Vol.

10 · March 2014 Volume 10 · March 2014

Print ISSN 2244-1573 · Online ISSN 2244-1581
International Peer Reviewed Journal
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7718/ijec.v10i1.770
This journal is included in Thomson Reuters Journal Masterlist
Published by IAMURE Multidisciplinary Research,
an ISO 9001:2008 certified by the AJA Registrars Inc.

Fecal and Coliform Levels as Indicative

Factors in Deterioration of the Water
Quality of Lahug River, Cebu City,
Philippines
EUKENE OPORTO-BENSIG
ORCID ID. No.: 0000-0001-5509-2879
eobensig@up.edu.ph
University of the Philippines Cebu
Cebu City, Philippines

MARY JOYCE L. FLORES

ORCID No. 0000-0003-1287-0882
joyceflores43@gmail.com; mlflores2@up.edu.ph
University of the Philippines Cebu
Cebu City, Philippines

FLEURDELIZ F. MAGLANGIT
ffmaglangit@up.edu.ph
University of the Philippines Cebu
Cebu City, Philippines

ABSTRACT

The use of surface waters such as rivers for domestic, agricultural and
industrial purposes have made them vulnerable to pollution leading to impaired
water quality. The water quality of Lahug River in Cebu City was evaluated using
coliforms as indicators, in relation with physicochemical parameters such as

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biological oxygen demand (BOD), conductivity, dissolved oxygen (DO), nitrate,

pH, phosphate, salinity, temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS) and total
suspended solids (TSS). Sampling was done once a month from November 2011
to April 2012 in three stations covering the upstream, midstream and downstream.
The multiple tube fermentation technique was used for the analysis of coliforms.
The level of these indicator bacteria increased from the upstream towards the
lower reaches of the river especially in the months of February to April; however,
the difference in values across time was not significant. This implies that there
was a continuous fecal pollution in the river. There were no statistically significant
correlations between FCs and TCs with the physicochemical parameters. A
negative relationship was observed among FCs and TCs with pH, TSS, DO
and nitrate (p>0.05). These results suggest the presence of sewage and organic
pollutants in the river.

KEYWORDS

Aquatic Ecology, water quality, coliform, physicochemical parameters,

experimental design, Philippines

INTRODUCTION

Surface waters such as rivers, streams, and lakes have always been exploited
by people as natural sources of water; hence, are more vulnerable to domestic,
agricultural and industrial pollution leading to impaired water quality. Water
that is meant for human and domestic uses should therefore be treated to
prevent waterborne diseases. Majority of the diseases in developing countries are
infectious diseases caused by bacteria, viruses and other microbes that are shed
in human feces into water bodies which people tap for drinking or washing.
Therefore,the microbiological content of water must be continuously monitored
to ensure that the water is free of infectious agents.

Monitoring of Rivers Using Microbiological Indicators

The health and utility of surface waters for drinking, bathing, fish harvesting
are determined using but not limited to bacteriological indicators. Microbial
indicators such as fecal coliform (FC), total coliform (TC), and fecal streptococci
(FS) are normally used in determining bacterial contamination in water. As such,
Onwumere (2006) noted that the criterion in assessing the water quality in

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terms of pathogenic bacteria for humans and other warm blooded organisms in
Washington State is currently based on FC bacteria.
The Philippine water standard for surface water is assessed based on set
beneficial use as defined in the DENR Administrative Order (DAO) 34, Series
of 1990. DAO 34 contains 33 parameters that define the desired water quality
per water body classification. For purposes of classification or reclassification,
the following minimum water quality parameters are often used: DO, pH,
BOD, Total Coliform organisms. These parameters appear to be applicable
only for classification or reclassification of surface waters such as rivers, lakes,
reservoirs and not to groundwater resources. For potable water, the United States
Environmental Protection Agency(USEPA)designates total coliform as part of
the standard test. Total coliform comprises of bacteria from cold blooded and/
or soil organisms. These bacteria can be present not only in human feces but also
in soil, manure and submerged wood. Largely, their number is ten times greater
than FCs.
Fecal coliform bacteria which is a subset of total coliform, are more fecal-
specific in origin (US EPA, 2001). They can be found among warm blooded
animals specifically in the intestinal tract and in fecal matter. Pathogenic
microorganisms are generally found in the same environment with fecal
coliforms. Thus, they become suitable indicators for the incidence of disease
causing microbes. Technically, the number of organisms per 100 mL sample of
water is the expression of the measurement. It is important to note that there
is a greater chance that pathogenic organisms are present in the river once the
fecal coliform levels are high (i.e.,> 200 colonies/100 ml of water sample). Asia’s
rivers contain three times as many bacteria from human waste (fecal coliforms)
as the world average, ten times higher than the Organization of Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD) guidelines. The median fecal coliform
count in Asia’s rivers is 50 times higher than the World Health Organization
guidelines (Asian Development Bank, 1997).
Bacterial contamination counts are expressed as number per 100 mL and
considered to be highly variable in terms of water quality parameters. When
untreated sewage reaches the river, coliform counts may reach beyond 100,000
colonies per liter. World Health Organization (WHO) drinking water standards
suggest the zero Escherichia coli per 100 mL of water as the objective for all water
supplies (Marcotullio, 2006).
Wandiga (2010) pointed out that rivers are usually sources of water in
Africa. However, river water pollution is rampant which may pose biological

