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An Analysis of Classroom Activities in the Second Language Class

GROUP 6:
Cognitive, Behaviorist and Social-Interactionist Theories

Submitted by:
Casta, Catherine
Deliganzo, Xerille Sean
Marasigan, Eli-May
Maque, Mary Joy
Medina, Valerie
Tansiongco, John Kyle

Submitted to:
Ms. Wilma Jacela Balon

9-1 BSED ENG

 INTRODUCTION |1
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES
BEHAVIORIST THEORY
Behaviorism stems from the work of B.F. Skinner and the concept of
operant conditioning. Behaviorism theorists believe that knowledge exists
independently and outside of people. They view the learner as a blank slate
who must be provided the experience. Behaviorists believe that learning
actually occurs when new behaviors or changes in behaviors are acquired
through associations between stimuli and responses. Thus, association leads
to a change in behavior.
Learning process
The learning process is based on objectively observable changes in
behavior. Behavior theorists define learning simply as the acquisition of a
new behavior or change in behavior. The theory is that learning begins when
a cue or stimulus from the environment is presented and the learner reacts
to the stimulus with some type of response. Consequences that reinforce the
desired behavior are arranged to follow the desired behavior (e.g. study for a
test and get a good grade). The new behavioral pattern can be repeated so it
becomes automatic. The change in behavior of the learner signifies that
learning has occurred. Teachers use Behaviorism when they reward or punish
student behaviors.
Examples and applications of behaviorist learning theory:
 Drill / Rote work
 Repetitive practice
 Bonus points (providing an incentive to do more)
 Participation points (providing an incentive to participate)
 Verbal Reinforcement (saying “good job”)
 Establishing Rules
Unfortunately, Behaviorism instruction does not prepare the learner for
problem solving or creative thinking. Learners do what they are told and do
not take the initiative to change or improve things. The learner is only
prepared for recall of basic facts, automatic responses or performing tasks.
Links
Types Behavioral Learning
Operant Conditioning
COGNITIVE THEORY
Cognitive information processing is based on the thought process behind the
behavior. The theory is based on the idea that humans process the
information they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli (i.e. that
think about what is happening). The changes in behavior are observed, but
only as an indicator to what is going on in the learner’s head. The learner’s |2
mind is like a mirror from which new knowledge and skills will be reflected.
Cognitive information processing is used when the learner plays an
active role in seeking ways to understand and process information that he or
she receives and relate it to what is already known and stored within
memory. Cognitive learning theories are credited to Jean Piaget.
Learning process
Cognitive learning theorists believe learning occurs through internal
processing of information.
Unlike behaviorism, cognitive information processing is governed by an
internal process rather than by external circumstance. The cognitive
approach to learning theory pays more attention to what goes on inside the
learner’s head and focuses on mental processes rather than observable
behavior. Changes in behavior are observed, and used as indicators as to
what is happening inside the learner’s mind.
Learning involves the reorganization of experiences, either by attaining
new insights or changing old ones. Thus, learning is a change in knowledge
which is stored in memory, and not just a change in behavior.
Examples and applications of cognitive learning theory:
 Classifying or chunking information
 Linking Concepts (associate new content with something known)
 Providing Structure (organizing your lecture in efficient and meaningful
ways)
 Real world examples
 Discussions
 Problem solving
 Analogies
 Imagery / providing pictures
 Mnemonics
SOCIAL INTERACTIONIST THEORY
Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive
development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child
development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky
felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in the
child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and
later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and
then inside the child (intrapsychological)”.[2]

THE MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER (MKO)

The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher
ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or
concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older
adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even |3
computers.

THE ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)

