Formation Damage TOP PDF

Formation Damage
Taller de Optimización de Producción
Maracaibo, 2006
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Well, Reservoir & Boundaries
A reservoir might have a boundary.
Reservoir boundaries:
•“no flow” – sealing fault, dividing

line between drainage areas
•Constant pressure boundary –

acquifer, injector/producer interface
2
Wellbore, Altered Zone & Undamaged Zone
Any alteration on the flowing properties of

the a zone around the well will induce a
correspondent change on the well
production.
A decrease of the conductivity will

correspond to a restriction to produce.
If production is restricted in any zone of

the formation due to whatever
mechanism, the formation is said to be
damaged.
(Dowell Matrix Engineering Manual, 1998) 3

Permeability changes in Radial Flow
Flow restrictions, light or severe, k/ka
have a higher impact at close ra s=1 s=5 s = 10 s = 100
penetration. 0.36 36.5 178.5 356.0 3,550.8
0.5 3.8 15.0 29.0 281.4
1 2.0 5.8 10.5 96.3
As penetration increases the 2 1.6 3.9 6.7 58.4
restriction “stabilizes”. 3 1.5 3.3 5.7 47.5
5 1.4 2.9 4.8 38.6
10 1.3 2.5 4.0 30.8

Near the wellbore, in the “critical 20 1.2 2.2 3.5 25.7
area”, the restriction is maximal. 50 1.2 2.0 3.0 21.2
100 1.2 1.9 2.8 18.7
4
Permeability changes in Radial Flow
5
Effect of shifting a 80% damage collar
100
3-in collar
Percent of original productivity
6-in collar
80 12-in collar
rc-rx = collar thickness
Damage collar
60 rc
40 rx
Wellbore
20 re
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Inner radius of damage (ft)
6
Critical Area
Area 3 to 5 ft around the wellbore where flow restriction is higher .

Flow linear velocity is higher in the critical area and varies with the
square of the radius.
Critical Area
velocity
rw
re
7
Radial Flow & Skin Effect

Flow Regimes
Transient Pseudo Steady State Steady State

(variable slope) (constant slope) ( slope zero)
time
9
Darcy’ Law in Transient Flow
•Infinity acting radial flow period

•No outer boundary
•Pressure vs. time slope changes
Solution in field units (zero skin)
k h (Pe − Pwf )
q=
⎛ k ⎞
162.6 µ Bo ⎜⎜ log t + log − 3.23 ⎟⎟
⎝ φ µ Ct rw
2
⎠
10
Darcy’s Law in Pseudo Steady State Flow
• No flow across outer boundary

• Reservoir is finite
∂P
• Pressure decline with time is constant ∂t
= const. rw < r < re
Solution in field units (skin zero)

k h (Pe − Pwf )
q=
⎛
141.2 µ Bo ⎜ ln
re
− 0.5 ⎞⎟
⎝ rw ⎠
11
Darcy’s Law in Steady State Flow
• No flow at the boundary

• Reservoir is finite
∂p
• Pressure is constant with time =0 rw <r < re
∂t
Solution in field units (skin zero)

k h (Pe − Pwf )
q=
⎛
141.2 µ Bo ⎜ ln
re ⎞
⎟
⎝ rw ⎠
12
Skin Effect
Any alteration (restriction or enhancement) to the radial flow in

the formation and at the wellbore is represented by the Skin
Factor (s).
When the alteration is a restriction to the flow, the skin is

positive (s>0).
When the alteration is an enhancement to the flow, the skin is

negative (s<0).
13
Darcy’s Law including Skin
(Pseudo Steady State)
k h (Pr − Pwf )
q=
⎛
141.2 µ Bo ⎜ ln
re
− 0.75 + s ⎞⎟
⎝ rw ⎠
Pr is the average reservoir pressure
14
Darcy’s Law including Skin
(Steady State)
k h (Pr − Pwf )
q=
⎛
141.2 µ Bo ⎜ ln
re
− 0.5 + s ⎞⎟
⎝ rw ⎠
Pr is the average reservoir pressure
15
Skin & Formation Damage
• A well without restriction to flow has a zero skin (s = 0),

