘Q2’ is rejected to the sink.

Thus Q1 = W + Q2
or the work done by the engine is given by W = Q1 – Q2
9.3 Efficiency of heat engine :

Ø Efficiency of heat engine (η) is defined as the fraction of total heat, supplied to the engine which is converted
into work.

Ø Mathematically

W
∴ η=
Q1

Q1 − Q2 Q
or η= = 1− 2
Q1 Q1

10. CARNOT ENGINE AND CARNOT CYCLE


10.1 Carnot engine :
Carnot engine is an ideal heat engine. It consists of the following parts.

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THERMODYNAMICS

Ø Schematic diagram :

Gas

Conducting Conducting

Source Insulating Source


T1K stand T2K

Ø Source : It is a reservoir of heat energy with a condicting top maintained at a constant temperature T1K. Source
is so big that extraction of any amount of heat from it does not chagne its temperature.
Ø Body of heat engine : It is a barrel having perfectly insulating walls and conducting bottom. It is fitted with
an air tight piston capable of sliding within the barrel without friction. The barrel contains some quantity of
an ideal gas.
Ø Sink : It is a huge body at a lower temperature T2 having a perfectly conducting top. The size of the sink
is so large that any amount of heat rejected to it does not increase its temperature.
Ø Insulating stand : It is a stand made up of perfectly insulating material such that the barrel when placed
over it becomes thoroughly insulated from the surroundings.
10.2 Carnot cycle :
As the engine works, the working substance of the engine undergoes a cycle known as Carnot cycle. The
Carnot cycle consists of the following four strokes.

Ø Graphical representation of Carnot cycle :


P
Ø First stroke (Isothermal expansion) : A(P1, V1 )

In this stroke the barrel is placed over the source. The piston is gradually
Isoth
erma
Adiab atic

pushed back as the gas expands. Fall of temperature, due to expansion, l B(P2, V2 ,T1)
is compensated by the supply of heat from the source and consequently
temperature remains constant. The conditions of the gas change from
Ad
iab

A(P1, V1) to B(P2, V2). If W1 is the work done during this process, then
ati
c

D(P4, V4,T2 )
heat Q1 derived from the source is given by Isoth
erm
al
C(P3, V3 ,T2)
 V2 
Q1 = W1 = Area ABGE = RT loge  V 
 1 E F G H
V

Ø Second stroke (Adiabatic expansion) :

The barrel is removed from the source and is placed over the insulating stand. The piston is pushed back
so that the gas expands adiabatially resulting in fall of temperature from T1 to T2. The conditions of the gas
change from B(P2, V2) to C(P3, V3). If W2 is the work done in this case then

R
W2 = Area BCHG = (T1 − T2 )
γ −1
Ø Third stroke (isothermal compression) :

The barrel is placed over the sink. Piston is pushed down there by compressing the gas. The heat generated
due to compression flows to the sink maintaining the temprerature of the barrel constant. The state of the
gas change from C(P3, V3) to D(P4, V4). If W3 is the work done in this process and Q2 is the heat rejected
to the sink, then

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THERMODYNAMICS

 V3 
Q2 = W3 = Area CDFH = RT2 loge  V 
 4
Ø Fourth stroke (Adiabatic compression) :

The barrel is placed over the insulating stand. The piston is moved down thereby compressing the gas adibatically
till the tempreature of gas increases from T2 to T1. The state of gas changes from D(P4, V4) A(P1, V1). If W4
is the work done in this process, then

R
W4 = Area ADFE = (T – T2)
γ −1 1
Ø Heat converted into work in Carnot cycle :

During the four strokes, W1 and W2 are the work done by the gas and W3 and W4 are the work done on the
gas. Therefore the net, work performed by the engine
W = W 1 + W2 – W3 – W 4
= Area ABGE + Area BCHG – Area CDFH – Area ADEF = Area ABCD
Thus net work done by the engine during one cycle is equal to the area enclosed by the indicator diagram
of the cycle. Analytically

 V2 
W = R(T1 – T2) loge  V 
 1
Ø Efficiency of Carnot engine :

Efficiency (η) of an engine is defined as the ratio of useful heat (heat converted into work) to the total heat
supplied to the engine. Thus.