The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task
under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability
solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred
in this zone.
Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural
context in which they act and interact in shared experiences[3]. According to
Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and
writing, to mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these
tools to serve solely as social functions, ways to communicate needs.
Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools led to higher thinking
skills.
IMPORTANCE OF CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
Studies show that meaningful classroom activities help students
emotionally connect to things that they are already know. These connections
then help them build even more connections that they can store in their
brain. Looking back at your own childhood, can you remember thinking why
you had to learn algebra, for instance? It probably wasn’t until you started
thinking about a career did you understand that doctors, engineers,
architects, and teachers need to know algebra for their jobs. Maybe if your
teacher had tried to make a real-world connection back then, you would have
put in a little more effort.
The learning process has to be successful in order to make an
engagement between the students and the language, actually is quite
difficult to find how active students are in the learning process and how
thoroughly they take responsibility for knowledge construction have been
linked to learning, to favorable learning experiences, and to students’
attitudes.
The truth is that as junior high school teachers we have to deal with
students that are passing into a difficult stage, so we must attract them into
our subject, especially foreign language, in this case: English. The majority of
those students are always complaining about the lack of ideas into the
classroom, they said that it is implemented the same routine without allow
any creative idea.
Students engaged in active, deep learning are not passively taking in
information from instructors but are reading, writing, discussing, and
problem solving. Active learning may be either self-directed or group-
directed and is a process consistent with the social constructivist approach in
higher learning (Chermak & Weiss, 1999; Prince, 2004).
 Even it is important to establish that according to the official program |4
we must follow a communicative approach, which refers to use activities that
must emphasize develop skills into their context. Also teachers must have to
apply the constructivism methodology and obviously, that allows to students
to construct their own knowledge. The social constructivist approach
maintains that knowledge is constructed as one interacts with one’s
environments through processes of discourse, negotiation, and consensus
building.
To make each student an active player in the learning process, an
environment must be created in which there are opportunities for students to
join in doing tasks. In- and out-of-class exercises that include problems for
solving or questions for answering are important for prompting students to
use language cognitively and develop thinking skills.
 |5
BODY
Review of the Related Literature
This section of this paper presents a writing of different personalities
which has relevance to the current study. It involves quotations and citations
from books and writings of different authors, and other reference material
that may serve as a basis for the development of the proposed study.
II. A. Behaviorist Theory
Behaviorism is a learning theory that only focuses on objectively
observable behaviors and discounts any independent activities of the mind.
Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of
new behavior based on environmental conditions.

The behaviorist theory came into common use in the 1950’s and 60’s
after research from Lado (1945), Skinner (1957), and Weinreich (1953)
demonstrated operant conditioning as a way that humans learn language
(Larsen-Freeman). Behaviorists theorize that language acquisition is
basically a stimulus-response conditioning method, a mechanistic process
that requires the student to give the correct response to a given stimulus
with immediate feedback to the student.

Chomsky (1959), amongst other researchers, has refuted the

behaviorist theory because the process does not explain how the student is
able to make the cognitive leap past the trained responses into the
unknown. There are three main stages to language acquisition;
understanding, drill, and application (Chastain, 1970). The behaviorist
theory deals with the first two stages, but not the third. At the high school
level, students are expected to be able to answer critical thinking
questions. They are expected to take what material they have already
learned and extend it further.

However, just because the theory does not develop all three stages of
language development, it can still be useful. At the high school level
students need to practice phonology and drilling, so the stimulus-response
method will be very helpful