• A positive skin represents a restriction to flow but not
necessarily a formation damage,
• Can be due to a mechanical restriction to flow (e.g. collapse
perforations, gravel pack, etc),
• The purpose of matrix treatment in sandstones is to remove
the damage and reduce the skin to zero (typically, s < 5),
• There is no limit of a positive skin – a cased well before
perforating has an infinite skin (s = ∞).
16
Skin & Flow Enhancement
• A negative skin represents an improvement over the natural

flow capacity,
• A well with a negative skin is said to be Stimulated,
• After acidizing, carbonate formations might present negative
skins,
• Deviated wells have negative skins,
• Hydraulic fractures provoke negative skins,
• Is there a limit for a negative skin?
17
Negative Skin
k h (Pe − Pwf )
q=
141.2 µ Bo ⎛⎜ ln e + s ⎞⎟
r
⎝ rw ⎠
k h (Pe – Pwf) ≥ 0 re ln re/rw
141.2 µBo(ln re/rw + s) > 0 300 6.74

500 7.26
S > - ln re/rw 1000 7.97
rw = 4.25” = 0.35 ft
s>-8
18
Reservoir Model of Skin Effect
Bulk
formation
Altered
zone
ka
h
rw
ra
19
Reservoir Pressure Profile
2000
Pressure, psi
1500
1000
∆ps
500
1 10 100 1000 10000
Distance from center of wellbore, ft 20

Skin and Pressure Drop
0.00708 k h
s= ∆p s
qBµ
21
Skin and Pressure Drop
141.2qBµ
∆p s = s
kh
22
Skin Factor and Properties
of the Altered Zone
⎛k ⎞ ⎛ ra ⎞
s = ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ka ⎠ ⎝ rw ⎠
23
Skin Factor and Properties
of the Altered Zone
k
ka =
s
1+
ln(ra rw )
24
Effective Wellbore Radius
⎛ rwa ⎞
s = − ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ rw ⎠
−s
rwa = rw e
25
Geometric Skin - Converging Flow to
Perforations
26
Geometric Skin - Partial Penetration
hp
27
Partial Penetration
h1
ht
s= sd + s p
ht hp
hp
28
Partial Penetration
Apparent Skin Factor
h1D = h1 ht 1
A=
h1D + h pD 4
h pD = h p ht
1
1 B=
rw ⎛ kv ⎞ 2
h1D + 3h pD 4
rD = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
ht ⎝ kh ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ π 1 ⎡ h pD ⎛ A − 1 ⎞ 2
1 ⎤
sp = ⎜ − 1⎟ ln + ln ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎜ h pD ⎟ 2rD h pD ⎢ 2 + h pD ⎝ B − 1 ⎠ ⎥
⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ⎦
29
Geometric Skin - Deviated Wellbore
s = sd + sθ
h
θ h secθ
30
Deviated Wellbore
Apparent Skin Factor
⎛ kv
−1 ⎜
⎞ h kh
θ w' = tan tanθ w ⎟ hD =
⎜ kh ⎟ rw kv
⎝ ⎠
2.06 1.865
⎞
⎛ θ w' ⎛ θ w'⎞ ⎛ hD ⎞
sθ = − ⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟ log⎜ ⎟
⎜ 41 ⎟ ⎜ 56 ⎟ ⎝ 100 ⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
31
Geometric Skin - Well With Hydraulic Fracture
Lf
32
Completion Skin
rw
s = s p + sd + sdp
kdp rdp
rp
kR
Lp
⎛ h ⎞⎛ rdp ⎞⎛ k R k R ⎞
sdp =⎜ ⎟⎜ ln ⎟⎜ − ⎟
kd ⎜ L p n ⎟⎜ rp ⎟⎜ k dp k d ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
rd
33
After McLeod, JPT (Jan. 1983) p. 32.
Gravel Pack Skin
Cement
k R hLg
s gp = 2
2nk gp rp
Lg
34
Productivity Index
q
J≡
p − p wf
35
Flow Efficiency
Jactual p − p wf − ∆p s
Ef ≡ =
Jideal p − p wf
36
Damage Characterization
• Damage characterization is complex
• Normally, more than one type of damage
• Production history is fundamental to identify source of

damage and damage mechanisms
Production data Damage Mechanisms Damage types
Expert system
(StimCADETM)
37
Types of Damages
Induced Produced
• Solids • Fines migration

