SPE Nomenclature and Symbols PDF

Appendix I
SPE Nomenclature and Units·
Standard letter symbols for reservoir engineering Gas volume

and electric logging have been defined by the AI ME cubic foot) measured at 1 atmosphere
(Society of Petroleum Engineers). Some non- cubic metre) and 60°F
standard terms, subscripts and nomenclature are still MCF = thousands of cubic feet
in use and may be encountered. MMCF = millions of cubic feet
No effective standardization or metrication of (The billion is the American billion = 109 ;
units has yet occurred, and the industry uses the trillion is the American trillion = 10 12 .)
American mixed units to a large extent, although
some metric units mixed with American still may be Pressure
encountered. An application of the SI metric system pounds force per square in (psi)
is found in the Journal of Petroleum Engineerinng atmosphere
(1985) in the issues for August (p.1415) and October bar
p.1801.
Temperature
degrees Fahrenheit OF
UNITS degrees Rankine OR = 460 + OF
degrees Kelvin K
Volume
acre-foot for large volumes Length
barrel pipelines - miles, feet, kilometres
cubic ft well depths - feet or metres
cubic metre Diameters
tubular diameters generally inches or centimetres
Liquid volume feet/metres
barrel = 5.615 cubic ft
cubic metre = (35.31) fe Viscosity
(Unless otherwise specified, an oil volume will be centipoise
tank oil measured at 1 atmosphere and 60°F.)
Density
lb mass per cubic foot
* Reprinted fromlournal of Petroleum Technology, 1984, kg mass per cubic metre
pp. 2278-2323 by permission. © SPE-AlME, 1984. g per cubic centimetre
257
258 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE
Specific gravity Oil densities

liquids relative to water (62.4lb/ft 3 ) API gravity
gases relative to air (0.0765Ib/ft 3 )
API scale for tank oil 0API = 141.5
--,----.,.-- - 131. 5
(SG)oil
Gas-oil ratio
standard cubic feet of gas per stock tank barrel of oil SG = specific gravity of water = 1.0
cubic metres of gas (s.c.) per cubic metre tank oil
Recommendation for metrication and appropriate
Flow rate conversion factors for units are given:
liquids - barrel per day (bid)
cubic metres per day (m 3/d)
gases - standard cubic ft per day SCF/d, MCF/d
and MSCFD/d, MMSCFD
cubic metres per day (m 3 /d) MSCFD/d
Recommended units: conversions

Quantity SI unit Industry SPE preferred Conversion
unit unit factor
(industry preferred)
Length m mile km 1.609344
metre m 1.0
foot m 0.3048
inch mm 25.4
Area m2 sq. mile km 2 2.589988
acre km 2 4.046873 x 103
sq.ft m2 0.0920304
sq. inch mm2 6.4516 x 102
Volume m3 m3 m3 1.0
acre foot m3 1.233482 x 103
barrel m3 1.589873 x 10. 1
ft3 m3 2.831685 x 10.2
US gallon m3 3.785412 x 10.3
CapacityIlength m3/m barrels/ft m3/m 5.216119 x 10.1
ft3/ft m3/m 9.02903404 x 10.2
US gall.lft m3/m 1.241933 x 10.2
Mass kg Ibmass kg 4.535924 x 10.1
short ton Mg 0.9071847
Temperature gradient Kim °F/ft Kim 1.822689
Pressure Pa atmosphere kPa 1.013250x 102
bar kPa 1.0 x 102
kgf/sq. em kPa 9.806650 x 10 1
Ibf/sq. in. kPa 6.894757
dyne/sq. em Pa 1 x 10.1
Pressure gradient Palm Ibf/sq. in.lft kPaim 2.262059 x 10 1
Density kg/m 3 Ibmlft3 kg/m 3 1.601846 x 10-1
Ibm/USgal1. kg/m 3 1.198264 x 102
Volume rate m3/s bid m3/d 1.589873 x 10-1
US gall.!min m3/hr 0.2271247
Viscosity Pa.s cP Pa.s 1.0 x 10-3
Permeability m2 Darcy 11m2 9.869233 x 10- 1
miliiDarcy 11m2 9.869233 x 10-4
SPE NOMENCLATURE AND UNITS 259
sPE SYMBOLS STANDARD original standards were published in 1956 following

five years of intensive development. Additions
Preface resulted from requests from members and from
Objectives editorial reviews of the numerous papers submitted
to SPE for publication.
The primary objectives of the 1984 Symbols Stan-
dards are to combine prior standards and supple- Principles of symbols selection
ments into one publication so as to provide (1)
consistency of usage and maximum ease of under- Once the original reservoir Symbols Standard was
standing of mathematical equations for the readers established in 1956, the principles employed in the
of technical papers, and (2) to codify symbols lists, selection of additional symbols have been as follows:
rules and guides for the writers of technical papers. A. (1) Use single letters only for the main letter
symbols. This is the universal practice of the
Structure of lists American National Standards Institute (ANSI),
The 1984 Symbol Standards are a consolidation of the International Organization for Standardiza-
the 1956 Standard and all later supplements. Some tion (ISO) and the International Union of Pure
of the cross-grouping and obsolete quantities have and Applied Physics (IUP AP) in more than 20
been eliminated. The complete symbols list is given formal Standards adopted by them for letter
in four different forms as follows: symbols employed in mathematical equations.
(2) Make available single and multiple sub-
A. Symbols alphabetized by physical quantity, scripts to the main letter symbols to the extent
B. Subscripts alphabetized by physical quantity, necessary for clarity.
Multiple letters such as abbreviations are
C. Symbols alphabetized by symbols, prohibited for use as the main symbol (kernel)
D. Subscripts alphabetized by symbols. for a quantity. A few exceptions are some
traditional mathematical symbols such as log, In
The names or labels for the quantities are for and lim. Thus quantities that are sometimes
identification only and are not intended as defini- represented by abbreviations in textual mate-
tions. Defining equations are given in a few cases rial, tables or graphs are required in the SPE
where further identifications may be needed. For the Symbols Standards to have single-letter kernels.
present, the specification of units and conditions of Examples are: gas-oil ratio (GOR), bottom-
measurement is left to the user. hole pressure (BHP), spontaneous potential
For convenience in dimensional checking of equa- (SP), static SP (SSP), which, respectively, have
tions, a column has been included giving the the following SPE Standard symbols: R,pbh,
dimensions of each quantity in terms of mass, Esp, Essp. .
length, time, temperature and electrical charge (m, B. Adopt the letter symbols of original or prior
L, t, T, q). The term various also appears in this author usage, where not in conflict with princi-
column for several symbols. This terminology per- ples C and D below.
mits maximum flexibility for quantities that may C. Adopt letter symbols consistent or parallel with
require different dimensions in different problems. the existing SPE Standard, minimizing conflicts
Examples are symbols: (1) m for slope of a line (two with that Standard.
variables of any dimensions can be related); (2) C D. Where pertinent, adopt the symbols already
for concentration (dimensions might be m/L3 , standardized by such authorities as ANSI, ISO,
dimensionless or other); (3) F (factor) when it or IUPAP (see A); minimize conflicts with
represents ratio (dimensions might be L 3/m, m, these Standards.
dimensionless or other). This flexibility in dimen- E. Limit the list principally to basic quantities,
sions permits desirable shortening of the symbols avoiding symbols and subscripts for combina-
list. tions, reciprocals, special conditions, etc.
F. Use initial letters of materials, phase, processes,
Additional standard symbols
etc., for symbols and subscripts, as being
The extraordinary growth in all phases of petroleum suggestive and easily remembered.
and computer technology has necessitated the adop- G. Choose symbols that can be readily handwrit-
tion of additional standard symbols, since the ten, typed, and printed.
Principles of letter symbol standardization nent part of a complex mathematical formula