Mikami et al. (2011) studied how the behavior and interactions of

teachers who attend to professional development for creating positive
learning environments affect students’ relationships. For traditional students,
with no high disruptive patterns in their classroom experiences, the positive
attitude of a teacher created improvement in peer interactions. The data
from the Mikami et al.(2011) research showed that even in secondary school,
students who had positive environments and interactions with teachers in the
classroom will also have improved communication with peers. Unfortunately, |6
students who have negative patterns in school and a history of disruption
appeared to decline even more in peer relationships when classmates had
more positive interactions with the teacher and peers.
Moore et al. (2010) found inclusive environments promoted more
equitable learning and strengthened competencies with diversity in a culture.
Small group dialogues, exploring others perspectives, learning new
knowledge, varied educational strategies, and respect for learning
experiences out of the classroom also fostered a welcoming collaborative
environment. Scantlebury, (2008) based on years of teaching in four
countries, emphasized the factors for establishing a welcoming classroom
should include: respect for individual opinions, opportunities to share
opinions, the importance of sharing, recognizing students can learn with and
from one another, and establishing an environment where expectations are
clear.
Clinton and Higbee (2011) examined the role of language in fostering
a welcoming and positive environment. Words have power. Words can
inspire, stimulate, and encourage, or not. Clinton and Higbee reinforced the
need to consider people when creating a socially safe and empowering
learning situation. Many other articles provide insight into creating
environments that are welcoming, and Bang and Montgomery (2010) showed
that even an appreciative attitude, compassion, and care demonstrated by a
teacher can vary in interpretation and effect as that teacher is observed in
foreign cultures.
Teachers who expect to work in a foreign culture would do well to
consider the priorities and values in a study such as Bang and Montgomery,
(2010) and to know as much as possible about the culture they will enter.
According to cultural mores, the actual physical proximity in welcoming
people into a classroom may vary, but learning names, discovering interests
that can blend into classroom content and activities. An energetic
presentation, enthusiasm for the subject, varied approaches for differing
learning styles, and obvious desire to help class members succeed will
establish a welcoming environment.
SimplyPsychology.com defines behaviorism as a psychological
approach which emphasizes scientific and objective methods of investigation.
The approach is only concerned with observable stimulus-response
behaviors, and states all behaviors are learned through interaction with the
environment
According to soda.ustadistancia.edu, Behaviorist theory is the habit
formation of teaching and learning, reminding us the learning of structural
grammar. Language learning concerns us by “not problem-solving but
information and performance habit”. In other words language learning is
mechanical process leading the learners to habit formation whose underlying
scheme is the conditioned reflex. Thus it definitely true that language is
controlled by the consequences of behavior.
 Based on Funderstanding.com “Behaviorism”, experiments by |7
behaviorists identify conditioning as a universal learning process. There are
two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioral
pattern. The first one is the Classic conditioning. It occurs when a natural
reflex responds to a stimulus. We are biologically “wired” so that a certain
stimulus will produce a specific response. One of the more common examples
of classical conditioning in the educational environment is in situations where
students exhibit irrational fears and anxieties like fear of failure, fear of
public speaking and general school phobia. Next is the Behavioral or Operant
conditioning. This occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced.
Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or
reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes
more probable in the future. For example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner
used reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball in a
mini-alley.
According to seattlepi.com “How Will I Apply Behaviorist Philosophy in
Clasroom?”, in applying behaviorist theory in classroom set up, the teacher
should always remember the following:
1. Compliment Good Behavior- The simplest way in which to apply positive
reinforcement is to praise a student when she behaves well or
successfully completes a task. You could employ a system of giving gold
stars that result in a small prize when enough have been earned. Take
advantage of the effectiveness of simple statements of praise. When
offering praise, however, opt for a specific statement such as, "you really
showed mature insight right there" as opposed to a vague statement such
as "nice work." The fact is that students can sense when praise is generic
or disingenuous. Reserve such comments for when you really mean them,
so your students won't take them as empty words
2. Support Praise With Evidence - Saying nice things to your students will
work fine for a while, but they might stop believing you unless you can
show them exactly why their behavior warrants praise in the first place.
Whenever possible, show them the proof: point out the specific act and
explain why it was so important. Another way to provide concrete
examples of good behavior is to have them keep their work in portfolios
for you to review regularly. The routine of reviewing keeps you from
appearing as though you've gone out of your way to issue some praise,
and having their work right in front of you gives you the opportunity to
cite specific, concrete examples of their accomplishments.
3. Utilize Negative Reinforcement- Negative reinforcement isn't punishment.
Rather, it's when reward good behavior by taking away something your
students see as negative. For example, your class clown always makes
inappropriate comments during health lessons and disrupts the class. He
also really doesn't like writing book reports because the writing is boring.
You could offer to let him do his book report another way, perhaps as a
diorama, on the condition he behaves appropriately during health lessons.
By removing something he sees as negative, you've reinforced a
separate, positive behavior.
4. Apply Unpleasant Consequences When Necessary - Sometimes |8
punishment is necessary to discourage undesirable behavior, but you
must be careful not to go too far and embarrass your students. And just
as there are positive and negative reinforcement for good behavior, two
methods are appropriate for applying punishment. Presentation
punishment is the type we are most familiar with: a student misbehaves
and you act by adding a punishment like a detention or time-out.
Removal punishment is similar to negative reinforcement: you remove
something the students see as good because they have behaved badly.
For example, if they refuse to stop encouraging your class clown's
inappropriate comments, you could threaten to cancel an upcoming field
trip, or an upcoming class party.
According to teoclass.com “Teaching Strategies”, behaviorist approach
to language learning was connected with structural linguistics to form the
teaching approach audio-lingual method (ALM). The structural linguistics
portion compared the native language and the foreign language being
learned. Since mental processes were disregarded, the emphasis was on the
teacher to “drill” problematic areas and correct errors as they happened.
Pronunciation and sentence structure are two problematic areas of
concentration during instruction.
Example of Teaching
Teacher: I want a hamburger. (holding a picture of a hamburger)
Students: I want a hamburger.
Teacher: hot dog. (holding a picture of a hot dog)
Students: hot dog.
Teacher: No! (emphasis) I want a hot dog.
Students: I want a hot dog.
Teacher: Good job!
II. B. Cognitive Theory
The Cognitive Learning Theory explains why the brain is the most
incredible network of information processing and interpretation in the body
as we learn things. This theory can be divided into two specific theories: the
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), and the Cognitive Behavioral Theory (CBT).
The cognitive theory of learning views second language acquisition as
a conscious process of thinking. This theory contrasts the behaviorist theory,
which sees language as an unconscious, automatic process. Jean Piaget,
along with others, developed a child language study focusing on the
relationship of cognitive development to first language acquisition (Brown,
pp. 33).
 Jean Piaget’s cognitive theory proposed that children pass through |9
certain stages at different rates. He developed a model and outlined how
children progress through these stages and the course of their intellectual
development. According to Brown, the stages include the following periods of
development: “Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years old), Preoperational (ages 2 to
7), Operational (ages 7- 16 years), Concrete operational (ages 7 to 11), and
Formal operational (ages 11 to 16)” (pp. 65). High School aged children can
typically be found in the Formal operational period. The Formal operational
period begins about age 11 and lasts into adulthood. During this time
abstract thinking is developed. Skills such as deductive reasoning and logical
thought processes emerge which high school students are often required to
utilize in mathematics and science courses.
There is a critical stage when considering the effects of age on second
language acquisition. Piaget asserts this happens at around puberty or age
11 (Brown, pp. 65). It is during the formal operational period, when abstract
thinking occurs. The cognitive theorists make the argument that there is a
critical period of language acquisition and a connection between language
acquisition and the concrete/formal operational stages. However, others
argue that children learn second languages without the benefit of formal
operational thought. Research has confirmed that the linguistic and cognitive
learning of second languages in young children are similar to first language
processes (Brown, pp.73). Because of this similarity, teachers can better
teach second language learners of a high school age, simply by being aware
of the language learning process as dictated by cognitive theory. In addition,
high school students can utilize the first language to facilitate their second
language acquisition.