• LCM/Kill Pills • Swelling clays
• Incompatibility of waters • Organic deposits
• OBM (cationic emulsifiers) (paraffins, asphaltenes)
• Invasion of fluids (water & • Mixed deposits
emulsion block) • etc
• Bacteria
• etc
38
Solids Invasion
Solids invasion can be produced by an external source (during a

work-over, for example) or during production (fines migration).
Solids have to be extremely small to penetrate into the pore

throat.
k Dpore in mm
D pore = 2 × k in Darcies
10 Π φ
6
f in fraction
Normally, external solids plug the formation at sand face.
39
Solids Invasion - Mitigation
Mitigation:
Any treatment fluids to be filtered to 2µ.
500
A (2.5 ppm)
(A) Bay Water Filtered
Permeability (md)
Through 2um Cotton Filer

100
(B) Bay Water
Through 5um Cotton Filter
(C) Produced Water Untreated

50
C (94 ppm)
(D) Bay Water Untreated
D (436 ppm)
10
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Volume Injected (gal/perf)
40
Fines Migration
• Fine = particle with 44 µ or less. Normally, clays and silts.

• Some clays (kaolinite, for example) may be destabilized and
will produce fines that will plug, partially or completely, the
wellbore.
• Fines can not be controlled, they need to be dissolved.
• Contrarily to sand grains, fines due to their very small
dimension do not cause any harm to the well completion
equipment.
41
Identification of Fines Migration
• Turbidity of produced water
• Production declines with increased flow rate (increased

wellhead choke size)
• Fines are not soluble in HCl
42
Fines Migration Mitigation
Sandstone Formations:
• Reduce production rate
• Acidize with HCl-HF
• Remove with suspending agents and use N2 fluids
Carbonate Formations:
• Reduce production rate
• Acidize with HCl (don’t use HF)
• Remove with suspending agents and use N2 fluids
43
Pore throat
Pore
Throat Pores Provide the
Volume to Contain
Hydrocarbon Fluids
Pore Throats Restrict

Fluid Flow
Scanning Electron Micrograph

Norphlet Formation, Offshore Alabama, USA
44
Kaolinite
45
Swelling clays: Smectite
• Some clays “swell” when in contact with water with different

salinity.
• The increase in volume restricts the pore throat and

consequently reduces the permeability.
• Smectite is a common swelling clay.
46
Smectite
47
Scale
•Inorganic mineral deposits.

•Formed due to supersaturation at
wellbore conditions or commingling of
incompatible fluids.
•Form in the plumbing system of the
well, in the perforations/near wellbore
formation
48
The Scaling Process
Saturated brines may form precipitates when mineral

equilibrium concentrations are exceeded (supersaturation) due
to:
Increased mineral concentration
Change in temperature, pressure or pH
Mixing incompatible waters
49
The Scaling Process
Dissolution
Mineral matter
dissolves in water
Transportation
Produced water carries
minerals through formation
wellbore and tubing
Deposition
Changes in water causes
supersaturation and precipitation.
Scale adheres and grows
50
The Nucleation
Supersaturation Ion pairs Clusters / Nuclei
Ba2+ SO42 Ba2+ SO42
Transient Stability
Ba2+ SO42
Imperfect Crystallites
Further growth at sites of
crystal imperfections
51
Solubility of various minerals
Scale Solubility mg/liter

Sodium Chloride 318,300.0
Calcium Sulfate 2,080.0
Calcium Carbonate 53.0
Barium Sulfate 2.3
In distilled water
52
Calcium Carbonate precipitation
Pressure ↓ pH ↑ Solubility ↓ Precipitation
In presence of CO2 Solubility ↓
Temperature ↑
Without CO2 Slight Solubility ↑
NaCl concentration higher than 10% decreases CaCO3 solubility
Mitigation: CaCO3 and MgCO3 dissolve in HCl

53
Calcium Sulfate precipitation
Forms
Gypsum (CaSO4
2H2O)
Mitigation
Anhydrite (CaSO4)
Mechanical removal
Precipitation caused by
Pressure drop
Temperature change
Incompatible waters
54
Barium Sulfate precipitation
Mixing incompatible waters

Common occurrence during water flood breakthrough
Decreasing temperature (more significant at high salt
concentration)
Decreasing pressure
Mitigation
Mechanical Removal
55
Iron Scales
Types
Iron Carbonate
Iron Sulfide Mitigation
Iron Oxide
Precipitation mechanism Dissolve in HCl
Aeration (oxidation)
pH, pressure or
temperature change
Corrosion products
56
Precipitation of Iron Compounds
Fe+3, ppm
•Ferric ion – Fe+3 precipitates 3000
as Fe(OH)3 at pH < 2
•Ferrous ion – Fe+2 2000
precipitates as Fe(OH)2 at pH
≈7
1000
•As the pH of spent acid is
around 5, ferrous ion
0
precipitates on surface 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 7.2 8
57
Precipitation of Iron Compounds - Mitigation
Mitigation:
• Iron concentration in treatment fluid < 100 ppm (clean tanks
and equipment)
• In matrix acidizing, maintain pH very to prevent precipitation
of Fe+3
• Use reducers to reduce Fe+3 to Fe+2
58
Paraffins
• Complex molecules (C18H38 to C40H82)