A. Requirements for Published Quantity. - for example, as an exponent of a given
Each published letter symbol should be: base. Instead, one may introduce locally, a
1. Standard, where possible. In the use of single non-conflicting letter to stand for such
published symbols, authors of technical a complicated component. An explanatory
works (including textbooks) are urged to definition should then appear in the immedi-
adopt the symbols in this and other current ate context.
standard lists and to conform to the princi- B. Secondary symbols. Subscripts and superscripts
ples stated here. An author should give a are widely used and for a variety of convention-
table of the symbols used and their respec- al purposes. For example, a subscript may
tive interpretations, or else refer to a stan- indicate: (1) the place of a term in a sequence or
dard list as a source for symbols used but not matrix; (2) a designated state, point, part, or
explained. For work in a specialized or time, or system of units; (3) the constancy of
developing field, an author may need sym- one independent physical quantity among
bols in addition to those already contained in others on which a given quantity depends for its
standard lists. In such a case the author value; (4) a variable with respect to which the
should be careful to select simple suggestive given quantity is a derivative. Likewise, for
symbols that avoid conflict in the given field example, a superscript may indicate: (1) the
and in other closely related special fields. exponent for a power, (2) a distinguishing label,
Except in this situation, the author should (3) a unit, or (4) a tensor index. The intended
not introduce new symbols or depart from sense must be clear in each case. Several
currently accepted notation. subscripts or superscripts sometimes separated
2. Clear in reference. One should not assign to a by commas may be attached to a single letter. A
given symbol different meanings in such a symbol with a superscript such as prime (') or
manner as to make its interpretation in a second ("), or a tensor index, should be en-
given context ambiguous. Conflicts must be closed in parentheses, braces or brackets before
avoided. Often a listed alternative symbol or an exponent is attached. So far as logical clarity
a modifying subscript is available and should permits, one should avoid attaching subscripts
be adopted. Except in brief reports, any and superscripts to subscripts and superscripts.
symbol not familiar to the reading public Abbreviations, themselves standardized, may
should have its meaning defined in the text. appear among subscripts. A conventional sign,
The units should be indicated whenever or abbreviation, indicating the adopted unit
necessary. may be attached to a letter symbol, or corres-
3. Easily identified. Because of the many ponding numeral. Reference marks, such as
numerals, letters and signs that are similar in numbers in distinctive type, may be attached to
appearance, a writer should be careful in words and abbreviations, but not to letter
ca!ling for separate symbols that in published symbols.
form might be confused by the reader. For
C. Multiple subscript-position order. The wide
example, many letters in the Greek alphabet
variety and complexity of subject matter co-
(lower case and capital) are practically indis-
vered in the petroleum literature make it
tinguishable from English letters; the zero is
impossible to avoid use of multiple subscripts
easily mistaken for a capital O.
with many symbols. To make such usage less
4. Economical in publication. One should try to
confusing, the following guides were employed
keep at a minimum the cost of publishing
for the order of appearance of the individual
symbols. In particular: (1) Notations which
letters in multiple subscripts in the symbols list.
call for handsetting of movable type should
Use of the same rules is recommended when it
be rejected in favour of forms adapted to
becomes necessary to establish a multiple sub-
modern mechanical methods of composition.
script notation that has not been included in this
(2) No one work should use a great variety of
list.
types and special characters. (3) Handwrit-
ing of inserted symbols, in copy largely 1. When the subscript r for 'relative' is used, it
typewritten and to be reproduced in facsi- should appear first in subscript order. Ex-
mile, should not be excessive. (4) Often a amples: K r01· K rg .
complicated expression appears as a compo- 2. When the subscript i for 'injection' or
'injected' or 'irreducible' is used, it should few distinct letters used from other alphabets, if
appear first in subscript order (but after r for carefully made, should be self-explanatory. It is
'relative'). Examples: Big, formation important to select a type face that has italic
volume factor of injected gas; Cig, compress- forms, and clearly distinguished upper case,
ibility of injected gas. lower case and small capitals. Only type faces
3. Except for Cases 1 and 2 above (and with serifs are recommended.
symbols Kh and Lv), phase, composition and
E. Remarks. Quantity symbols may be used in
system subscripts should generally appear
first in subscript order. Examples: Bgi, mathematical expressions in any way consistent
initial or original gas formation volume with good mathematical usage. The product of
factor; B oi , initial or original oil formation two quantities is indicated by writing abo The
quotient may be indicated by writing
volume factor; CO,i' initial or original ox-
ygen concentration; B li , initial or original a
-,alb or ab- 1
total system formation volume factor; PsE, b
density of solid particles making up ex-
perimental pack; also FaH G Lp' G wgp , G Fi' If more than one solidus is used in any
4. Abbreviation subscripts (such as 'ext', 'lim', algebraic term, parentheses must be inserted to
'max', 'min'), when applied to a symbol remove any ambiguity. Thus, one may write
already subscripted, should appear last in (a/b)/c, or a/bc, but not alb/c.
subscript order and require that the basic
symbol and its initial subscript(s) be first F. Special notes. Observe the following:
enclosed in parentheses. Examples: (ia)max, 1. When the mobilities involved are on oppo-
(Shr)min' site sides of an interface, the mobility ratio
5. Except for Case 4 above, numerical sub- will be defined as the ratio of the displacing
scripts should appear last in subscript order. phase mobility to the displaced phase mobil-
Examples: qoD3, dimensionless oil produc- ity, or the ratio of the upstream mobility to
tion rate during time period 3; PR2, reservoir the downstream mobility.
pressure at time 2; (ial)max, maximum air 2. Abbreviated chemical formulas are used as
injection rate during time period 1. subscripts for paraffin hydrocarbons: C 1 for
6. Except for Cases 4 and 5 above, subscript D methane, C2 for ethane, C3 for propane ...
for 'dimensionless' should usually appear Cn for Cn H 2n + 2 •
last in subscript order. Examples: PID; qoD; 3. Complete chemical formulas are used as
(qoD3)max' subscripts for other materials: CO 2 for
7. Except for Cases 4, 5 and 6 above, the carbon dioxide, CO for carbon monoxide,
following subscripts should usually appear O 2 for oxygen, N2 for nitrogen, etc.
last in subscript order: regions such as bank, 4. The letter R is retained for electrical resistiv-
burned, depleted, front, swept, unburned ity in well logging usage. The symbol P is to
(b, b, d, f, s, u); separation, differential and be used in all other cases and is that
flash (d, f); individual component identifica- preferred by ASA.
tion (i orQI other). Examples: E Db ; Rsf, npJ- 5. The letter C is retained for conductivity in
D. Typography. Letter symbols for physical quan- well logging usage. The symbol (J is to be
tities, and other subscripts and superscripts, used in all other cases and is that preferred
whether upper case, lower case, or in small by ASA.
capitals, when appearing as light-face letters of 6. Dimensions: L = length, m = mass, q =
the English alphabet, are printed in italic electrical charge, t = time, and T = temper-
(sloping) type. Arabic numerals, and letters or ature.
other alphabets used in mathematical express- 7. Dimensionless numbers are criteria for
ions, are normally printed in vertical type. geometric, kinematic and dynamic similarity
When a special alphabet is required, boldface between two systems. They are derived by
type is to be preferred to German, Gothic, or one of three procedures used in methods of
script type. In material to be reproduced in similarity: integral, differential, or dimen-
facsimile, from copy largely typewritten, letters sional. Examples of dimensionless numbers
that would be boldface in print may be indicated are Reynolds number (N Re ) and Prandtl
to be such by special underscoring, while the number (Npr ). For a discussion of methods
of similarity and dimensionless numbers, see abbreviation. All three character positions
"Methods of Similarity", by R.E. Schilson, must be employed.
J. Pet. Tech. (August, 1964) 877. Fixed characters are utilized in this part of
8. The quantity x can be modified to indicate the notation when heat quantities, indexes
an average or mean value by an overbar, X· and exponents are being assigned computer
symbols. When a heat quantity is denoted,
Principles of computer symbol H appears in the first character position, as
standardization exemplified by thermal conductivity HCN.
A. Symbol Structure. The computer symbols are Indexes such as resistivity index are denoted
structured from four possible parts representing by X in the third character position. Expo-
respectively arithmetic mode, mathematical nents are characterized by XP in the second
operators, basic quantities and subscripts, ex- and third positions, such as porosity expo-
clusive of time and space designations. Each of nentMXP.
these parts has a defined number of characters 4. The fourth part of the notation (subscript
and, when all are used in a single symbol, the field) is used to represent the subscripts of
total length may be ten characters. Example the mathematical letter symbol and normal-
ten-character notations are: ly consists of one of the three character
positions. Computer symbol subscripts are
XDELPRSTQQ,XDELCMPPRD normally designated by using the mathema-
When any of the four parts are not used, the tical letter subscripts of the SPE Symbols
remaining characters are to be right- or left- Standard.
justified to form a string of characters without Though usually not required, more char-
blank positions. acters may be used when necessary for
In practice, the combined notations will not designation of multiple mathematical letter
usually exceed six characters. In those cases subscripts. For example, dimensionless
where the complete computer symbol does average reservoir pressure would be de-
exceed six characters, and the computer lan- noted by PRSA VQ.
guage being used will not allow more than six, a The computer subscript designation is
shortened notation must be employed. The part placed immediately to the right of the
of the notation representing the basic mathema- quantity symbol field with no intervening
tical quantity (letter) symbol should be retained space.
and the other parts of the notation shortened. Dimensionless numbers are denoted by Q
Shortened symbols are no longer standard, and in the last required subscript position. A ver-
therefore must be defined in the text or appen- age, maximum, minimum, extrapolated or
dix as is appropriate. limiting values of a quantity are denoted
respectively by A V, MX, MN, XT, of LM in
1. The first part of the notation consists of one the first two subscript positions; additional
character position to define the arithmetic subscripting occurs immediately to the right
mode of the complete computer symbol. It of these defined notations. Other than in
is suggested that X be used for floating point these cases, the order of subscripting should
variables and I for integers. This notation follow the rules given in the 'Multiple
position should be used only if absolutely Subscripts - Position Order' .
necessary, the preferred approach being the 5. No binding rule is made for the notation of
use of a declaration within the program. space and time subscripts, since the method
2. The second part of the notation (operator of subscripting is often dictated by the
field) consists of three characters and is used characteristics of a particular computer.
for mathematical operators. The notation However, the vital importance of these
should suggest the operation. subscripts makes it necessary to establish a
3. The third part of the notation (quantity standard and require an author to define
symbol field) consisting of three characters, any deviations. The system outlined below
is used to represent the basic mathematical should be used when the subscripts are not
quantity (letter) symbol. The three letter implied by an array location or an index
notation mnemonically denotes the quantity specified by the program logic.
name as closely as possible. This part of the The following sketch indicates the coor-
computer notation is thus of the nature of an dinate system used to denote special posi-
tion in multi-dimensional arrays. measure. Authors are urged to familiarize them-
1(I = 1, 2, 3, ... ,NX) selves with the SI System of units and use them as
much as practical. The choice of units (Trans.
A/ME 263 (1977) 1685) and their designation is,
however, left to the author.
C. Restriction to computer programs. Use of the
computer symbols is restricted to the description
of programming for computers. As a consequ-
ence, the computer symbols must not be used in
works of portions of papers where programming
This convention was adopted so that the is not discussed or as abbreviations in text or
page position of printed output obtained in graphical material.
a normal I, J, K sequence would correspond D. Character set. The computer symbols must be
to position as viewed on maps as normally constructed from the 26 English letters and 10
used in petroleum engineering. Similarly, I, Arabic numerical characters. Each complete
K or J, K sequences would correspond to computer symbol must begin with a letter and
cross-sections as normally used. not a numeral.
The space and time subscripts are con- The computer symbols are always represented
structed by placing a letter code (I, J, K, T) by vertical type in printed text. English capital
before the following symbols: letters and Arabic numerals are used in hand or
typewritten material.
Machine E. Nonstandard symbols. The rules for establishing
Symbol Definition the computer symbols contained in this standard
P2 present location plus 2 are such that quantities not covered can, in most
P3H . present location plus 3/2 instances, be given a notation that is compatible
PI present location plus I with it. Such additional computer symbols are,
PIH present location plus 112 by definition, nonstandard.
MIH present location minus 112 Duplication of computer symbols for quanti-
MI present location minus I ties that can occur simultaneously in an equation
M3H present location minus 3/2
or computer program must be avoided. Elimina-
M2 present location minus 2
tion of a duplication may lead to a computer
symbol that is at variance with the standard; i.e.,
Hence, the subscript for the present time t
a notation that is nonstandard.
would be T, and that for subscript t-2 would be
When nonstandard computer symbols occur in
TM2.
a technical work, they should be clearly defined
If an array contains information correspond-
in the text or appendix, as is appropriate, and in
ing to points halfway between the normally
indexed points, then the convention is to shift the program.
F. Special notes. No computer symbols have been
the plus-direction elements to the node being
defined here for numerical quantities, functions,
indexed.
and arithmetic, relational, or logical operators.
In the following example, the permeability
When employed in programs, their usage should
at the i_lh point would be referenced as
be fully explained by comments in the program
PRMIPIH(I - 1), and that for the Hl/2 point
text. Some of these special cases are noted
would be referenced as PRMIPIH(I). See
sketch below. below:
1. No computer symbols to designate common
i-I Ph H liz or natural logarithms have been estab-
---(0 I 0 lished. Rather, these functions should be
1-1 PRMIPIH(I-l) I PRMIPIH(I) designated by the notations compatible with
the computer system being employed. The
B. Units. Each complete computer symbol repre-
notation used should be defined in the
sents a mathematical letter symbol and its associ-
paper.
ated subscripts. The mathematical letter symbol
2. The computer symbol for dimensionless
in turn designates a physical quantity. Neither
numbers in general (unnamed dimension-
the complete computer symbol nor the mathema-
less numbers) is NUMQ. Named dimen-
tical letter symbol implies any specific units of
sionless numbers have the mnemonic title designation in Computer Symbols Subscript
designation in the field representing the List. (Only changes in the basic subscripts
quantity and a Q in the last subscript are shown. Combination subscripts that
position employed. Thus, Reynolds number contain these items are also changed accor-
is designated as REYQ. Similarly, Prandtl dingly.)
number could be designated as PRDQ, 2. Quantities represented by single symbol in
Grashof number as GRSQ, Graetz number SPE Letter Symbols Standard but by
as GRTQ. Any dimensionless number not symbol-subscript combination in Computer
contained in this standard should be defined Symbols List.
in the paper.
3. No computer subscript notations corres-
ponding to these mathematical letter sub-
scripts are established. See section G. SPEletter Computer Quantity
4. No mathematical letter subscripts corres- symbol symbol title
pond to these computer subscripts. See G GASTI total inital gas in
section G. place in reservoir
L MOLL moles of liquid phase
G. Permissible format changes. In preparing the N NUMO dimensionless number
computer symbols it became necessary to modify in general
the format of certain of the basic letter symbols, N 01 LTI initial oil in place
subscripts or symbol-subscript combinations. in reservoir
These changes are in accord with the General u VELV volumetric velocity
Principles of Computer Symbol Standardization. (flow rate or flux,
per unit area)
They do not imply that changes in the form of the V M0 LV moles of vapour phase
economics, well logging and formation evalua- W WTRTI initial water in place
tion, reservoir engineering, or natural gas en- in reservoir
gineering letter symbols as contained elsewhere x MFRL mole fraction of
in this SPE Standard are authorized. Rather component in liquid
these changes are shown as a matter of record to phase
prevent confusion and to present examples of y MFRV mole fraction of
permissible format changes in the computer component in vapour
symbols that may be followed when it becomes phase
necessary to construct a computer notation not z MFRM mole fraction of
component in
included in the list. mixture
1. Basic symbolic subscripts of SPE Letter
Symbols Standard represented by different
3. Quantities represented by symbol-subscript
SPEletter Computer combination in SPE Letter Symbols Stan-
subscript symbol Subscript title dard but by a Computer Symbol Notation
c CP capillary only.
D 0 dimensionless quantity
Dm OM dimensionless quantity
at condition m
E EX experiment SPEletter
ext XT extrapolated symbol-
F FU fuel subscript Computer
lim LM limiting value combination symbol Quantity title
m FU fuel (mass of)
max MX maximum HC N thermal conductivity
min
-
MN minimum
p PAV mean or average
pressure 4. Symbol-subscript combinations of SPE Let-
pr PRO pseudo-reduced ter Symbols Standard represented by Com-
r RO reduced puter Symbol-Subscript Notation wherein
tD TQ dimensionless time
subscript notations are not the same.
SPEletter
place of the full name of a quantity, unit, or other
symbol- entity. Abbrevi{ltions are not acceptable in mathe-
subscript Computer Quantity matical equations. SPE provides a list of prefer-
combination symbol title red abbreviations in its 'Style Guide' for authors.
GL N GL TI initial condensate B. Computer Symbols - (for use in computer prog-
liquids in place rams) - a computer symbol is a letter or group of
in reservoir letters and numerals used to represent a specific
G Lp NGLP cumulative condensate physical or mathematical quantity in the writing
liquids produced and execution of computer programs. One com-
NRe REya Reynolds number puter symbol may be employed to represent a
(dimensionless
number) group of quantities, properly defined. Computer
Rsw GWRS gas solubility in water symbols are not acceptable as substitutes for letter
symbols in the required mathematical (equation-
al) developments leading up to computer prog-
5. Subscripts of SPE Letter Symbols Standard rams. At the present time, all SPE computer
not assigned Computer Subscript Notations symbols employ capital letters and numerals.
as a result of actions noted in 4. C. Dimensions - dimensions identify the physical
nature of or the general components making up a
specific physical quantity; SPE employs the five
SPEletter basic dimensions of mass, length, time, tempera-
subscript Subscript title ture, and electrical charge (m, L, t, T, q). *
liquid produced, cumulative D. Letter symbols - (for use in mathematical equa-
(usually with condensate, tions) - a letter symbol is a single letter, modified
G Lp ) when appropriate by one or more subscripts or
Re Reynolds (used with Reynolds superscripts, used to represent a specific physical
number only, N Re )
solution in water (usually with
or mathematical quantity in a mathematical
sw
gas solubility in water, Rsw) equation. A single letter may be employed to
represent a group of quantities, properly de-
fined. The same letter symbol should be used
6. Letter operator-symbol combination of consistently for the same generic quantity, or
SPE Letter Symbols Standard represented special values, being indicated by subscripts or
by Computer Symbol Notation only. superscripts.
E. Reserve symbols - a reserve symbol is a single
SPEletter Computer letter, modified when appropriate by one or
symbol symbol quantity Title more subscripts or superscripts, which can be
used as an alternate when two quantities (occur-
T AC interval transit time ring in some specialized works) have the same
standard letter symbol. These conflicts may
Distinctions between, and descriptions of, result from use of standard SPE symbols or
abbreviations, computer symbols, dimensions, subscript designations that are the same for two
letter symbols, reserve symbols,'unit different quantities, or use of SPE symbols that
abbreviations and units conflict with firmly established, commonly used
notations and signs from the fields of mathema-
Confusion often arises as to the proper distinctions
tics, physics, and chemistry.
between abbreviations, computer symbols, dimen-
To avoid conflicting designations in these
sions, letter symbols, reserve symbols, unit abbre-
cases, use of reserve symbols, reserve subscripts,
viations and units used in science and engineering.
The Society of Petroleum Engineers has adhered to and reserve symbol-reserve subscript combina-
the following descriptions: tions is permitted, but only in cases of symbols
conflict. Author preference for the reserve sym-
A. Abbreviations - (for use in textual matter, tables, bols and subscripts does not justify their use.
figures, and oral discussions) - an abbreviation is In making the choice as to which of two
a letter or group of letters that may be used in quantities should be given a reserve designation,
* Electrical charge is current times time, ISO uses: Mass (M), Length (L), Time (T), Temperature (8), Electric current (I), Amount of
substance (N) and Luminous intensity (J).
an attempt should be made to retain the standard (ISO) and many other national and international
SPE symbol for the quantity appearing more bodies concerned with standardization empha-
frequently in the paper; otherwise, the standard size the special character of these designations
SPE symbol should be retained for the more and rigidly prescribe the manner in which the
basic item (temperature, pressure, porosity, per- unit abbreviations shall be developed and
meability, etc.). treated.
Once a reserve designation for a quantity is G. Units - units express the system of measurement
employed, it must be used consistently through- used to quantify a specific physical quantity. In
out a paper. Use of an unsubscripted reserve SPE usage, units have 'abbreviations' but do not
symbol for a quantity requires use of the same have 'letter symbols'. Up to this time, SPE has
reserve symbol designation when subscripting is not standardized a general system of units, nor
required. Reversion to the standard SPE symbol units for individual quantities; it has signified
or subscript is not permitted within a paper. For willingness, however, to join in a future national
larger works, such as books, consistency within a effort to convert from the English to a metric
chapter or section must be maintained. system of units.
The symbol nomenclature, which is a required SPE's practices showing the above distinctions
part of each work, must contain each reserve are illustrated in the table of example quantities.
notation that is used together with its definition. Authors can materially aid themselves, editors,
F. Unit Abbreviations - a unit abbreviation is a and readers by keeping the distinctions in mind
letter or group of letters (for example, cm for when preparing papers for SPE review. Manu-
centimeter), or in a few cases a special sign, that scripts submitted to SPE are subject to review on
may be used in place of the name of a unit. The these aspects before being accepted for publica-
International Organization for Standardization tion.
Examples
Letter Reserve
Abbrev. symbol symbol
for text, for used only in Computer
tables, mathe- case of symbol Unit
figures, matical symbols for Dimen- abbrev.
Quantity oral use equations conflict programs sions and units'
gas-oil ratio, producing GaR R none GaR none cu ftlBBL
gas-oil ratiO, initial Rsi none GORSI none cu ftlBBL
solution, initial solution GaR
productivity index PI J j POX L4Vm bid/psi
productivity index, SPI Js js POXS L3 t1m b/d/psilft
specific
* Examples only; SPE has not standardized units.
Contrasting symbol usage