One of the theories under Cognitive theory is the theory of Jean

Piaget. According to SimplyPsychology.com, Piaget's theory of cognitive
development explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world. He
disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded
cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation
and interaction with the environment.
According to British Council Teaching English, A cognitive theory of
learning sees second language acquisition as a conscious and reasoned
thinking process, involving the deliberate use of learning strategies. Learning
strategies are special ways of processing information that enhance
comprehension, learning or retention of information. This explanation of
language learning contrasts strongly with the behaviourist account of
language learning, which sees language learning as an unconscious,
automatic process.
According to study.com, Cognitive theory helps the learners in three
ways. The first one is it enhances the memory skills. The second one is it
promotes problem solving and lastly it applies proven method in classroom
such as chunking method and observational learning.
II. C. Social Interactionist Theory | 10
Social interactionist theory is an explanation of language development
emphasizing the role of social interaction between the developing child and
linguistically knowledgeable adults.
Over the years, social interaction theory has evolved and now
encompasses multiple perspectives. While this approach accepts alternative
viewpoints and embraces aspects of other theories, in essence, it promotes
that social influences play a definite role in the development of
language. Author Nick Lund (2003) stated: “The social interaction theory
stresses the importance of language in communication and suggests that
language is acquired through using language whilst interacting with others”
(p. 63).
The evolution of this theory stems from the groundwork generated
from Jean Piaget, who actualized the Developmental Cognitive Theory, and
Lev Vygotsky, who constructed the Socio-cultural Theory. From these
theoretical foundations, social interactionists have developed a theory based
on the fundamental concept that language is developed through interaction.
With Piaget’s work we realized that cognitive constructs impact
developmental capabilities. Vygotsky emphasized that environmental
influences contribute to the process of learning. Brown (2007) highlighted,
“One of the most popular concepts advanced by Vygotsky was the notion of a
zone of proximal development (ZPD) in every learner: the distance between
learner’s existing developmental state and their developmental potential” (p.
13). Vygotsky suggested that learners could acquire new skills and advance
their potential more quickly through the support of a mediated interaction
with a skilled individual.
Is exposure to language enough? This question stirs up challenges, as
contestants would refer to countries where the parent-child dyad lacks
interaction. Harley (2001) conveyed that: “It is clearly not enough to be
exposed to language; something more is necessary.” Language development
requires interaction with people. When dialogue occurs it stimulates
growth. While trying to engage in conversation a language learner is
challenged to contextually apply the language. This pragmatic phoneme
plays a significant factor in encouraging first and second language learners to
acquire the skills necessary to communicate effectively.
In the high school setting, students place high value on social
acceptance. Wherefore, second language learners in high school are eager
to learn the language that will empower them with a sense of belonging. In
The Handbook of Language Acquisition (2003) the authors conveyed that,
“With regard to the impact of socialization on language, development of
linguistic competence is an outcome of the language varieties he or she is
encouraged implicitly or explicitly to learn…” (Ochs & Schieffelin, 1995;
Doughty & Long 2003). Frankly, socializing is oftentimes one of the most
influential factors driving someone to learn the language of their | 11
environment.