• Precipitates at cloud point (temperature at which first fraction
precipitates).
Mitigation:
Soluble in distillates, aromatics and carbon disulfide.
Keep temperature above cloud point (if possible).
59
Asphaltenes
•Precipitation of asphaltic colloidal molecules dispersed by

maltenes.
•Precipitation of hard deposits just below bubble point.
•Precipitation of sludge and solid emulsions due to contact with
acids or addition of surfactants.
Mitigation:
Prevention with addition of special agents, replacing the
maltenes.
Difficult to dissolve. Mechanical removal necessary in many
cases.
60
Mixed Deposits
• Mixtures of fines, organic and inorganic deposits.

• Require extensive laboratory studies to design treatment and
define treatment fluids.
Mitigation:
Aromatic solvents normally used to dissolve organic precipitates.
Acids to dissolve fines.
Special solvents to dissolve scales.
61
Drilling Damage
• Filter cake should prevent extensive damage to formation during

drilling
• Mud filtrate might cause clay destabilization, emulsions, water blocks
• Low permeability (~ 0.001md) filter cake will be damaging during
production
formation permeability may be impaired
potential plugging of screen/ gravel pack
• Openhole completions do not have perforations or fractures to
bypass any damage
• Filter cake removal maybe a necessity!
62
Filter Cake
63
Drilling Fluids Damage
Drilling Fluids Solids Oil Based Muds

• Plugging formation face • High solids content
• Relative permeability
• Very small solids invasion
• Emulsifiers (cationic)
Drilling Fluid Filtrate
• pH, Salinity
• Capillarity (high penetration)
• Scales
• Clays disturbance
• Cooling
64
Cementing Damage
Washes & spacers Mitigation:

Mitigation:
Destroy mud cake Controlled
Controlledfluid
fluidloss
loss
Dispersants Perforation
Perforationlength
length
Filtrate invasion (few inches)
Cement slurries
High pH
Precipitation CaCO3
Free H2O water block (small penetration)
Squeeze
Formation breakdown 65
Perforation Damage
Radial Distance (mm)
66
Damage in Water Injectors
• Solids plugging (filter to 2µ)

• Disturbance of clays (include clay stabilizer in injection water)
• Scales due to incompatibility of waters (lab tests)
• Plugging by ferric compounds (include iron sequestering
agents)
• Bacteria (include bactericide)
67
Damage in Steam Flooding
• Caused by the dissolution of materials due to temperature

and high pH.
• Dissolution of calcareous materials provoke sand
deconsolidation.
• Dissolution of siliceous materials can provoke precipitation
in zones with lower temperatures and pH.
• May for scales of calcium carbonate and amorphous silica.
68
Damage in CO2 Flooding
• Precipitation of asphaltenes when in contact with oil

(specially in presence of water).
• Precipitation of scales due to acidic conditions.
• Dissolution of rock cementing materials and deconsolidation
of sand.
69
Damage in Polymer Flooding
• Gel residues.
• Fines transportation by gels.
70
Damage in Injectors
In Injectors Wells, damage materials can deposit very deep in

the reservoir and their removal might be very difficult.
71
Emulsions (Emulsion Block)
• A stable dispersion of two immiscible fluids.

• Formed by invasion of filtrates into all zones or co-mixing of
oil-based filtrates with formation brines.
• Stabilized by fines and surfactants
• Mitigation: Solvents
72
Wettability Changes
• Caused by invasion of completion or workover fluids.

• Surfactants may displace the water film around pores
surfaces and replace it by a oil film.
• Changes in relative permeability.
• Mitigation: Solvent & Water-Wet
Surfactant.
73
Water Block
A reduction in effective
or relative permeability 1 1
to oil due to increased Water Wet
water saturation in the Oil Wet
near wellbore region.