petroleum production. These ASA symbol stan-
SPE and certain American Standards Association, dards are published by the American Society of
American National Standards Institute and Interna- Mechanical Engineers, United Engineering Center,
tional Organization for Standardization symbols lists 345 East 47th Street, New York, NY 10017.
do not use the same letter symbols to represent The Society Board of Directors has approved the
identical quantities. The variations in notations SPE 1984 Symbols Standards, and recommends
result from the application of the SPE guides in them to the membership and to the industry. All
choosing symbols as detailed herein, the lack of authors must include Nomenclatures in any manu-
agreement between various ASA standards, the script submitted to SPE for publication.
ASA's policy of allowing several symbols to repre-
sent the same quantity in any list and the large Acknowledgement
number of quantities assigned symbols by the SPE.
It is to be emphasized that the symbols contained in The work done in sorting and combining the various
the SPE list are standard for use in petroleum standard lists by Schlumberger Well Services
engineering, but the symbols of other disciplines as Engineering personnel in Houston, Texas and
sanctioned by the American Standards Association Schlumberger-Doll Research Center personnel in
should be used when working outside the area of Ridgefield, Connecticut is gratefully acknowledged.
A. Symbols alphabetized by physical quantity
Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
w z ARR Arrhenius reaction rate velocity constant L 3/m
k K PRM absolute permeability (fluid flow) L2
g GRV acceleration of gravity Llt2
Za MPDA acoustic impedance m/L2t
v V,U VAC acoustic velocity Lit
a ACT activity
FaF FACAFU air/fuel ratio various
ia INJA air injection rate L3/t
a Fa AIR air requirement various
aE FaE AIREX air requirement, unit, in laboratory experimental L 3/m
run, volumes of air per unit mass of pack
aR FaR AIRR air requirement, unit, in reservoir, volumes of
air per unit bulk volume of reservoir rock
IJ-a 11a VISA air viscosity miLt
mk AMAK amortization (annual write-off of unamortized M
investment at end of year k)
A AMP amplitude various
Ac AMPC amplitude, compressional wave various
Ar AMPR amplitude, relative various
As AMPS amplitude, shear wave various
a [J,y ANG angle
e [J,y ANG angle
e ad ANGD angle of dip
ec roYc ANGC angle, contact
w angular frequency lit
Kam Mam COEANI anisotropy coefficient
IR INCK annual operating cash income, over year k M
Gan fGan GMFAN annulus geometrical factor
(muliplier or fraction)
tascript t at TACA apparent interval transit time tiL
Ca Oa ECNA apparent conductivity tq 2 /mL 3
Pa Da DENA apparent density m/L3
rwa Rwa RADWA apparent or effective wellbore radius (includes L
effects of well damage or stimulation)
<Pa fmea PORA apparent porosity
Ra Pmra RESA apparent resistivity mL3tq2
Rz pz,rz RESZ apparent resistivity of the conductive fluids in mL3 tq 2
an invaded zone (due to fingering)
"'" APPR apbroximatel y to or is approximated
y (usually wit functions)
A S ARA area L2
EA 11A,eA EFFA areal efficiency (used in describing results of
model studies only); area swept in a model
divided by total model reservoir area
(see Ep)

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
ASYM asymptotically equal to
Pa Pa PRSA atmospheric pressure m/Lt2
Z ANM atomic number
A AWT atomic weight (atomic mass, relative) m
a Me< COEA attenuation coefficient IlL
q Q RTEAV average flow rate or production rate L3/t
AV average or mean (overbar)
- p PRSAV average pressure m/Lt2
P
PR
p PRSAVR average reservoir pressure m/Lt2
 f3d DAZ azimuth of dip
/.t M RAZ azimuth of reference on sonde
n NGW backpressure curve exponent, gas well
C CGW backpressure curve (gas well), coefficient of L3-2nt4n/m2n
n NGW backpressure curve (gas well), exponent of
loga base a, logarithm
f3 y BRGR bearing, relative
h d,e THK bed thickness, individual L
Pwj P wj PRSWF bottom hole flowing pressure m/Lt2
Pbh P BH PRSBH bottomhole pressure m/Lt2
Pwj P wj PRSWF bottom hole pressure flowing m/Lt2
Piwj P iwj PRSIWF bottomhole flowing pressure, injection well miLe
P iws P iws PRSIWS bottomhole static pressure, injection well m/Lt2
Pws P ws PRSWS bottomhole pressure at any time after shut-in m/Lt2
Pw Pw PRSW bottomhole pressure, general m/Lt2
Pws P ws PRSWS bottomhole pressure, static miLt 2
Pww P ww PRSWW bottomhole (well) pressure in water phase m/Lt2
Tbh 8 BH TEMBH bottomhole temperature T
b w WTH breadth, width, or (primarily in fracturing) L
thickness
Pe Pe PRSE boundary pressure, external m/Lt2
Te Re RADE boundary radius, external L
Bgb Fgb FVFGB bubble-point formation volume factor, gas
Bob Fob FVFOB bubble-point formation volume factor, oil
Ph Ps,Ps,Pb PRSB bubble-point (saturation) pressure m/Lt2
bgb !gb,Fgb RVFGB bubble-point reciprocal gas formation volume
factor at bubble-point conditions
V bp Vbp VOLBP bubble-point pressure, volume at L3
Rsb Fgsb GORSB bubble-point solution gas-oil ratio
I::J.tws I::J.t ws DELTIMWS buildup time; shut-in time
(time after well is shut in)
(pressure buildup, shut-in time)
Pb Db DENB bulk density m/L3
K Kb BKM bulk modulus miLe
Vb Vb VOLB bulk volume L3
V bE Vbt VOLBEX bulk volume of pack burned in experimental L3
tube run
!v !Vb, V bt FRCVB bulk (total) volume, fraction of
V Rb VRb VOLRB burned reservoir rock, volume of L3
Vb Vb,Ub VELB burning-zone advance rate (velocity of) Lit

