Laser beam machining

Laser is an electromagnetic radiation. It produces monochromatic light which is in the form of an

almost collimated beam that can be focused optically on to very small sports of less than 0.002 mm
dia. The word laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of Radiation.

Laser Beam Machining (LBM) is a form of machining process in which laser beam is used for the
machining of metallic and non-metallic materials. In this process, a laser beam of high energy is
made to strike on the workpiece, the thermal energy of the laser gets transferred to the surface of
the w/p (workpiece). The heat so produced at the surface heats, melts and vaporizes the materials
from the w/p. Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation is called LASER.

It works on the principle that when a high energy laser beam strikes the surface of the workpiece.
The heat energy contained by the laser beam gets transferred to the surface of the w/p. This heat
energy absorbed by the surface heat melts and vaporizes the material from the w/p. In this way the
machining of material takes place by the use of laser beam.
Laser Beam Machining – Application
1. Welding of non-conductive and refractory material.
2. Cutting complex profiles for both thin and hard materials.
3. Used to make tiny holes. Such as the holes in the nipples of baby feeder.
4. Mass-micro machining
5. Can be used for dynamic balance of rotating parts.
6. Some special heat treatment of materials.
7. For producing fine and minute holes.

Types of Laser
On the basis of the media used for the production of the laser it is classified as

1. Gas Lasers: In these types of laser, gases are used as the medium to produce lasers. The
commonly used gases are He-Ne, argon and Co2.

2. Solid State Lasers: The media of the solid-state lasers are produced by doping a rare element into
a host material.

Ruby laser is an example of solid state laser in which ruby crystal is used as medium for the
generation of laser beam.

The other media used in the solid-state lasers are

(i) YAG: For yttrium aluminium garnet which a type of crystal.

(ii) Nd: YAG – Refers to neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet crystals

Advantages of Laser Beam Machining

1. No tool wear as there is no direct contact between tool and workpiece.
2. Metal and non-metals (e.g plastics and rubbers) irrespective of their brittleness and
hardness can be machined.
3. laser beam can go through a long distance as a result LBM can be used to weld, drill or cut
areas which are difficult to reach.
4. laser beam welding gives the opportunities to weld/cut magnetic as well as heat treated
materials without losing their properties. (some change in the properties is observed in the
heat affected zone).
5. Any environment is suitable for laser beam machining – through transparent medium and
magnetic fields.
6. Very little distortion is observed and tow materials can be easily joined together.
(vaporization of the metal is not expected so it must be avoided).
7. difficult-to-machine or refractory materials can be drilled.
8. Micro sized holes can create in all types of materials.
9. Energy obtained is of high density as a result high heat is obtained.
10. Beam configuration and size of exposed area is easily controllable.
 11. Precise location of the spot is ensured.
12. By applying unidirectional multiple pulses deep holes of very short diameter can be drilled.

Disadvantages of LBM
1. The initial cost is very high and lifespan of the flash lamp is short.
2. The safety procedures are needed to be followed very strictly.
3. Material removal rate is not up to the mark.
4. While machining some plastics bum or char is noticed.
5. Too deep holes are not possible to drill.
6. Machined holes are not round shaped or straight.
7. Overall efficiency is very low. (0.3 ~0.5 %)

Electron-beam machining
Electron-beam machining (EBM) is a process where high-velocity electrons concentrated into a
narrow beam are directed toward the work piece, creating heat and vaporizing the material. EBM
can be used for very accurate cutting or boring of a wide variety of metals. Surface finish is better
and kerf width is narrower than those for other thermal cutting processes.

The source of energy in electron beam machining is high velocity electrons, which strikes the surface
of the workpiece and generate heat. Electrons escapes from the hot surface and a voltage of 50 to
200 kV helps to accelerate them. These high energy electrons possess high energy density generally
in the order of 10ˆ4 kW/mm². Thin and high energy stream strikes the workpiece. As a result, the
kinetic energy of the electrons is converted to heat energy. This heat energy is more than sufficient
to melt and even vaporize any material. Electrons can penetrate only a few atomic layers of the
metals and can melt metal up to a depth of 25 mm. The electron beam traveling at a speed of ¾ of
the velocity of the sound is focused on the material to be machined. To focus the electron beams
electro-static or electromagnetic lenses are used. Generally, electron beam machining is done in a
high vacuum chamber to avoid the unnecessary scattering of the electrons.
Equipment
The various equipment used in EBM machine are--

1. Cathode

The cathode is negatively charged and it is used to produce Electrons.

2. Annular Bias Grid

It is present next to the cathode. Annular bias grid is a circular shaped bias grid and prevents the
diversion of electrons produced by the cathode. It works as a switch and makes the electron gun to
operate in pulse mode.