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and chemical hazards. His findings showed elevated levels of coliform during the
rainy periods. This was predominantly because of the washing effect of storm
waters or the deposition of human and animal wastes into the river coming from
the bushes and plains. In contrast, a low coliform count was observed during
the dry periods since possible sources of biological and organic pollutants were
only the broken sewer systems and storm water pipes. Correspondingly, a study
conducted in Nairobi River showed coliform counts of 1800/100ml of water
sample or more for most of the sampling sites with exception only from the river
source (200/100ml) at Ondiri swamp. Similarly, Philippine rivers are constantly
under threat due to urban related river pollution. In the slum areas, there are few
baths and toilets, and human waste is discharged untreated. Since there is no
public sewage system, all domestic wastewater flow into the rivers. As a result,
there is an increase bacterial contamination among these water bodies.
This study analyzed the water quality of Lahug River in terms of coliform
levels and its correlation with the physicochemical parameters. In the absence of
existing data on this river, such information can be useful as baseline for future
related studies; and in formulating regulations or policies on river protection and
rehabilitation.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The general objective of this study was to assess the water quality of Lahug
River using fecal coliform (FC) and total coliform (TC) as biological indicators.
Specifically, it aimed to:1) measure the TC and FC levels;2)compare the
coliform levels in space and time; and 3)correlate the coliform values with the
physicochemical parameters.

METHODOLOGY

Research Site
Lahug River was divided into three sampling sites, the upstream, midstream
and downstream shown in Figure 1.

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Figure 1. Map of the sampling site.

Sample Collection and Handling

Each site was sampled for fecal and total coliform bacteria on a monthly basis
from November 2011 to April 2012. Field sampling and measurement protocols
followed were those described in Sampling Protocols for River and Stream Water
Quality Monitoring and Field Sampling, and Measurement Protocols for the
Watershed Assessments Section (Mills et al., 1985).
Bacteria grab samples were collected directly into sterilized containers as
described in Manchester Environmental Laboratory Manual (2005). Samples
were collected from the stream center at approximately six inches below the
water surface. Caution was exercised not to stir up sediment in streams with slow
current velocities.
Each bacteria sample was labeled, placed in container with ice, and kept at
greater than 0°C and not more than 4°C until the sample cases were opened
in the laboratory. All samples were received and processed not later than 24
hours following collection. Laboratory analyses for fecal coliform bacteria were
performed in accordance with MEL Manual (2005) protocols. All samples were
analyzed using the Multiple Tube Fermentation Technique (MTFT) expressed in
terms of the Most Probable Number (MPN).
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Research Site
Both the upstream and midstream sites fall under the jurisdiction of Lahug,
Cebu City. Lahug is located in the northern district of Cebu City. North of Lahug
is the adjacent Kasambagan and Apas. While on the western side is Kalunasan; to
the south is Camputhaw and Barrio Luz to the east. Lahug has a total land area
of 443 ha and the second largest community in the city. Topographically, Lahug
is characterized with gently sloping hills with an elevation of 17 m.
The upstream part is located in Upper La Guerta, Golden Valley (10°20’33.1”
N, 123°53’19.4” E) with a width of 6.44 m. Houses were conspicuous within
the river’s vicinity. Human activities were also evident such as washing of laundry,
and even waste disposal. The river water was slightly turbid with small pit canals
and creeks draining into the river. Trees were visible along the river banks, with
small fishes and ducks observed in the water.
In the midstream part (10°19’30.3” N, 123°53’48.8” E), houses were dense.
Concrete walls and drainage pipes along the midstream section had modified
the river banks. Most notable were the different types of waste scattered all
throughout ranging from broken glass pieces, fecal matter, diapers, cans, papers,
leaf litter and tree branches and food scrapings. The stagnant water was brownish
to black, exuding an unpleasant stench.
Lahug River courses downstream into Day-as, Cebu City (10°18’4.9” N,
123’54’14.7” E). The community is bound to the north by Zapatera, to the
south is Parian, and T. Padilla and San Antonio to the east and west, respectively.
The river width measured 6.3 m. The river water was slow-flowing, with waste
materials of different forms. The water had a golden brown color, with a tolerable
stench.