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
C ECQ capacitance q2e/mL2

Qv Zv CEXV capacity, cation exchange, per unit pore volume
QVt ZVt CEXUT capacity, cation exchange,
per unit pore volume, total
Pe PoPe PRSCP capillary pressure miLe
Ci INVI capital investment, initial M
Ck INVK capital investment, subsequent, in year k M
C C INVT capital investments, summation of all M
Ppv CFLPV cash flow, discounted M
P CFL cash flow, un discounted M
h INCK cash income, annual operating, over year k M
I INC cash income, operating M
Ia INCA cash income, operating, after taxes M
h INCB cash income, operating, before taxes M
Pe! Pet PRSCF casing pressure, flowing m/Lt2
Pes Pes RSCS casing pressure, static m/Lt2
Qv Zv CEXV cation exchange capacity per unit pore volume
QVt ZVt CEXUT cation exchange capacity per unit pore volume,
total
m MXP cementation (porosity) exponent (in an empirical
relation between FRand <j»
Q q CHG charge (current times time) q
Kani Mani COEANI coefficient, anisotropy
ex M", COEA coefficient, attenuation IlL
h hh,hT HTCC coefficient, convective heat transfer m/eT
D /L,a DFN coefficient, diffusion L2/t
Ke MoKee COEC coefficient, electrochemical mL2/t2q
KR MRa,C COER coefficient, formation resistivity factor
(FR<j>m)
K KSP coefficient in the equation of the electro- me/t2 q
chemical component of the SP (spontaneous
electromotive force)
C CGW coefficient of gas-well backpressure curve L3-2nt4n/m2n
V V T, Ve HTCU coefficient heat transfer, over-all m/eT
I IT, Ie HTCI coefficient, heat transfer, radiation m/eT
J3 b HEC coefficient, thermal cubic expansion liT
K M COE coefficient or multiplier various
SL PVSL SATL combined total liquid saturation
log common logarithm, base 10
npj Npj MOLPJ component j, cumulative moles produced
nj Nj MOLl component j, moles of
x MFRL component, mole fraction of, in liquid phase
z MFRM component, mole fraction of, in mixture
y MFRV component, mole fraction of, in vapour phase
C ne NMBC components, number of
Ee <Pe EMFC component of the SP, electrochemical mL2/t2q
Ek <Pk EMFK component of the SP, electrokinetic mL2/eq
c k,K CMP compressibility Lt2/m
z Z ZED compressibility factor (gas deviation factor,
z=PVlnRD

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
zp Zp ZEDPAV compressibility factor or deviation factor
for gas, at mean pressure
cf kfi Kf CMPF compressibility, formation or rock Lt2/m
cg kg, Kg CMPG compressibility, gas Lt 2/m
Co ka> Ko CMPO compressibility, oil Lt2/m
Cpr kpT> Kpr CMPPRD compressibility, pseudo-reduced
Cw kw. Kw CMPW compressibility, water Lt 2/m
Ac AMPC compressional wave amplitude various
C c,n CNC concentration various
Cel CCl CNCCI concentration, methane (concentration of various
other paraffin hydrocarbons would be
indicated similarly, Cel> CC3, etc.)
C O2 CO 2 CNC02 concentration, oxygen (concentration various
of other elements or compounds would be
indicated similarly, Ceo2 , CN2 , etc.)
Cm Cm,n m CNCFU concentration, unit fuel various
(see symbol m)
GL gL NGLTI condensate liquids in place in reservoir, L3
initial
G Lp gLp NGLP condensate liquids produced, cumulative L3
CL CVnL CNTL condensate or natural gas liquids content various
0 Y SIG conductivity (other than logging) various
C 0 ECN conductivity (electrical logging) tq 2/mL 3
Ca Oa ECNA conductivity, apparent tq2/mL3
C fD CNDFQ conductivity, fracture, dimensionless
kh A HCN conductivity, thermal (always with additional mLieT
phase or system subscripts)
w z ARR constant, Arrhenius reaction L 3/m
rate velocity constant
A C LAM constant, decay (I/ed) lit
E DIC constant, dielectric q 2elmL3
Y constant, Euler's = 0.5772
Dc DSCC constant-income discount factor
r
h HPC constant, hyperbolic decline
q = qJ [ 1 + -j;
al
R RRR constant, universal gas (per mole) mL2/t 2T

C WDC constant, water-drive L 4 elm
CL WDCL constant, water-drive, linear aquifer L 4t 2/m
m FF FCM consumption, fuel various
mE FFE FCMEX consumption of fuel in experimental tube run mlL3
m tg FFEg FCMEXG consumption of fuel in experimental tube run m
(mass of fuel per mole of produced gas)
mR FFR FCMR consumption of fuel in reservoir m/L3
ec r,Yc ANGC contact angle
CL CL, nL CNTL content, condensate or natural gas liquids various
C wg cwg,nwg CNTWG content, wet-gas various
h hh,hT HTCC convective heat transfer coefficient m/eT

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
gc GRVC conversion factor in Newton's second law of
Motion
B C COR correction term or correction factor
(either additive or multiplicative)
N n,C NMB count rate (general) lit
NN NmC N NEUN count rate, neutron lit
NCR Ny,Cc NGR count rate, gamma ray lit
Sgc PgoSgc SATGC critical gas saturation
Pc Pc PRSC critical pressure m/Lt 2
Tc 8c TEMC critical temperature T
Swc Pwoswc SATWC critical water saturation
A S ARA Cross-section (area) L2
I S XSTMAC cross-section, macroscopic IlL
a XSTMIC cross-section, microscopic IlL
a S XNL cross-section of a nucleus, microscopic L2
j3 b HEC cubic expansion coefficient, thermal lIT
G Lp gLp NGLP cumulative condensate liquids produced C
G Fp gFp GASFP cumulative free gas produced L3
Ge ge GASE cumulative gas influx (encroachment) L3
Gi gi GASI cumulative gas injected C
Rp Fgp,Fgop GORP cumulative gas-oil ratio
Gp gp GASP cumulative gas produced L3
npj Npj MOLPJ cumulative moles of component j produced
Ne ne OILE cumulative oil influx (encroachment) L3
Np np OILP cumulative oil produced L3
Qp FLUP cumulative produced fluids (where Np
and Wp are not applicable)
We We WTRE cumulative water influx (encroachment) C
Wi Wi WTRI cumulative water injected L3
Fwop FACWOP cumulative water-oil ratio mLlt2
Wp wp WTRP cumulative water produced L3
G wgp gwgp GASWGP cumulative wet gas produced L3
'\Ix curl
I i script i,i CUR current, electric q/t
rs Rs RADS damage or stimulation radius of well (skin) L
Fs Fd DMRS damage ratio or condition ratio (conditions
relative to formation conditions unaffected
by well operations)
Z D,h ZEL datum, elevation referred to L
A C LAM decay constant (lhd) lit
'td td TIMD decay time (mean life) (111..) t
r
tdN TIMDN decay time, neutron (neutron mean life) t
h HPC decline constant, hyperbolic [from equation
[ + -j;
q = q;ll a·t
d DECE decline factor, effective

a DEC decline factor, nominal
8 DCR decrement various
F DGF degrees of freedom

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
\l DEL del (gradient operator)
td 'td TIMDY delay time t
D DLV deliverability (gas well) L3/t
P D DEN density mlL3
Pa Da DENA density, apparent m/L3
Pb Db DENB density, bulk mlL3
Pf Df DENF density, fluid m/L3
Pxo Dxo DENXO density, flushed zone mlL3
n N NMB density (indicating 'number per unit volume') lIL3
PF DF DENFU density, fuel mlL 3
Pg Dg DENG density, gas mlL 3
Pma Dma DENMA density, matrix (solids, grain) mlL 3
nN NMBN density (number) of neutrons I/L3
PL Ih DENAVL density of produced liquid, weight-weighted avg. m/L3
PsE DsE DENSEX density of solid particles making up m/L3
experimental pack
Po Do DENO density, oil m/L3
y s, Fs SPG density, relative (specific gravity)
Pt Dt DENT density, true m/L3
Pw Dw DENW density, water mlL 3
DE EDE depletion
NR NF FUDR deposition rate of fuel m/L3t
Dp EDP depreciation
D y,H DPH depth L
a rs SKD depth, skin (logging) L
Z Z ZED deviation factor (compressibility factor)
for gas (z = p VlnR1)
zp Zp ZEDPAV deviation factor (compressibility factor)
for gas, at mean pressure
a ANGH deviation, hole (drift angle)
Pd Pd PRSD dew-point pressure m/Lt 2
d D DIA diameter L
dh dH,Dh DIAH diameter, hole L
di dbDi DIAl diameter, invaded zone (electrically equivalent) L
ap Dp DIAAVP diameter, mean particle L
(0 DIC dielectric constant q 2t 2/mL3
A DEL difference or difference operator,
finite (ax = X2-XI or X-X2)
D /-L,a DFN diffusion coefficient L2/t
'YJ DFS diffusivity, hydraulic (klcpc/-L or A/cpc) L2/t
QLtD QLtD script I ENCLTQQ dimensionless fluid influx function, linear aquifer
QtD ENCTQQ dimensionless fluid influx function
at dimensionless time tD
CfD CNDFQ dimensionless fracture conductivity
qgD QgD RTEGQ dimensionless gas production rate
N NUMQ dimensionless number, in general
(always with identifying subscripts)
(Example: Reynolds number, N Re )
qoD QoD RTEOQ dimensionless oil production rate

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
VpD VpD VOLPQ dimensionless pore volume
PD PD PRSQ dimensionless pressure
PtD P tD PRSTQQ dimensionless pressure function
at dimensionless time tD
qD QD RTEQ dimensionless production rate
XD dimensionless quantity proportional to x
rD RD RADQ dimensionless radius
tD LD TIMQ dimensionless time
tDm tDm TIMMQ dimensionless time at condition m
qwD QwD RTEWQ dimensionless water production rate
e ad ANGD dip, angle of
ea ada ANGDA dip, apparent angle of
a f3da DAZA dip, apparent azimuth of
 f3d DAZ dip, azimuth of
Dc DSCC discount factor, constant-income
D DSC discount factor, general
Dsp DSCSP discount factor,
[1/(1 + i)k; or e-] ,j = In (1 + i)]
Dspc DSCSPC discount factor, single-payment
(constant annual rate)
[e-jk ( ei - 1)/j]
i RTED discount rate
Ppv CFLPV discounted cash flow
K d DSP dispersion coefficient L2/t
DSM dispersion modulus (dispersion factor)
s L DIS displacement L
E Db l'JDb,eDb EFFDB displacement efficiency from burned portion
of in situ combustion pattern
E Du l'JDweDu EFFDU displacement efficiency from unburned portion
of in situ combustion pattern
ED l'JD,eD EFFD displacement efficiency: volume of hydrocarbons
(oil or gas) displaced from individual pores or
small groups of pores divided by the volume of
hydrocarbons in the same pores just prior to
displacement
8 Fd DPR displacement ratio
80b Fdob DPROB displacement ratio, oil from burned volume,
volume per unit volume of burned reservoir rock
80u Fdou DPROU displacement ratio, oil from unburned volume,
volume per unit volume of unburned reservoir
rock
8wb Fdwb DPRWB displacement ratio, water from burned volume,
volume per unit volume of burned reservoir
rock
d L d,L2 DUW distance between adjacent rows of injection and L
production wells
a LmLJ DLW distance between like wells (injection or L
production) in a row
L s,! script I LTH distance, length, or length of path L
!l.r !l.R DELRAD distance, radial (increment along radius) L