3. Anode

It is placed after the annular bias grid. It is positively charged. Annular anode attracts the beam of
electron towards it and gradually the velocity of the electron increases. As the electron beam leave
the anode section, its velocity becomes half of the velocity of light.
4. Magnetic Lenses

The magnetic lenses reduce the divergence of electron beam and shape them. It allows only
convergent electrons to pass and captures the low energy divergent electrons from fringes. It
improves the quality of the beam.

5. Electromagnetic Lens

It helps the Electron beam to focus on the desired spot.

6. Deflector Coils

The deflector coil carefully guides the high velocity electron beam to a desired location on the
workpiece and improves the shape of the holes.

Applications
1. It is used for drilling synthetic jewels in the watch industry.
2. Holes as small as 0.002 mm diameter can be produced in hard synthetic sapphires.
3. Electron beam can be suitably used for welding small pieces of highly reactive and refractory
metals.
4. For making fine gas orifices in space nuclear reactors and turbine blades for supersonic aero
engines, it is used
5. Wire drawing dies, flow orifices could be produced by this process.
6. Fine copper wire can be welded to in transistors.

Advantages
1. Very hard, heat resistant materials could be machined or welded easily
2. No physical or metallurgical damage results in the workpiece.
3. Close dimensional tolerance could be achieved since there is no cutting tool wear.
4. In electron beam welding there is virtually no contamination and close control of
penetration is possible.
5. Holes as small as 0.002 mm diameter could be drilled.

Disadvantages
1. The equipment costs high and operator of high skill is required for carrying out operations.
2. The power consumption is exceedingly high
3. It is not very suitable for sinking deep holes, if the sides must be parallel. In other words, it is
not possible to have perfectly cylindrical deep holes by this method.
4. Unless special care is taken the bottom of a thorough hole would become cone-shaped.
5. It is most suitable for machining operation where much less material is to be removed. The
material removal rate being of the order of a fraction of a milligram per sec.
6. The electron beam operation can be carried out only in vacuum.
Abrasive jet machining
Abrasive jet machining (AJM), also known as abrasive micro-blasting, pencil blasting and micro-
abrasive blasting, is an abrasive blasting machining process that uses abrasives propelled by a high
velocity gas to erode material from the workpiece. Common uses include cutting heat-sensitive,
brittle, thin, or hard materials. Specifically, it is used to cut intricate shapes or form specific edge
shapes

The basic concept of abrasive jet machining is abrasive erosion or metal cutting by high velocity
abrasive particle. Its working process can be easily summarized into following point.

1. First gas or air is compressed into gas compressor. There the density and pressure of gas
increases.
2. Now this compressed gas sent to filtration unit, where dust and another suspended particle
removed from it.
3. This clean gas sends to drier, which absorb moisture from it. It is used to avoid water or oil
contamination of abrasive power.
4. Now this clean and dry gas sends to mixing chamber where abrasive feeder feed abrasive
particle in it. The abrasive particle is about 50 micro meter grit size.
5. This high-pressuring abrasive carried gas send to nozzle where its pressure energy converted
into kinetic energy. The velocity of abrasive particle leaving the nozzle is about 200m/s.
6. The standoff distance between work piece and nozzle is about 2mm.
7. Now these high velocity abrasive particles impinge on work piece. These high velocity
abrasive particles remove the material by micro cutting action as well as brittle fracture of
the work material.
Equipment
1. Abrasive jet: It is a mixture of a gas (or air) and abrasive particles. Gas used is carbon-di-
oxide or nitrogen or compressed air. The selection of abrasive particles depends on the
hardness and Metal Removal Rate (MRR) of the workpiece. Most commonly, aluminium
oxide or silicon carbide particles are used.
2. Mixing chamber: It is used to mix the gas and abrasive particles.
3. Filter: It filters the gas before entering the compressor and mixing chamber.
4. Compressor: It pressurizes the gas.
5. Hopper: Hopper is used for feeding the abrasive powder.
6. Pressure gauges and flow regulators: They are used to control the pressure and regulate the
flow rate of abrasive jet.
7. Vibrator: It is provided below the mixing chamber. It controls the abrasive powder feed rate
in the mixing chamber.
8. Nozzle: It forces the abrasive jet over the workpiece. Nozzle is made of hard and resistant
material like tungsten carbide.
Application:
1. It is used in drilling and cutting of hardened metals.
2. It is used for machining brittle and heat sensitive material like glass, quartz, sapphire, mica,
ceramic etc.
3. It is Use to manufacture electronic devices.
4. It is used in deburring small holes and some critical zones in machine parts.

Advantages:
1. High surface finish.
2. It can machine heat sensitive material.
3. It is free from vibration
4. Initialization cost is low compare to other non-traditional processes.
5. Thin section can be machined easily.