Data Analysis
All laboratory results were reported. Field and laboratory data were compiled
and organized using Excel spreadsheet software. Data verification and validation
were performed. Statistical Analysis using the Pearson correlation was employed
to determine whether there is a relationship between coliform bacteria and the
physicochemical parameters; and to find out the direction of the relationship–
whether it is positive or negative.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fecal and total coliforms counts

The incidence of fecal coliform bacteria in the water body may arise from
discharges of domestic sewage comprising of human and animal waste (US EPA,
2001). Coliforms belong to a group of bacteria that is non-endospore forming.
As of now, they are the best indicator organisms associated with the quality of
water. Their presence in water may indicate that the water is contaminated with
disease-causing organisms.
In Figure 2a, FC count (9.4x1012 MPN/100ml) was highest in the midstream
in the month of March and lowest (3.1x104 MPN/100ml) in the upstream in the
month of January. The mean FC values from November 2011 to April 2012 (Fig.
2b) did not vary significantly (p=0.456).

Figure 2. Fecal coliform values by month (a) and by site (b).

On a spatial scale, mean FC values for the upstream, midstream and

downstream showed no significant difference (p=0.113). The high FC count in
Lahug River through time and space could be attributed to urban storm water
runoff, untreated sewage, poorly maintained septic tank systems, excess nutrients
and other pollutants with access to streams (Onwumere, 2006). Comparatively,
the midstream site of Lahug River had consistently higher values than the
downstream. This could be due to the stagnant waters in the site, aside from
the numerous households lining the riverbanks. Based on the set standard for
coliform count for Class C waters which is 1.5x104 MPN/100ml, the 3 sampling
sites of Lahug River failed to meet the said criterion indicating deteriorating
water quality.
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Figure 3 shows that the midstream site during the March sampling had the
highest TC value (1.6x1014 MPN/100ml) while the upstream in November had
the lowest value (1.6x105 MPN/100ml).

Figure 3. Total coliform values by month (a) and by site (b).

However, the mean TC values from November to April had no significant
difference (p=0.450). Similarly, there was no significant difference in mean TC
values for the upstream, midstream and downstream stations (p=0.217). Total
coliforms may or may not indicate fecal contamination. Balance and Bartram
(1996) noted that an increase in the TC count can be related with low or even
zero count for thermo tolerant coliforms. This can be due to the entry of soil or
organic matter into the water or by conditions suitable for growth of other types
of coliforms. Correspondingly, all sites failed to meet the set standard for Class
C surface waters (1.5x104MPN/100ml). Similar with FC, the TC results in the
midstream were consistently higher than the downstream sites. This could be
attributed to the stagnant water in the midstream site.

Correlations
The data used for the correlation of TC and FC with the physicochemical
parameters were taken from the study “Physico-chemical Assessment of the
Water Quality of Lahug River, Cebu, Philippines” (Maglangit, 2013) which
was conducted simultaneously with this study. Both FC and TC did not show
significant correlations with the physico-chemical parameters temporally and
at all sites as shown in Table 1. However, both FC and TC showed a negative
relationship between pH, TSS, DO, and Nitrate.

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Table 1. Pearson’s correlation coefficients between selected physicochemical

factors of Lahug River, Cebu City
Conduc- Phosphate
Temp Salinity TDS TSS DO BOD Nitrate
Lahug pH tivity (mg PO43-
(oC) (ppt) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg NO3-/L)
(µS/cm) /L)

Fecal
0.005 -0.009 0.360 0.294 0.246 -0.184 -0.336 0.123 -0.419 0.009
Coliform

Total
0.025 -0.025 0.379 0.351 0.301 -0.211 -0.291 0.116 -0.333 0.076
Coliform
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 tailed)
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2 tailed)
Source:Physico-chemical Assessment of the Water Quality of Lahug River, Cebu, Philippines
(Maglangit, 2013).