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
V divergence
rd Rd RADD drainage radius L
atwl a'twl DELTIMWF drawdown time (time after well is opened to t
production) (pressure drawdown)
a ANGH drift angle, hole (deviation)
ir RORI earning power or rate of return (internal,
true, or discounted cash flow)
s S,O SKN effect, skin
d DECE effective decline factor
rwa Rwa RADWA effective or apparent well bore radius (includes L
effects of well damage or stimulation)
kg Kg PRMG effective permeability to gas L2
ko Ko PRMO effective permeability to oil L2
kw Kw PRMW effective permeability to water L2
<Pe fe,E e PORE effective porosity
E 'Y),e EFF efficiency
EA 'Y)A,eA EFFA efficiency, areal (used in describing results of model
studies only): area swept in a model divided by
total model reservoir area (see Ep)
E Db 'Y)Db,eDb EFFDB efficiency, displacement, from burned portion of
in situ combustion pattern
E Du 'Y)DweDu EFFDU efficiency, displacement, from unburned portion of
ED 'Y)D,eD EFFD efficiency, displacement: volume of hydrocarbons
(oil or gas) displaced from individual pores or
small groups of pores divided by the volume of
hydrocarbon in the same pores just prior to
displacement
E[ 'Y)b e[ EFFI efficiency, invasion (vertical): hydrocarbon pore
space invaded (affected, contacted) by the injection
fluid or heat front divided by the hydrocarbon pore
space enclosed in all layers behind the injected-
fluid or heat front
ER 'Y)R,eR EFFR efficiency, over-all reservoir recovery: volume of
hydrocarbons recovered divided by volume of
hydrocarbons in place at start of project
(ER = Ep E[ED = Ev ED)
Ep 'Y)p,ep EFFP efficiency, pattern sweep (developed from areal
efficiency by proper weighting for variations in
net pay thickness, porosity and hydrocarbon
saturation): hydrocarbon pore space enclosed
behind the injected-fluid or heat front divided
by total hydrocarbon pore space of the reservoir
or project
EVb 'Y)Vb,eVb EFFVB efficiency, volumetric, for burned portion only,
Ev 'Y)v,ev EFFV efficiency, volumetric: product of pattern sweep
and invasion efficiencies
E y ELMY elasticity, modulus of (Young's modulus) m/Lt2

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
I i script i,i CUR electric current q/t
Ze ZE,'Y] MPDE electric impedance
p R RHO electrical resistivity (other than logging) mL3tq
R p,r RES electrical resistivity (electrical logging) mL3 tq2
't e TORE electrical tortuosity
di dbDi DIAl electrically equivalent diameter of the invaded L
zone
Kc MoKec COEC electrochemical coefficient mL2/t2q
Ec <Pc EMFC electrochemical component of the SP mL2/t2q
Ek <Pk EMFK electrokinetic component of the SP me/t2q
E V EMF electromotive force mL2/t2q
Z D,h ZEL elevation referred to datum L
Ge ge GASE encroachment or influx, gas, cumulative L3
!::.G e !::.ge DELGASE encroachment or influx, gas during an interval L3
Ne ne OILE encroachment or influx, oil, cumulative L3
!::.Ne !::.ne DELOILE encroachment or influx, oil, during an interval L3
e ENC encroachment or influx rate L3/t
eg ig ENCG encroachment or influx rate, gas L3/t
eo io ENCO encroachment or influx rate, oil L3/t
ew iw ENCW encroachment or influx rate, water L3/t
We We WTRE encroachment or influx, water, cumulative C
!::.We !::.we DELWTRE encroachment or influx, water, during an interval L3
E U ENG energy mL2/t2
H I HEN enthalpy (always with phase or system subscripts) me/t2
Hs Is HENS enthalpy (net) of steam or enthalpy above mL2/t2
reservoir temperature
h HENS enthalpy, specific L2/t2
s a HERS· entropy, specific L2/t2T
S at HER entropy, total mL2/t2T
GE equal to or larger than
!:S LE equal to or smaller than
K k,Feq EQR equilibrium ratio (ylx)
di dbDi DIAl equivalent diameter (electrical) of the L
invaded zone
tp 'tp TIMP equivalent time well was on production prior t
to shut-in (pseudo-time)
Rwe RWE equivalent water resistivity mL3 tq 2
erf ERF error function
erfc ERFC error function, complementary
En Euler number
y Euler's constant = 0.5772
fJ b HEC expansion coefficient, thermal cubic IIT
CPE fE,tE POREX experimental pack porosity
n NGW exponent of back-pressure curve, gas well
m MXP exponent, porosity (cementation) (in an
empirical relation between FRand cP )
n SXP exponent, saturation
eZ expz EXP exponential function

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
-Ei (-x) exponential integral
I
00
dt, x positive
x t
Ei (x) exponential integral, modified
'"" 0 [r.!...-t dl +
_00 E t
dl Jx positive
Pe Pe PRSE external boundary pressure mlLt2

'e Re RADE external boundary radius L
Pext Pext PRSXT extrapolated pressure miLe
z Z ZED factor, compressibility
(gas deviation factor z = PVlnRT)
D DSC factor, discount
d DECE factor, effective decline
a DEC factor, nominal decline
ge GRVC factor, conversion, in Newton's second law of
Motion
FR FACHR factor, formation resistivity, equals RolRw
(a numerical subscript to f indicates
the value of Rw)
f FACF factor, friction
G fa GMF factor, geometrical (multiplier)
(electrical logging)
Gan fGan GMFAN factor, geometrical (multiplier)
annulus (electrical logging)
Gi fGi GMFI factor, geometrical (multiplier)
invaded zone (electrical logging)
Gp fGp GMFP factor, geometrical (multiplier)
pseudo (electrical logging)
Gxo fGxo GMFXO factor, geometrical (multiplier)
flushed zone (electrical logging)
Gm fGm GMFM factor, geometrical (multiplier)
mud (electrical logging)
Gt fat GMFT factor, geometrical (multiplier)
true (non-invaded zone) (electrical logging)
F FAC factor in general, including ratios various
(always with identifying subscripts)
F8 FACB factor, turbulence
w m MRT flow rate, mass mit
Q q,fl> HRT flow rate, heat mL2/t3
u 'tp VELV flow rate or flux, per unit area Lit
(volumetric velocity)
q Q RTE flow rate or production rate L3/t
qp Q-
-p RTEPAV flow rate or production rate at mean pressure L3/t
q Q RTEAV flow rate or production rate, average L3/t
Piw! Piw! PRSIWF flowing bottom-hole pressure, injection well miLe
Pw! p w! PRSWF flowing pressure, bottom-hole m/Lt2
Pc! Pc! PRSCF flowing pressure, casing m/Lt2
Ptf p t! PRSTF flowing pressure, tubing miLe

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
ll.twf ll.'twf DELTIMWFflowing time after well is opened t
to production (pressure drawdown)
F f FLU fluid (generalized) various
vf Vf,uf VACF fluid interval velocity Lit
Z D,h ZEL fluid head or height or elevation referred L
to a datum
tfscript t ll.tf TACF fluid interval transit time tiL
Pf Df DENF fluid density m/L3
QtD ENCTQQ fluid influx function, dimensionless, at
dimensionless time tD
QLtD QltD script I ENCLTQQ fluid influx function, linear aquifer, dimensionless
Qp QltD script I FLUP fluids, cumulative produced (where Np and
Wp are not applicable)
Pxo Dxo DENXO flushed-zone density mlL3
Rxo Pxmrxo RESXO flushed-zone resistivity (that part of the mL3tq 2
invaded zone closest to the wall of the hole,
where flushing has been maximum)
Gw fGxo GMFXO flushed-zone geometrical factor
(fraction or multiplier)
u 'tV FLX flux various
u 'tV VELV flux or flow rate, per unit area Lit
F Q FCE force, mechanical mLlt2
E V EMF force, electromotive (voltage) mL2/t2q
CPR fER PORR formation or reservoir porosity
cf kf,Kf CMPF formation or rock compressibility Lt 2/m
FR FACHR formation resistivity factor - equals
RoIRw (a numerical
subscript to Findicates the value Rw)
KR MR,a,C COER formation resistivity factor coefficient
(FRm)
Rt Pt,rt REST formation resistivity, true mL3 tq 2
Ro po,ro RESZR formation resistivity when 100% saturated mL3tq 2
with water of resistivity Rw
Tf 8f TEMF formation temperature T
Bgb Fgb FVFGB formation volume factor at bubble-point
conditions, gas
Bob Fob FVFOB formation volume factor at bubble-point
conditions, oil
Bg Fg FVFG formation volume factor, gas
Bo Fo FVFO formation volume factor, oil
Bt Ft FVFT formation volume factor, total (two-phase)
B F FVF formation volume factor
volume at reservoir conditions divided
by volume at standard conditions
Bw Fw FVFW formation volume factor, water
f F FRC fraction (such as the fraction of a flow stream
consisting of a particular phase)
fg Fg FRCG fraction gas

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
h FL,ft script I FRCL fraction liquid
Iv Ivb, Vbf FRCVB fraction of bulk (total) volume
Iq,sh <Pigfsh FIGSH fraction of intergranular space ('porosity')
occupied by all shales
Iq,w <Pigfw FIGW fraction of intergranular space ('porosity')
occupied by water
Iq,shd <Pimfshd FIMSHD fraction of intermatrix space ('porosity')
occupied by nonstructural dispersed shale
CfD CNDFQ fracture conductivity, dimensionless
Lf xf LTHFH fracture half-length (specify 'in the L
direction of' when using xf)
If if,/p,ip FRX fracture index
G F GFE free energy (Gibbs function) mL2/t 2
IFf iFf FFX free fluid index
RF Fgp,Fgop GORF free gas-oil ratio, producing (free-gas
volume/oil volume)
G pp gFp GASFP free gas produced, cumulative L3
G Fi gFi GASFI free-gas volume, initial reservoir (=mNBoi) L3
Rp Fgf,Fgop GORF free producing gas-oil ratio (free-gas volumel
oil volume)
I v FQN frequency lit
I FACF friction factor
Pf Pf PRSF front or interface pressure m/Lt2
Cm cm,n m CNCFU fuel concentration, unit (see symbol m) various
m Fp FCM fuel consumption various
mE FFE FCMEX fuel consumption in experimental tube run m/L3
mEg FFEg FCMEXG fuel consumption in experimental tube run (mass m
of fuel per mole of produced gas)
mR FpR FCMR fuel consumption in reservoir m/L3
Pp DF DENFU fuel density m/L3
NR Np FUDR fuel deposition rate m/L3t
I FUG fugacity miLe
NGR Ny,CG NGR gamma ray count rate lit
y GRY gamma ray [usually with identifying subscript( s)] various
G g GAS gas (any gas, including air) always with various
identifying subscripts
Sog Pog,Sog SATOG gas-cap interstitial-oil saturation
Swg Pwg,Swg SATWG gas-cap interstitial-water saturation
cg kg, Kg CMPG gas compressibility Lt 2/m
z Z ZED gas compressibility factor
(deviation factor) (z = PVlnRT)
R RRR gas constant, universal (per mole) mL2/t2T

pg Dg DENG gas density m/L3
zp Zp ZEDPAV gas deviation factor (compressibility factor)
at mean pressure
z Z ZED gas deviation factor (compressibility factor,
z = PVlnRT) (deviation factor)
kg Kg PRMG gas, effective permeability to L2
Bg Fg FVFG gas formation volume factor

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
Bgb Fgb FVFGB gas formation volume factor at bubble-point
conditions
fg Fg FRCG gas fraction
G g GASTI gas in place in reservoir, total initial L3
Ge ge GASE gas influx (encroachment), cumulative L3
flGe flge DELGASE gas influx (encroachment) during an interval L3
eg ig ENCG gas influx (encroachment) rate L3/t
Gi gi GASI gas injected, cumulative L3
flG i flg; DELGASI gas injected during an interval L3
ig INJG gas injection rate L3/t
CL cL,nL CNTL gas liquids, natural, or condensate content various
Ag MOBG gas mobility Ct/m
fg Fg FRCG gas, fraction
fg Fg MFRTV V_]
gas mole fraction [__
L+V
kglko KglKo PRMGO gas-oil permeability ratio
Rp F gp, Fgop GORP gas-oil ratio, cumulative