According to sites.google.com “Language Acquisition and

Development”, Social Interactionist Theory stresses the functional basis of
communication. Children are social beings who acquire language in service of
their needs to communicate. Early language is like any other biologically
based attachment behavior (smiling, following the parent, crying if parent
leaves, e.t.c.). It serves the social and affective needs of both infants and
their parents.
Based from brighthubeducation.com, Interactionists believe that
children are born with brains that predispose them to the ability to pick up
languages as well as with a desire to communicate. Some Interactionists
even argue that babies and children cue their parents and other adults into
giving them the linguistic exposure they need to learn a language. The
Interactionist Theory posits that children can only learn language from
someone who wants to communicate with them.
According to learning-theories.com, Social interaction plays a
fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean
Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development
necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes
development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development
appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level;
first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child
(intrapsychological)”.
According to Soomro (2018) Language, according to social
interactionists, develops through interaction with other human being, which
leads to input modification i.e. adjusting it to the capacity of the learner.
Additionally, interactionists claim that no ‘critical period’ for language
acquisition exists as the process of interaction is not dependent on biological
or cognitive development. Social interactionists do not deny the existance of
neuropsychological factors affecting language acquisition; however, they
claim that biological factors are not sufficient. They also do not accept placing
language as just one more element of cognitive development.
 | 12

CONCLUSION
Classroom Activities
A. Behaviorist Theory

Activity 1

Title: Student-Generated Questions/Application Cards

 | 13
Instructional Strategy: Critical Thinking/Connections to Prior Knowledge

Purpose: This is an activity to help students recognize the applications that

psychology concepts can have in classroom situations.

Objectives:

 Apply abstract information to real situations.

 Develop applications students may use in their own classrooms.
Student Activity:

Provide each student with an index card and ask the students to do the
following:

1. Identify an important - and clearly applicable - concept from chapter

seven.
2. Write down two or three applications of the concept. Make sure to
come up with your own "fresh" applications, and avoid repeating
applications presented in the text.
3. Have students present the concepts and their applications. Look for
themes in the students' responses.
Variations:

1. Break students into groups based on similarity of concepts that they

selected. Have each group write up a recommendation plan for a
teacher that incorporates the applications that they originally created.
2. Develop applications into viable techniques and share them with the
class, via brief verbal or poster presentation.
3. Write down difficult or confusing words in small groups of three to
four. The instructor collects these cards and passes them to different
groups who must come up with applications or examples for each
word.
Activity 2

Title: Getting to Know Skinner

Instructional Strategy: Creative/Critical Thinking

Purpose:

Often students have a difficult time recognizing that there are real people
behind the theories they are learning. This is an activity to help students
bring theory to life. | 14

Objectives:

 Apply abstract information to real situations.

 Adopt a particular perspective and maintain it throughout the activity.
 Preview or review chapter material in an alternative format.
Student Activity:

The instructor will provide some brief biographical information about Skinner.
You have to become an "expert" of operant conditioning theory. Use
information from the text, additional articles, books, Internet sources, etc.
You have two days to prepare for this role. Conduct a class discussion to
identify the characteristics of operant conditioning theory. Discuss classroom
issues and how well the theory addresses these issues.