A direct relationship exists between temperature and solar radiation. As such,

the intensity of solar radiation can directly influence the temperature, which in
turn can affect coliforms becoming inactive in sunlight than in the dark. Hamzah
et al. (2011) found that the high coliform count is influenced by temperature at
30°C. Further, Galindo et al. (1997) noted their growth at 230 MPN/100 mL.
The findings imply that the optimum temperature suitable for coliform growth
falls within 30°C.The findings of Yukselen et al. (2003) further confirmed that
solar radiation was the most significant factor affecting the mortality of coliform
bacteria. In addition, Salama et al. (2014) reported that temperature and pH
had a very important role in the solubility of salts and gases. They cited the
work of Mayo (1995) who showed that coliform abundance can be affected by
the increase in pH. Mayo (1995) concluded that basic pH led to a net decrease
in the survival of FCs. The results of the pH test displayed a range from 7.1-
7.8 showing a neutral to slightly basic pH values. This was further validated by
the findings of Sanderson et al. (2005) suggesting a higher pH to help control
coliform levels.
Rusciano and Obropta (2007) observed a negative correlation between FC
reduction and influent TSS concentration. This indicates that higher influent
TSS concentrations will result in less FC reduction. Further, Irvine at al. (2002)
showed that part of the correlation between TSS and coliform is related to
resuspension of inoculated bed sediment. The other major factor that would
influence the correlation is storm event runoff inputs (including failing septic
system discharges, combined sewer overflows, and runoff from urban and
agricultural land).

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As bacteria take up oxygen during decomposition process, this in turn

decreases the DO in water. The higher the bacterial abundance, the greater will
be the BOD and the lesser DO (Missouri Department of Natural Resources,
2011). Respectively, when water quality decreases, DO levels drop.A negative
relationship existed between nitrate concentration and coliform levels. As
coliform levels become high, nitrate concentration tends to decrease due to
uptake. Generally, the nitrate concentration in water reaches high levels as a
result of agricultural runoff, refuse dump runoff or contamination with human
or animal waste (Kazmi & Khan, 2005).
The reported coliform values using the MPN method were based on the
assumption of a random dispersion. The MPN results are estimates of the coliform
density present in the sample and not a direct count of coliform population.
Hence, MPN estimate often results in a lesser order of precision compared with
the direct count method. Its statistical basis makes it ideal for general evaluation
rather than accurate determination.

CONCLUSIONS

In general, the fecal and total coliform counts exceeded the standard values
specified for Classes C and D waters. The midstream and downstream sites
showed high total and fecal coliform counts. There was no significant difference
in FC and TC counts throughout the sampling period, an implication that there
was continuous fecal pollution in the river. The microbiological results and
observations were further validated by the physico-chemical tests. The coliform
indicators did not show significant correlations with the physico-chemical
parameters. In Cebu, approximately 36% of households have no toilets; hence,
the convenient recourse is defecation in the open. The resulting increase in
numbers of the indicator bacteria was, therefore, expected. The high presence
of organic pollutants combined with the presence of coliforms could be related
to an accumulation of waste matter along the whole stretch of the river. This
could also be due to the lack of wastewater treatment plants for domestic and
industrial discharges, and high impact human activities across the river networks.
Untreated liquid wastes are commonly generated from households containing
organic waste with suspended solids and coliforms. The high coliform levels
temporally and spatially indicated a persistent contamination and deteriorating
river water quality. This goes to show the lack or insufficient environmental
protection/rehabilitation measures applied for the studied river. In general, the
studied river becomes the depository sites for all types of waste.
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RECOMMENDATIONS

For the management of the river and for further research directions the
following are recommended: 1) aggressive evaluation and monitoring of point
and non-point sources of water pollutants conducting an inventory of the major
pollution sources for the river at present; 2) establish innovative environmental
technologies for wastewater treatment. This would not only encourage green
architecture but would also be beneficial in lessening the pollutants into the river;
and 3) enforce policies and laws related to river protection and/or rehabilitation
so that environmental legislation should be implemented squarely down to the
household level.

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