RF FgFlFgoF GORF gas-oil ratio, free producing (free-gas volume/
oil volume)
R Fg,Fgo GOR gas-oil ratio, producing
Rsb Fgsb GORSB gas-oil ratio, solution at bubble-point conditions
Rs Fgs, Fgos GORS gas-oil ratio, solution (gas solubility in oil)
Rs; Fgsi GORSI gas-oil ratio, solution, initial
Gp gp GASP gas produced, cumulative L3
flG p flgp DELGASP gas produced during an interval L3
G pE gpE GASPEX gas produced from experimental tube run C
qg Qg RTEG gas production rate L3/t
qgD QgD RTEGQ gas production rate, dimensionless
bg fg,Fg RVFG gas reciprocal formation volume factor
bgb fgb,Fgb RVFGB gas reciprocal formation volume factor at
bubble-point conditions
G pa gpa GASPUL gas recovery, ultimate L3
krg Krg PRMRG gas, relative permeability to
Sg pg,Sg SATG gas saturation
Sgc PgoSgc SATGC gas saturation, critical
Sgr PgnSgr SATGR gas saturation, residual
Rs Fgs, Fgos GORS gas solubility in oil (solution gas-oil ratio)
Rsw GWRS gas solubility in water
Yg sg,Fgs SPGG gas specific gravity
/-tg 'YJg VISG gas viscosity miLt
/-tga 'YJga VISGA gas viscosity at 1 atm miLt
C CGW gas-well back-pressure curve, coefficient of L3--2nt4n/m2n
n NGW gas-well back-pressure curve, exponent of
D DLV gas-well deliverability L3/t
G wgp gwgp GASWGP gas, wet, produced, cumulative L3
h d,e THK general and individual bed thickness L
N NUMQ general dimensionless number (always with
identifying subscripts)

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
G fa GMF geometrical factor (multiplier)
Gan fGan GMFAN geometrical factor (multiplier),
Gxo fGxo GMFXO geometrical factor (multiplier),
Gi fai GMFI geometrical factor (multiplier),
invaded zoned (electrical logging)
Gm fGm GMFM geometrical factor (multiplier),
Gt fat GMFf geometrical factor, (multiplier), true
(non-invaded zone) (electrical logging)
Gp fap GMFP geometrical factor (multiplier), pseudo
Gt fGt GMFf geometrical factor (multiplier), true
g Y GRD gradient various
gG gg GRDGT gradient, geothermal T
\1 gradient operator
gT gh GRDT gradient, temperature T
Pma Dma DENMA grain (matrix, solids) density m/L3
g GRV gravity, acceleration of Llt 2
Y s,Fs SPG gravity, specific, relative density
Yg sg,Fgs SPGG gravity, specific, gas
Yo smFos SPGO gravity, specific, oil
Yw sw,Fws SPGW gravity, specific, water
ht dt,e t THKT gross (total) pay thickness L
Vu Ru GRRU gross revenue ('value') per unit produced M/e
V R, Vt,R t GRRT gross revenue ('value'), total M
t1l2 TIMH half life t
Q q,cfJ HRT heat flow rate mL2/e
Lv Av HLTV heat of vaporization, latent L2/t2
a a, 'YJh HTD heat or thermal diffusivity L2/t
C c HSP heat, specific (always with phase or system L2/t2T
subscripts)
h hh,hT HTCC heat transfer coefficient, convective m/t3T
U UT,Ua HTCU heat transfer coefficient, over-all mleT
I In/a HTCI heat transfer coefficient, radiation mleT
Z D,h ZEL height, or fluid head or elevation L
referred to a datum
h d,e ZHT height (other than elevation) L
A SH HWF Helmholtz function (work function) mL2/t2
y f HOL hold-up (fraction of the pipe volume filled by
a given fluid: Yo is oil hold-up, Yw is water
hold-up all hold-ups at a given level
is one)
8 ANGH hole deviation, drift angle
dh dH,D h DIAH hole diameter L
'YJ DFS hydraulic diffusivity (kl<j>c {t or A<j>C) L2/t

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
rH RH RADHL hydraulic radius L
TH TORHL hydraulic tortuosity
<Ph fh,Eh PORH hydrocarbon-filled porosity, fraction
or percent of rock bulk volume occupied by
hydrocarbons
IR iR RSXH hydrocarbon resistivity index R/Ro
Shr Ph"Shr SATHR hydrocarbon saturation, residual
HYX hydrogen index
r
IH iH
h HPC hyperbolic decline constant (from equation)
-j;
q = q) [1 + a·t
g (z) script I imaginary part of complex number z
Z MPD impedance various
Za MPDA impedance, acoustic m/L2t
Ze ZE,lj MPDE impedance, electric mL2/tq2
I I --X index (use subscripts as needed)
If if,/F,i F FRX index, fracture
IFf iFf FFX index, free fluid
IH iH HYX index, hydrogen
I IJX index, injectivity L4 t/m
n JL RFX index of refraction
Icp icp PRX index, porosity
ICPI iCPI PRXPR index, primary porosity
I j PDX index, productivity L 4 t/m
IR iR RXSH index, (hydrocarbon) resistivity
R/Ro
Icp2 iCP2 PRXSE index, secondary porosity
IshGR ishGR SHXGR index, shaliness gamma-ray
(Ylog - Yen)/(Ysh - Yen)
Is is IJXS index, specific injectivity Ct/m
Is js PDXS index, specific productivity L3t/m
h d,e THK individual bed thickness L
Ge ge GASE influx (encroachment), cumulative, gas L3
Ne ne OILE influx (encroachment), cumulative, oil L3
We We WTRE influx (encroachment), cumulative, water L3
AGe Age DELGASE influx (encroachment) during an interval, gas L3
ANe Ane DELOILE influx (encroachment) during an interval, oil L3
AWe AWe DELWTRE influx (encroachment) during an interval, water L3
QLtD Q'tD script I ENCLTQQ influx function, fluid, linear aquifer,
dimensionless
QtD Q'tD script I ENCTQQ influx function, fluid, dimensionless
(at dimensionless time t D)
e ENC influx (encroachment) rate L3/t
eg ig ENCG influx (encroachment) rate, gas L3/t
eo io ENCO influx (encroachment) rate, oil L3/t
ew iw ENCW influx (encroachment) rate, water L3/t
GL gL NGLTI initial condensate liquids in place in reservoir L3
Ci INVI initial capital investment M

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
N n OILTI initial oil in place in reservoir L3
Pi Pi PRSI initial pressure m/Lt2
GFi gFi GASFI initial reservoir free-gas volume L3
(=mNBoJ (=GBgJ
Rsi Fgsi GORSI initial solution gas-oil ratio Llt 2
W W WTRTI initial water in place in reservoir L3
Swi Pwi,swi SATWI initial water saturation
Gi gi GASI injected gas, cumulative L3
AGi Agi DELGASI injected gas during an interval L3
Wi Wi WTRI injected water, cumulative L3
AWi AWi DELWTRI injected water during an interval L3
INJ injection rate L3/t
ia INJA injection rate, air L3/t
ig INJG injection rate, gas L3/t
iw INJW injection rate, water L3/t
Piwj Piwj PRSIWF injection well bottom-hole pressure, flowing m/Lt2
Piws Piws PRSIWS injection well bottom-hole pressure, static m/Lt2
I i IJX injectivity index L 4 t/m
Is is IJXS injectivity index, specific L 3t/m
GL gL NGLTI in-place condensate liquids in reservoir, initial L3
G g GASTI in-place gas in reservoir, total initial L3
N n OILTI in-place oil in reservoir, initial L3
W W WTRTI in-place water in reservoir, initial L3
Fwo FACWO instantaneous producing water-oil ratio
b y ICP intercept various
IRCE interest rate, effective compound (usually annual)
iM IRPE interest rate, effective, per period
j r IRA interest rate, nominal annual
Pj Pj PRSF interface or front pressure M/Lt2
0 Y,Y SFT interfacial, surface tension m/t2
<Pig hg'Cig PORIG intergranular 'porosity' (space)
(Vb - Vgr)/V b
-Ei(-x) integral, exponential
00
Jt
x
dt, x positive
Ei (x) integral, exponential, modified
lim
0 Jt
t
dt + · t
1
dt ,x positive
_00 E t
/q,sh <Pigfsh FIGSH intergranular space (porosity), fraction
occupied by all shales
/q,w <Pigfw FIGW intergranular space (porosity), fraction
occupied by water
/q,shd <Pimjshd FIMSHD intermatrix space (porosity), fraction
occupied by non-structural dispersed shale
<Pim !im,Eim PO RIM intermatrix 'porosity' (space)
(Vb - V ma)IVb
U Ei INE internal energy mele
Sog POWSog SATOG interstitial-oil saturation in gas cap

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
Swg Pwg,Swg SATWG interstitial-water saturation in gas cap
Swo Swb SATWO interstitial-water saturation in oil band
tscript t at TAC interval transit time tIL
tascript t ata TACA interval transit time, apparent tIL
M maD SAD interval transit time-density slope (absolute tL2/m
value)
tfscript t atf TACF interval transit time, fluid tIL
tmascript t atma TACMA interval transit time, matrix tIL
tsh script t atsh TACSH interval transit time, shale tIL
di dbDi DIAl invaded zone diameter, electrically equivalent L
Gi lGi GMFI invaded zone geometrical factor (multiplier)
Ri Pbri RESI invaded zone resistivity mL3tq 2
E[ l'Jb e[ EFFI invasion (vertical) efficiency: hydrocarbon pore
space invaded (affected, contacted) by the
injected-fluid or heat front divided by the
hydrocarbon pore space enclosed in all layers
behind the injected-fluid or heat front
Siw Piw,Siw SATIW irreducible water saturation
v N VSK kinematic viscosity L2/t
Ek ENGK kinetic energy mL2/t2
:z (y) script L Laplace transform of y
J
00
0
y (t) e-stdt
s Laplace transform variable

\l Laplacian operator
> GT larger than
Lv A.v HLTV latent heat of vaporization L2/t2
L s,fscript I LTH length, path length, or distance L
T t TIMAV lifetime, average (mean life) t
lim LM limit
CL WDCL linear aquifer water-drive constant L 4t 2/m
h h,f script I FRCL liquid fraction
h FLtf script I MFRTL liquid mole fraction L/(L + V)
x MFRL liquid phase, mole fraction of component in
L nL MOLL liquid phase, moles of
SL PL,SL SATL liquid saturation, combined total
GL gL NGLTI liquids, condensate, in place in reservoir, initial
GLp gLp NGLP liquids, condensate, produced cumulative L3
loga logarithm, base a
log logarithm, common, base to
Ln logarithm, natural, base e
I S XSTMAC macroscopic cross section tiL
a s XNL macroscopic cross section of a nucleus L2
JL m PRMM magnetic permeability mLlq2
k I( SUSM magnetic susceptibility mLlq2
M I MAG magnetization mlqt
Mf MAGF magnetization, fraction