Kro
Kro Krw
Krw
Favored by pore-lining
clay minerals (Illite)
Mitigation: Reduction of 0
interfacial tension using 0 Swc

Sw
1-Sor 1
surfactants/alcohol's in Wettability change

acid carrier
74
Gravel Pack
• Poor or incomplete gravel placement

(too many perforations, small diameter)
• Polluted pack
(formation sand, fines, wellbore residues, gel residues)
• Poor screen selection (pseudo-skin)
75
Production Damage
Fines Migration/Bridging
Precipitation Scale, Paraffins..

High
Drawdown
Increased Effective Stress
In Situ Distillation/Wettability Changes
76
Identification of Formation Damage and
Lithology in Cased Hole

Identification of Formation Damage
Pressure gauge
drawdown and buildup tests (skin factor)
real-time gauges
memory gauges
Production Logging (PLT)
identify flowing interval and flowing anomalies (x-flow)
real-time or memory
78
Identifying Lithology across Casing
• Infer formation damage by lithology

• Select right remedy for different lithology
• RST SpectroLith processing

Quantify formation rock volume behind casing
Formation evaluation in the absence of openhole logs
79
Elements Measured with Wireline Tools
Natural Gamma Ray spectroscopy (NGT)

Th, U, K
Induced neutron activation (AACT)
Al
Induced thermal neutron gamma ray spectroscopy
(RST)
Si, Ca, Fe, S, Ti, Gd
80
Reservoir Saturation Tool (RST)
81
RST Spectral Analysis
82
Spectrolith® Processing
83
Spectrolith® Processing
Volume of oil
corresponds to
inputs from
lithology and
porosity.
Client Porosity & Lithology RSTPro Porosity & Lithology

84
Damage Sample Testing and Diagnosis
START No No
Yes
Organics Yes Yes Yes
No
Yes
No Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes No
Yes
Yes No
Yes
85

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Formation Damage

Taller de Optimización de Producción

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

A reservoir might have a boundary.

•“no flow” – sealing fault, dividing

•Constant pressure boundary –

Any alteration on the flowing properties of

A decrease of the conductivity will

If production is restricted in any zone of

(Dowell Matrix Engineering Manual, 1998) 3

Flow restrictions, light or severe, k/ka

have a higher impact at close ra s=1 s=5 s = 10 s = 100

penetration. 0.36 36.5 178.5 356.0 3,550.8

0.5 3.8 15.0 29.0 281.4

1 2.0 5.8 10.5 96.3

As penetration increases the 2 1.6 3.9 6.7 58.4

restriction “stabilizes”. 3 1.5 3.3 5.7 47.5

5 1.4 2.9 4.8 38.6

10 1.3 2.5 4.0 30.8

area”, the restriction is maximal. 50 1.2 2.0 3.0 21.2

100 1.2 1.9 2.8 18.7

Area 3 to 5 ft around the wellbore where flow restriction is higher .

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Transient Pseudo Steady State Steady State

•Infinity acting radial flow period

Solution in field units (zero skin)

• No flow across outer boundary

Solution in field units (skin zero)

• No flow at the boundary

Solution in field units (skin zero)

Any alteration (restriction or enhancement) to the radial flow in

When the alteration is a restriction to the flow, the skin is

When the alteration is an enhancement to the flow, the skin is

Pr is the average reservoir pressure

Pr is the average reservoir pressure

• A well without restriction to flow has a zero skin (s = 0),

• A negative skin represents an improvement over the natural

k h (Pe – Pwf) ≥ 0 re ln re/rw

141.2 µBo(ln re/rw + s) > 0 300 6.74

Distance from center of wellbore, ft 20

• Damage characterization is complex

• Normally, more than one type of damage

• Production history is fundamental to identify source of

Production data Damage Mechanisms Damage types

• Solids • Fines migration

Solids invasion can be produced by an external source (during a

Solids have to be extremely small to penetrate into the pore

Normally, external solids plug the formation at sand face.

Through 2um Cotton Filer

(C) Produced Water Untreated

Volume Injected (gal/perf)

• Fine = particle with 44 µ or less. Normally, clays and silts.

• Turbidity of produced water

• Production declines with increased flow rate (increased

• Fines are not soluble in HCl

Pore Throats Restrict

Scanning Electron Micrograph

• Some clays “swell” when in contact with water with different

• The increase in volume restricts the pore throat and

• Smectite is a common swelling clay.

•Inorganic mineral deposits.

Saturated brines may form precipitates when mineral

Supersaturation Ion pairs Clusters / Nuclei

Mixing incompatible waters