Disadvantages:
1. Low metal removal rate.
2. Abrasive particle can be embedded into work piece mostly in soft metals.
3. Nozzle life is limited so it needs frequently replacement.
4. Abrasive particle cannot be reuse in this process.
5. It cannot use for machine soft and ductile material.

Electro Discharge machining

In Electro Discharge Machining process an arc is produced when two current-carrying wires are
short-circuited. During this machining process, a small portion of metals is also eroded away, leaving
a small cater. this phenomenon is used in electro discharge machining (EDM). EDM machining
process is also known as spark erosion machining.

EDM involves a controlled erosion of electrically conductive materials by the initiation of electrically
conductive materials by the initiation of rapid and repetitive spark discharges between the tool and
workpiece separated by a small gap. Each electrical spark produces sufficient heat to melt a portion
of the workpiece and usually, some of the tooling materials also. Due to rapid heating, the dielectric
fluid evaporates in the arc gap which increases the resistance until the arc is interrupted. The
associated shock wave and flowing dielectric fluid remove the gas bubbles which later collapse.
Material removal mechanism
Material removal in EDM mainly occurs due to intense localised heating almost by point heat source
for a rather small-time frame. Such heating leads to melting and crater formation.

The molten crater can be assumed to be hemispherical in nature with a radius r which forms due to
a single pulse or spark. Hence material removal in a single spark can be expressed as
2
Γs= 3
πr3

the energy content of a single spark is given as

Es = VIton

A part of this spark energy gets lost in heating the dielectric, and rest is distributed between the
impinging electrons and ions. Thus, the energy available as heat at the workpiece is given by

Ew α E s

Ew = kEs

Now it can be logically assumed that material removal in a single spark would be proportional to the
spark energy.

Thus

Γs α Es α Ew

∴ Γs = gEs

Now material removal rate is the ratio of material removed in a single spark to cycle time.
Thus

The model presented above is a very simplified one and linear relationship is not observed in
practice. But even then such simplified model captures the complexity of EDM in a very efficient
manner. MRR in practice does increase with increase in working voltage, current, pulse on time and
decreases with increase in pulse off time. Product quality is a very important characteristic of a
manufacturing process along with MRR. The followings are the product quality issues in EDM

• Surface finish

• Overcut

• Taper cut

No two sparks take place side by side. They occur completely randomly so that over time one gets
uniform average material removal over the whole tool cross section. But for the sake of simplicity, it
is assumed that sparks occur side by side as shown in Fig

Thus it may be noted that surface roughness in EDM would increase with increase in spark energy
and surface finish can be improved by decreasing working voltage, working current and pulse on
time. In EDM, the spark occurs between the two nearest point on the tool and workpiece. Thus
machining may occur on the side surface as well leading to overcut and tapercut as depicted in Fig.
5. Taper cut can be prevented by suitable insulation of the tool. Overcut cannot be prevented as it is
inherent to the EDM process. But the tool design can be done in such a way so that same gets
compensated.

In this conclusion, there are following major factors are achieved during machining operations:

Resulting foremost conclusions can be stated from review of work in this area that EDM
performance is generally evaluated on the basis of TWR, MRR, Ra and hardness.

In Material removal rate (MRR) from all selected parameters, spark current (I) is the most significant
input factor affecting the machining of workpiece.

The performance is affected by discharge current, pulse on time, pulse off time, duty cycle, voltage
for EDM.

For tool wear rate (TWR) from the all selected parameters, spark current (I) is the most significant
input factor affecting the machining of workpiece followed by spark time and voltage.

Innovative technology in the EDM is unceasingly progressing to make this procedure further
appropriate for the Machining. In the field of manufacturing additional attention is on the
optimization of the method by dropping the number of Electrode

Applications
1. Blind cavities and narrow slots in dies, minimum diameter hole can be produced is 0.13mm.
2. L/D ratio is as high as 20 can be done. So, due to this, EDM is particularly useful in machining
of small holes, orifices, slots in diesel fuel injection nozzles, airbrake valves and aircraft
engines etc.

Advantages:
1. L/D ratio as high as 20 can be achieved.
2. There is no contact between tool and workpiece so no forces acting in machining. So no
residual stresses are generated in machining.
 3. Out of all the unconventional machining methods, EDM is the one which gives highest MRR,
4. Melting and evaporation is the mechanism for chip formation, the mechanical properties of
work piece material will not affect the material removal rate (MRR).
5. Surface finish produced will be better.

Disadvantages:
1. Used only for electrically conductive material.
2. Electrode wear is more.
3. Re-hardening occurs due to heat generated during machining.
4. Not possible to make exact square corners.