Variations:

1. Press conferences: Experts provide a brief summary of operant

conditioning in a short press conference (5-10 minutes); time may be
allowed for questions. Additional students may be assigned roles as
reporters, using thought questions to generate questions for theorists.
Press conferences may be utilized to preview or review chapter
material.
2. Case study: Use operant conditioning to provide an interpretation of
the following case.

Denise is a conscientious and good student, although she is a bit

unsure of herself. She is typically very attentive in class, and her
classmates regard her as someone who will usually be able to answer
questions.

One day, Mr. Halvern, her American history teacher, was conducting a
question and answer session, and Denise jerked when she heard her
name called, suddenly realizing that she hadn't heard the question. A
couple of the boys giggled as Mr. Halvern stared at her. Her stomach
clenched, and she felt her face turn red. She started to stammer, then
fell silent. Michelle also felt uncomfortable since she was not paying
attention to Mr. Halvern either.

Denise is now uneasy whenever Mr. Halvern starts calling on students

in class. In addition she doesn't like geometry as well as she used to,
because she never knows when Mrs. Davis might call on her. She's
relieved when she's in the safe confines of Spanish class, where Mr.
Lopez always calls on students in order, up and down each row.
 | 15
B. Cognitive Theory

Activity 1

Title: Getting to Know Social Cognitive Theory

Instructional Strategy: Creative/Critical Thinking

Purpose:

This is an activity to help students better understand social cognitive theory

and the main researchers in this area.

Objectives:

 Apply abstract information to real situations.

 Become more familiar with social cognitive theory.
 Preview or review chapter material in an alternative format.
Student Activity:

Select one of the following social cognitive researchers: Albert Bandura,

Barry Zimmerman, Dale Schunk. The students' responsibility is to become an
"expert" on their researcher's contributions to social cognitive theory. The
students will have two days to prepare for their roles, using information from
the text, additional articles, books, Internet sources, etc. Conduct a class
discussion to determine the similarities and differences between and across
the two theorists by having students point out the characteristics of each
theory. Discuss classroom issues and how well the theories address these
issues.

Variations:

1. Press conferences: Experts provide a brief summary of their

researcher in a short press conference (5-10 minutes); time may be
allowed for questions. Additional students may be assigned roles as
reporters, generating various questions for the researchers. Press
conferences may be utilized to preview or review chapter material.
2. Case study: Researchers may serve as experts in providing
interpretations of the following case.

Denise is a conscientious and good student, although she is a bit

unsure of herself. She is typically very attentive in class, and her
classmates regard her as someone who will usually be able to answer
 questions. | 16

One day, Mr. Halvern, her American history teacher, was conducting a
question and answer session, and Denise jerked when she heard her
name called, suddenly realizing that she hadn't heard the question. A
couple of the boys giggled as Mr. Halvern stared at her. Her stomach
clenched, and she felt her face turn red. She started to stammer, then
fell silent. Michelle also felt uncomfortable since she was not paying
attention to Mr. Halvern either.

Denise is now uneasy whenever Mr. Halvern starts calling on students

in class. In addition she doesn't like geometry as well as she used to,
because she never knows when Mrs. Davis might call on her. She's
relieved when she's in the safe confines of Spanish class, where Mr.
Lopez always calls on students in order, up and down each row.
Activity 2

Title: The Impact of Self-Efficacy

Instructional Strategy: Creative/Critical Thinking

Purpose:

This activity is designed to have students reflect on their own self-efficacy

with respect to various school subjects, as well as determine possible ways to
increase self-efficacy in their areas of expertise.

Objectives:

 Identify causes and effects of high and low efficacy.

 Generate possible solutions for increasing student self-efficacy.
Student Activity:

Students will answer the following questions as homework.

1. What school subject do you have low self-efficacy in? What do you
believe were the causes of this low efficacy?
2. What school subject do you have high self-efficacy in? What do you
believe were the causes of this high efficacy?
3. Assume it is your subject area that someone has written for low self-
efficacy, what would you do to increase a student's self efficacy.
The next class period, have a discussion about the students' answers.
Generate a list of all of the possible causes of high and low efficacy. Ask
students how this information might impact their future teaching. Then
generate a list of possible solutions for students with low efficacy. | 17

Variation:

1. Have students interview K-12 students about their efficacy, using age-
appropriate questions, to compare the similarities and differences of
various age groups.