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
m MAS mass m
w m MRT mass flow rate mit
tmascript !l.tma TACMA matrix interval transit time tiL
Pma Dma DENMA matrix (solids, grain) density rnIL3
V ma V ma VOLMA matrix (framework) volume (volume L3
of all formation solids except
dispersed clay or shale)
1:' t TIMAV mean life (average lifetime) t
1:'
-
t TIMD mean life (decay time) (Ill') t
p P PRSAV mean or average pressure rnILt2
AV mean or average (overbar)
IL MEN mean value of a random variable
-xa Dp DIAAVP mean particle diameter L
MENES mean value of a random variable, x, estimated
F Q FCE mechanical force mLlt 2
CCI ce j
CNCCI methane concentration (concentration of various
other paraffin hydrocarbons would be
indicated• similarly C• c2, Cc3 , etc.)
a XSTMIC
•
mIcroscoPIc cross sectIOn e
z MFRM mixture, mole fraction of component
A MOB mobility (kilL) L 3t/m
Ag MOBG mobility, gas L 3t/m
Ao MOBO mobility, oil L 3 t/m
M FA MBR mobility ratio, general (Adisplacin/AdisPlaced)
Ms MDd,Msu MBRSAV mobility ratio, diffuse-front approximation
[(AD + Ad)SWJ/(AdLnswept]; D signifies
displacing; signifies displaced; mobilities
are evaluated at average saturation
conditions behind and ahead of front
M FA MBR mobility ratio, sharp-front approximation
(AD/Ad)
Mt FAt MBRT mobility ratio, total, [(At)swep/(At)unswept];
'swept' and 'un swept' refer to invaded
and uninvaded regions behind and ahead
of leading edge of displacement front
At A MOBT mobility, total, of all fluids in a particular region L 3 t/m
of the reservoir, e.g., (Ao + Ag + Aw)
Aw MOBW mobility, water et/m
K Kb BKM modulus, bulk rnILt2
'IjJ DSM modulus, dispersion, (dispersion factor)
G Es ELMS modulus, shear m/Lt2
E y ELMY modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) m/Lt2
VM Vm VOLM molal volume (volume per mole) e
Fg MFRTV mole fraction gas V/(L + V)
FL,J; script I MFRTL mole fraction liquid LI(L + V)
x MFRL mole fraction of a component in liquid phase
z MFRM mole fraction of a component in mixture
Letter feserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

symbol 'PE letter
letter symbol
symbol
y MFRV mole fraction of a component in vapor phase
R N MRF molecular refraction L3
M MWT molecular weight (mass, relative) m
ML MWTAVL molecular weight of produced liquids, m
mole-weighted average
n N NMBM moles, number of
nj Nj MOLJ moles of component j
npj Npj MOLPJ moles of component j produced, cumulative
L nL MOLL moles of liquid phase
V nv MOLV moles of vapor phase
nt Nt NMBMT moles, number of, total
ML MWTAVL mole-weighted average molecular weight m
of produced liquids
Rmc Pmormc RESMC mud-cake resistivity mL3tq2
h mc dmoemc THKMC mud-cake thickness L
Rmf Pmf,rmf RESMF mud-filtrate resistivity mL 3tq 2
Gm fGm GMFM mud geometrical factor (multiplier)
Rm pm,rm RESM mud resistivity mL3tq 2
G fo GMF multiplier (factor), geometrical
Gan fGan GMFAN multiplier (factor), geometrical,
Gxo fGxo GMFXO multiplier (factor), geometrical,
Gi foi GMFI multiplier (factor), geometrical,
invaded zone (electrical logging)
Gm fGm GMFM multiplier (factor), geometrical,
Gp fGp GMFP multiplier (factor), geometrical,
pseudo (electrical logging)
Gt fot GMFT multiplier (factor, geometrical,
true (electrical logging)
K M COE multiplier or coefficient various
CL cL,nL CNTL natural gas liquids or condensate content various
In natural logarithm, base e
hn dme n THKN net pay thickness L
NN NmC N NEUN neutron count rate lit
nN NMBN neutrons, density (number) of
tN tN,tn NFL neutron lifetime lit
N mcj>ND SND neutron porosity-density slope (absolute value) elm
N NEU neutron [usually with identifying subscript(s)] various
gc GRVC Newton's Second Law of Motion, conversion
factor in
a DEC nominal decline factor
(J s XNL nucleus cross section, microscopic L2
Z ANM number, atomic
N NUMQ number, dimensionless, in general (always
with identifying subscripts)

symbol SPE letter
Letter symbol
symbol
n N NMB number (of variables, or components, or steps,
or increments, etc.)
n N NMB number (quantity)
M m NMBCP number of compounding periods (usually per year)
Cn C NMBC number of components
nt Nt NMBM number of moles, total
N Re REYQ number, Reynolds (dimensionless number)
N n OIL oil (always with identifying subscripts) various
Swo Swb SATWO oil band interstitial-water saturation
Co kmKO CMPO oil compressibility Lf/m
Po Do DENO oil density m/L3
80b Fdob DPROB oil displaced from burned volume, volume per
unit volume of burned reservoir rock
80u Fdou DPROU oil displaced from unburned volume, volume per
unit volume of unburned reservoir rock
ko Ko PRMO oil, effective permeability to L2
Bo Fa FVFO oil formation volume factor
Bob Fob FVFOB oil formation volume factor at bubble point
conditions
Rs Fgs, Fgos GORS oil, gas solubility in
(solution gas-oil ratio)
N n OILTI oil in place in reservoir, initial L3
Ne OILE oil influx (encroachment) cumulative L3
D.Ne D.ne DELOILE oil influx (encroachment) during an interval L3
eo io ENCO oil influx (encroachment) rate L3/t
Ao MOBO oil mobility et/m
Np np OILP oil produced, cumulative L3
D.Np D.np DELOILP oil produced during an interval L3
qo Qo RTEO oil production rate L3/t
qoD QoD RTEOQ oil production rate, dimensionless
bo fmFo RVFO oil reciprocal formation volume factor
(shrinkage factor)
Npa npa OILPUL oil recovery, ultimate L3
kro K ro PRMRO oil, relative permeability to
So Pmso SATO oil saturation
Sag Pog,Sog SATOG oil saturation in gas cap, interstitial
Sor PonSor SATOR oil saturation, residual
Yo smFos SPGO oil specific gravity
iJ-o vA VISO oil viscosity miLt
f INC operating cash income M
fa INCA operating cash income, after taxes M
f INCB operating cash income, before taxes M
0 XPO operating expense various
Ou XPOU operating expense per unit produced MlL3
\1 2 operator, Laplacian
U UT,Ue HTCU over-all heat transfer coefficient mlt3T
ER lJR,eR EFFR over-all reservoir recovery efficiency: volume
of hydrocarbons recovered divided by volume
of hydrocarbons in place at start of project
(ER = EpEs Eo = Ev ED)

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
CO2 CO2 CNC02 oxygen concentration (concentration of other various
elements or compounds would be indicated as,
CC02,CN , etc.)
e02 Eo
_ 2 UTL02 oxygen utilization
dp Dp DIAAVP particle diameter, mean L
L s,fscript I LTH path length, length, or distance L
Ep 'Y/,ep EFFP pattern sweep efficiency (developed from areal
efficiency by proper weighting for variations in
net pay thickness, porosity and hydrocarbon
saturation: hydrocarbon pore space enclosed
divided by total hydrocarbon pore space
of the reservoir or project
ht dt,e t THKT pay thickness, gross (total) L
hn dme n THKN pay thickness, net L
T e PER period t
k K PRM permeability, absolute (fluid flow) L2
kg Kg PRMG permeability, effective, to gas L2
ka Ka PRMO permeability, effective, to oil L2
kw Kw PRMW permeability, effective, to water L2
I-L m PRMM permeability, magnetic mLlq2
kika KiKa PRMGO permeability ratio, gas-oil
k.Jka KwlKa PRMWO permeability ratio, water-oil
krg Krg PRMRG permeability, relative, to gas
k ra K ra PRMRO permeability, relative, to oil
k rw K rw PRMRW permeability, relative, to water
P NMBP phases, number of
I-L v,a PSN Poisson's ratio
Vp vp VOLP pore volume Vb - Vs L3
VpD VpD VOLPQ pore volume, dimensionless
Qi qi FLUIQ pore volumes of injected fluid, cumulative,
dimensionless
<P f,E POR porosity (Vb - V s)lVb
<Pa fa,E a PORA porosity, apparent
<Pe fe,E e PORE porosity, effective (VpelVb)
m MXP porosity exponent (cementation)
(in an empirical relation between FRand <P)
<Ph fh,Eh PORH porosity, hydrocarbon-filled, fraction or percent
of rock bulk volume occupied by hydrocarbons
Icj> icj> PRX porosity index
Icj>l icj>l PRXPR porosity index, primary
Icj>2 icj>2 PRXSE porosity index, secondary
<Pne fne,cne PORNE porosity, non-effective (VpnelVb)
<Pig /;g, Eig PORIG 'porosity' (space), intergranular (Vb - V gr)lVb)
<Pim fim,Eim PORIM 'porosity' (space), intermatrix (Vb - V malVb)
<PE fE,EE POREX porosity of experimental pack
<PR frlER PORR porosity of reservoir or formation
<Pt /r,Et PORT porosity, total

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
 f POT potential or potential function various
V U VLT potential difference (electric)
Ep ENGP potential energy mL2/t
Pbh Pbh PRSBH pressure, bottomhole m/Lt2
P P PRS pressure mlLt2
pa Pa PRSA pressure, atmospheric m/Lt2
P P PRSAV pressure, average or mean m/Lt2
P Pd PRSAVR pressure, average, reservoir m/Lt2
Pws P ws PRSWS pressure, bottomhole, at any time after shut-in m/Lt2
Pwt Pwt PRSWF pressure, bottom hole flowing m/Lt2
Piwt Piwt PRSIWF pressure, bottom hole flowing, injection well m/Lt2
Pw Pw PRSW pressure, bottom hole general
Pws Pws PRSWS pressure, bottomhole static miLt
Pww P ww PRSWW pressure, bottomhole (well), in water phase miLe
Piws Piws PRSIWS pressure, bottomhole static, injection well m/Lt2
Pb Ps,Ps,Pb PRSB pressure, bubble-point (saturation) m/Lt2
Pe PoPe PRSCP pressure, capillary m/Lt2
Pet Pet PRSCF pressure, casing flowing m/Lt2
Pes Pes PRSCS pressure, casing static miLe
Pe Pe PRSC pressure, critical miLe
Pd Pd PRSD pressure, dew-point m/Lt2
PD PD PRSQ pressure, dimensionless
Pe Pe PRSE pressure, external boundary m/Lt2
Pexe Pext PRSXT pressure, extrapolated m/Lt2
Pwt P wt PRSWF pressure, flowing bottomhole mlLt 2
Pet Pet PRSCF pressure, flowing casing m/Lt2
Pet Ptt PRSTF pressure, flowing tubing m/Lt2
Pt Pt PRSF pressure, front or interface miLe
PeD PtD PRSTQQ pressure function, dimensionless, at
dimensionless time tD
Pi Pi PRSI pressure, initial m/Lt2
Ppe Ppe PRSPC pressure, pseudo-critical m/Lt2
Ppr Ppr PRSPRD pressure, pseudo-reduced miLe
f!..r Pr PRSRD pressure, reduced
PR P PRSAVR pressure, reservoir average m/Lt2
Psp Psp PRSSP pressure, separator m/Lt2
Pse Pse PRSSC pressure, standard conditions miLe
Pws Pws PRSWS pressure, static bottom-hole m/Lt2
Pes Pes PRSCS pressure, static casing m/Lt2
Pes Pes PRSTS pressure, static tubing miLe
Pt! Pet PRSTF pressure, tubing flowing m/Lt2
Pts Pes PRSTS pressure, tubing static m/Lt2
1<1>1 i<l>l PRXPR primary porosity index
G Lp gLp NGLP produced condensate liquids, cumulative L3
Qp FLUP produced fluids, cumulative (where Np L3
and Wp are not applicable)
G Fp gFp GASFP produced free gas, cumulative L3
Gp gp GASP produced gas, cumulative L3
AGp Agp DELGASP produced gas during an interval L3

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
GpE gpE GASPEX produced gas from experimental tube run L3
G wgp 8Jygp GASWGP produced gas, wet, cumulative e
'ih D DENAVL produced-liquid density, weight-weighted mlL3
average
npj Npj MOLPJ produced moles of component j, cumulative