W Q1 − Q2
η= =
Q1 Q1

V 
R(T1 − T2 )loge  2 
or η=  V1  T − T2
= 1
 V2  T1
RT1 loge  
V
 1
Q2 T
or η = 1 – = 1− 2
Q1 T1

10.3 Some important points regarding Carnot engine

Ø Efficiency of an engine depends upon the temperatures between which it operates.

Ø η is independent of the nature of working substance.

Ø η is one only if T2 = 0. Since absolute zero is not attainable, hence even an ideal engine cannot be 100 %
efficient.

Ø η is one only if Q2 = 0. But η = 1 is never possible even for an ideal engine. Hence Q2 ≠ 0.

Ø Thus it is impossible to extract heat from a single body and convert the whole of it into work.

Ø If T2 = T1, then η = 0

Ø In actual heat engines, there anr many losses due to friction etc. and various processes during each cyle
are not quasistatic, so the efficiency of actual engines is much less than that of an ideal engine.

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THERMODYNAMICS

Example based on second law of thermodynamics


Ex.22 A Carnot engine has same efficiency between (i) 100 K and 500K and (ii) Tk and 900 K. The value of T is

T2
Sol. Efficiency η = 1 –
T1

100 T 100 T
or η = 1 – = 1− or =
500 900 500 900

∴ T = 180K
Ex.23 A Carnot engine takes 103 kilocalories of heat from a reservoir at 627ºC and exhausts it to a sink at 27ºC.
The efficiency of the engine will be.
Sol. Efficiency of Carnot engine

T2 300 2
η = 1 – = 1− =
T1 900 3

or η = 66.6 %
Ex.24 In the above problem, the work performed by the engine will be
Sol. Work performed by the engine

2
W = ηQ1 = × 106 × 4.2
3

or W = 2.8 × 106 Joule


Ex.25 A Carnot engine has an efficiency of 40% when the sink temperature is 27ºC. The source temperature will be

T2
Sol. η efficiency
= 1 –
T1

2 300
or = 1 – ∴ T1 = 500K
5 T1

Ex.26 A reversible engine takes heat from a reservoir at 527ºC and gives out to the sink at 127ºC. The engine
is required to perform useful mechanical work at the rate of 750 watt. The efficiency of the engine is

T2
Sol. Efficiency η = 1 –
T1

400 1
or η = 1 – = or η = 50%
800 2

Ex.27 The efficiency of Carnot’s engine is 50%. The temperature of its sink is 7ºC. To increase its efficiency to
70%. The increase in heat of the source will be
Sol. Efficiency in first state η = 50% = 1/2
T2 = 273 + 7 = 280 K

T2 1 280 280 1
Formula η = 1 – T = 1− ⇔ =
1 2 T1 T1 2

or T1 = 560ºK (temperature of source)

17
THERMODYNAMICS

70 280
In the second state (i) = 1 –
100 T1

2800
∴ T1 = = 933.3K
3

∴ Increase in source temperature = (933.3 – 560) = 373.3 K


Ex.28 A Carnot’s engine work at 200ºC and 0ºC and another at 0ºC and –200ºC. The ratio of efficiency of the two is
(T1 − T2 )
Sol. η=
T1

(473 − 273) 200


η1 = =
473 473
(273 − 73) 200
and η2 = =
273 273

η1 273
= = 0.577
η2 473

Ex.29 A Carnot engine work as refrigerator in between 0ºC and 27ºC. How much energy is needed to freeze 10
kg ice at 0ºC.
Sol. Heat absorbed by sink
Q2 = 10 × 102 × 80 = 800 k.cal

Q1 T1 T1
Now = ,
Q2 T2 Q1 = Q2 . T2

300
∴ Q1 = 800 × k.cal = 879 kcal
273

Ex.30 Work efficiency coefficient in above question


Sol. Work efficiency coefficient (cofficient of performance)

Q2
β=
Q1 − Q2

800 × 103
= = 10.13
(879 − 800) × 103

Ex.31 A Carnot engine works as a refrigerator in between 250K and 300K. If it acquires 750 calories from heat
source at low temperature, then the heat generated at higher temperature. (in calories) will be.

Q2 T2
Sol. η= =
Q1 − Q2 T1 − T2

750 250
⇒ =
Q1 − 750 300 − 250

Q1 = 900 Calories

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