C. Social Interactionist Theory

1. Speaking and Listening For Critical Analysis and Evaluation

Evaluating, Judging, Having an Opinion

Storytelling encourages empathy and a respect for different points of view.

Personal Taste:
Ask students to listen to several folktales read out loud or retold from an
anthology of folktales found in the 398.2 section of the library. Have students
choose, from those read, a story they would enjoy retelling themselves.
Some "point of view" discussion topics: What about the folktale chosen
attracted the student? With which character did he or she identify most?
Would he or she behave differently or the same as the characters in the tale
who find themselves in a predicament.

Understanding Public Opinion:

Ask students to develop a list of generally accepted standards of communal
behavior such as co-operation, honesty, and sharing etc. that encourage
people to live together in a peaceful, productive way. Have students find an
ancient folktale that expresses a useful societal value that might still be
relevant today.

Relativity Of Standards
Listen to or read folktales from other times and places. Have students
evaluate a folktale from its historical context. Discuss for example: At the
time that the tale was told or collected were customs different from today?

Listen to or read folktales from ancient times and places. Decipher and
discuss a useful bit of wisdom that the plotline preserved for future
generations.

If a folktale in a published anthology offers a printed moral, ask students if

they agree with the summation. Could they suggest a different moral for the
same story?

2. Listening and Speaking For Social Interaction

Speaking and listening skills are essential to participating in adult culture. | 18
The ability to articulate thoughts, feelings, and needs can contribute to
academic, interpersonal, and professional success. For safety's sake, children
need to be able to express their thoughts and feelings so that they can ask
for help and get what they need from adults. Good listeners learn more
efficiently.

Listening For Social Interaction

Ask students to develop a list of attributes of a good listener. Discuss the list.
Listen to each other's comments on the art of listening!

Ask students to offer encouragement to a speaker by showing in non-verbal

terms with their eyes, facial expression, and body stance that they are
listening. This social courtesy creates an atmosphere where speakers will
generously speak. Ask students to assess their own listening skills. Do they
always pay complete mental attention to speakers or do they observe their
mind straying to other irrelevant thoughts. Only the student can assess his or
her own concentration patterns.

Listening Skills Rubric

Speaking For Social Interaction

Public Speaking Activities
Practicing the Art of Conversation

Public Speaking Activities

Have students orally share stories: by retelling folktales or reading a folktale
out loud with expression.

Have students give an oral book report.

Have students create and present a first person monologue pretending to be

a famous figure out of history or herstory.

Have students design a radio show for the school intercom system that
includes: a school news report, live interviews of teachers or students, the
reading of poetry, essays, or reports, announcements of world headline
news.

Practice and Stage Fright

Coaching Beginner Storytellers

Practicing the Art of Conversation

Have students work with a conversation buddy during class time to discuss,
one-on-one, a particular issue raised in class. Have students become aware
of their ability to take turns speaking and listening.
Have students gather in small discussion groups to develop a group project | 19
such as a short skit based on a folktale.

Have students speak to each other about experiences in their lives that
resemble incidents in a folk or fairytale.

Have students become sensitized to whenever a speaker is interrupted by

others before a communication has been completed. A long pause during a
speaker's statement does not constitute an opportunity for another student
to cut in and speak.

Have students interview elders in their family to explore collecting family

stories.

Telephone Skills:
Practice using a mock telephone in front of the class:
Would the speaker of the following calls speak differently? How?

 Call and ask to talk to a friend.

 Call a business and ask for information.
 Call an emergency number or police for medical help.

Discuss the social courtesies expected in answering a phone:

 at home.
 as if student worked as a receptionist at a business.

Have two students engage in a mock phone call. Without looking at each
other, have students practice listening and speaking, attentively waiting for
an appropriate pause to hold up their end of the conversation. Do we listen
more attentively to tone of voice, if we cannot see the facial expressions of
our conversation partner?

Taking Turns Talking:

To prevent anyone from interrupting a speaker, use any object, such as a
stick, a ball, a stone etc. and place it in the middle of a small discussion
group. Then, take turns reaching for the object. Only the one who is holding
the item can speak. When that speaker is finished speaking, the item is
placed in the middle of the circle again for another to hold. This forum gives
a moment of silence between comments in the discussion.

Have a Salon: a conversation party

Arrange a time when an invited group of friends gathers socially to discuss
an interesting topic. The first meeting of the salon could be to develop a good
list of discussion topics.
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