Np np OILP produced oil, cumulative L3
D.Np tmp DELOILP produced oil during an interval eL3
Wp wp WTRP produced water, cumulative
Awp Awp DELWTRP produced water during an interval L3
G wgp gwgp GASWGP produced wet gas, cumulative L3
R Fg,Fgo GOR producing gas-oil ratio
RF FgHFgoF GORF producing gas-oil ratio, free
(free-gas volume/oil volume)
Fwo FACWO producing water-oil ratio, instantaneous
qi Qi RTEI production rate at beginning of period L3/t
qa Qa RTEA production rate at economic abandonment L3/t
qD QD RTEQ production rate, dimensionless
qg Qg RTEG production rate, gas L3/t
qgD QgD RTEGQ production rate, gas, dimensionless
qo Qo RTEO production rate, oil L3/t
qoD QoD RTEOQ production rate, oil, dimensionless
q Q RTE production rate or flow rate L3/t
qjJ Qp RTEPAV production rate or flow rate at mean pressure L3/t
q Q RTEAV production rate or flow rate, average L3/t
qw Qw RTEW production rate, water L3/t
qwD QwD RTEWQ production rate, water, dimensionless
AtwJ A. DELTIMWFproduction time after well is opened to
production (presure drawdown)
tp .p TIMP production time of well, equivalent, prior to
shut-in (pseudo-time)
J j PDX productivity index L4t/m
Pk PRAK profit, annual net, over year k M
fpk PRAPK profit, annual, over year k, fraction of
unamortized investment
P PI PRFT profit, total M
ex: proportional to
Js js PDXS productivity index, specific L3 t/m
Tpe 8pe TEMPC pseudo-critical temperature T
Ppe Ppe PRSPC pseudo-critical pressure m/U2
Gp fop GMFP pseudo-geometrical factor (multiplier)
cpr Kpr>Kpr CMPPRD pseudo-reduced compressibility
Ppr Ppr PRSPRD pseudo-reduced pressure
Epsp <l>sp EMFP pseudo-SP mL2/qt2
Tpr 8pr TEMPRD pseudo-reduced temperature T
tp .p TIMP pseudo-time (equivalent time well was on t
production prior to shut-in)
fs Q,x QLTS quality (usually of steam)

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
t:.r t:.R DELRAD radial distance (increment along radius) L
I ly,Ie HCTI radiation heat transfer coefficient mleT
r R RAD radius L
rwa Rwa RADWA radius, apparent or effective, of well bore L
(includes effects of well damage or stimulation)
rD RD RADQ radius, dimensionless
re Re RADE radius, external boundary L
rH RH RADHL radius, hydraulic L
rd Rd RADD radius of drainage L
rwa Rwa RADWA radius of wellbore, apparent or effective L
(includes effects of well damage or stimulation)
rs Rs RADS radius of well damage or stimulation (skin) L
rw Rw RADW radius, well L
ia INJA rate, air injection Cit
1 k; RTE rate: discount, effective profit, of return,
reinvestment, etc; use symbol i with
suitable subscripts
q Q RTE rate, flow or production L3/t
NGR Ny,CG NGR rate, gamma ray count lit
eg ig ENCG rate, gas influx (encroachment) L3/t
ig INJG rate, gas injection L3/t
qg Qg RTEG rate, gas production L3/t
qgD QgD RTEGQ rate, gas production, dimensionless
e i ENC rate, influx (encroachment) L3/t
x MENES random variable, mean value of x, estimated
INJ rate, injection L3/t
IRCE rate, interest, effective compound
(usually annual)
iM IRPE rate, interest, effective, per period
j r IRA rate, interest, nominal annual
w m MRT rate, mass flow mit
u 'lj! VELV rate of flow or flux, per unit area Lit
Q q,CI> HRT rate of heat flow mL2/t3
ir RORI rate of return (internal, true, or discounted
cash flow) or earning power
eo io ENCO rate, oil influx (encroachment) L3/t
qo Qo RTEO rate, oil production L3/t
u 'lj! VELV rate per unit area, flow (volumetric velocity) Lit
qoD QoD RTEOQ rate, oil production, dimensionless
q Q RTE rate, production or flow L3/t
qjJ Qp RTEPAV rate, production, at mean pressure L 3/t
q Q RTEAV rate, production, average Cit
qD QD RTEQ rate, production, dimensionless
qs Qs RTES rate, segregation (in gravity drainage) L3/t
y e SRT rate, shear lit
Vb Vb,Ub VELB rate (velocity) of burning-zone advance Lit
ew iw ENCW rate, water influx (encroachment) L3/t
iw INJW rate, water injection L3/t

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
qw Qw RTEW rate, water production L3/t
qwD QwD RTEWQ rate, water production, dimensionless
FaF FACAFU ratio, air-fuel various
Fs Fd DMRS ratio, damage ('skin' conditions relative to
formation conditions unaffected by well
operations)
S Fd DPR ratio, displacement
Sob Fdob DPROB ratio, displacement, oil from burned volume,
volume per unit volume of burned reservoir
rock
Sou Fdou DPROU ratio, displacement, oil from unburned volume,
volume per unit volume of unburned reservoir
rock
Swb Fdwb DPRWB ratio, displacement, water from burned volume,
volume per unit volume of burned reservoir rock
K k,Feq EQR ratio, equilibrium (y/x)
RF FgHFgoF GORF ratio, free producing gas-oil (free-gas
volume/oil volume)
Rp Fgp, Fgop GORP ratio, gas-oil, cumulative
Rsi Fgsi GORSI ratio, gas-oil, initial solution
kglKo Kglko PRMGO ratio, gas-oil permeability
R FWFgo GOR ratio, gas-oil producing
Rsb Fgsb GORSB ratio, gas-oil, solution, at bubble-point conditions
Rs Fgs,Fos GORS ratio, gas-oil, solution (gas solubility in oil)
M FA MBR ratio, mobility, general
(AdisplacingfAdisplaced)
Ms MDd,Msu MBRSAV ratio, mobility, diffuse-front approximation
[(AD + Ad)swep/(Ad)unswept];
D signifies dIsplacing; d signifies displaced;
mobilities are evaluated at average saturation
conditions behind and ahead of front
M FA MBR ratio, mobility, sharp-front approximation
(AD/Ad)
Mt FAt MBRT ratio, mobility, total [(At)swep/(AtLnswept];
'swept' and 'unswept' refer
to invaded and uninvaded regions behind and
ahead of leading edge of a displacement front
m Fpl,Fgo MGO ratio of initial reservoir free-gas volume
to initial reservoir oil volume
F FAC ratio or factor in general (always with identifying various
subscripts)
kglko KglKo PRMGO ratio, permeability, gas-oil
R Fg,Fgo GOR ratio, producing gas-oil
kw/ko Kw/Ko PRMWO ratio, permeability, water-oil
Rsb Fgsb GORSB ratio, solution gas-oil, at bubble-point conditions
Rs Fgs, Fgos GORS ratio, solution gas-oil (gas solubility in oil)
Rsi Fgsi GORSI ratio, solution gas-oil, initial
FwF FACWFU ratio, water-fuel
Fwop FACWOP ratio, water-oil, cumulative

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
kw/ko Kw/Ko PRMWO ratio, water-oil permeability
Fwo FACWO ratio, water-oil, producing, instantaneous
X XEL reactance ML2/tq2
k r,j RRC reaction rate constant LIt
!Yl (z) script R real part of complex number z
b f,F RVF reciprocal formation volume factor, volume at
standard conditions divided by volume at
reservoir conditions (shrinkage factor)
bg lFg RVFG reciprocal gas formation volume factor
bgb gb,Fgb RVFGB reciprocal gas formation volume factor at
bubble-point conditions
j w reciprocal permeability l/L2
bo fmFo RVFO reciprocal oil formation volume fator
(shrinkage factor)
ER 'l']R,eR EFFR recovery efficiency, reservoir over-all; volume of
hydrocarbons recovered divided by volume of
hydrocarbons in place at start of project.
(ER = EpE/ED = EvED)
Gpa gpa GASPUL recovery, ultimate gas
Pr Pr PRSRD reduced pressure
Tr ar TEMRD reduced temperature
a RED reduction ratio or reduction term
asp REDSP reduction, SP (general) due to shaliness
R N MRF refraction, molecular
n JL RFX refraction index
aSPsh REDSH reduction ratio, SP, due to shaliness
Ar AMPR relative amplitude
A AWT relative atomic mass (atomic weight)
M MWT relative molecular weight (molecular weight)
f3 y BRGR relative bearing
y s,Fs SPG relative density (specific gravity)
krg Krg PRMRG relative permeability to gas
k ro K ro PRMRO relative permeability to oil
krw Krw PRMRW relative permeability to water
t2 V2 TIMAV relaxation time, free-precession decay t
tt '1:t TIMRP relaxation time, proton thermal t
a Fa AIR requirement, air
aE FaE AI REX requirement, unit air, in laboratory experimental L3/m
run, volumes or air per unit mass of pack
aR FaR AIRR requirement, unit air, in reservoir, volumes
of air per unit bulk volume of reservoir rock
G Fi gFi GASFI reservoir initial free-gas volume (=mNBoi) L3
<PR fR,ER PORR reservoir or formation porosity
p PR PRSAVR reservoir pressure, average m1Lt2
ER 'l']R,eR EFFR reservoir recovery efficiency, over-all;
volume of hydrocarbons recovered divided
by volume of hydrocarbons in place at
start of project (ER = [sx] = Ev ED)
VRb VRb VOLRB reservoir rock burned, volume of L3

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
V Ru VRu VOLRU reservoir rock unburned, volume of L3
TR 9R TEMR reservoir temperature T
Sgr PgnSgr SATGR residual gas saturation
Shr Phnshr SATHR residual hydrocarbon saturation
Sor PonSor SATOR residual oil saturation
Swr PwnSwr SATWR residual water saturation
r R RST resistance
R p,r RES resistivity (electrical) mL3tq
Ran Pam ran RESAN resistivity, annulus mL3tq2
Ra Pmra RESA resistivity, apparent mL3 tq2
Rz pz,rz RESZ resistivity, apparent, of the conductive mL3 tq 2
fluids in an invaded zone
(due to fingering)
KR MR,a,C COER resistivity factor coefficient, formation mL3 tq2
(FRcj>m)
FR FACHR resistivity factor, formation, equals
RoIRw a numerical
subscript to F indicates the Rw
Rxo Pxmrxo RESXO resistivity flushed zone (that part of the mL3tq 2
invaded zone closest to the wall of the
borehole, where flushing has been the
maximum)
Ro po,ro RESZR resistivity, formation 100% saturated mL3 tq2
with water of resistivity Rw
Rt Pt,rt REST resistivity, formation, true mL3tq 2
IR iR RSXH resistivity index (hydrocarbon) equals R/Ro
Ri pi,ri RESI resistivity, invaded zone mL3tq2
Rm Pm,rm RESM resistivity, mud mL3 tq 2
Rmc Pmormc RESMC resistivity, mud-cake mL3 tq 2
Rmf Pmf,rmf RESMF resistivity, mud-filtrate mL3tq2
Rsh psh,rsh RESSH resistivity, shale mL3 tq2
Rs ps,rs RESS resistivity, surrounding formation mL3 tq 2
Rw pw,rw RESW resistivity, water mL3tq 2
Vu Ru GRRU revenue, gross ('value'), per unit produced MlL3
V R, V I1 R t GRRT revenue, gross ('value'), total M
NRe REYQ Reynolds number (dimensionless number)
cf kfiKf CMPF rock or formation compressibility Lt2/m
C c,n CNC salinity various
S p,s SAT saturation
n SXP saturation exponent
Sg Pg,Sg SATG saturation, gas
Sgc PgoSgc SATGC saturation, gas, critical
Sgr PgnSgr SATGR saturation, gas, residual
Sog PogtSog SATOG saturation, interstitial-oil, in gas cap
Swg Pwg,Swg SATWG saturation, interstitial-water, in gas cap
Sh Ph,Sh SATH saturation, hydrocarbon
Shr Phnshr SATHR saturation, residual hydrocarbon
So PmSo SATO saturation, oil
Sor PonSor SATOR saturation, oil, residual

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
Pb Ps,Ps,Pb PRSB saturation or bubble-point pressure mlLt2
SL PL,SL SATL saturation, total (combined) liquid
Sw pw>sw SATW saturation, water
Swc Pwoswc SATWC saturation, water, critical
Swi Pwbswi SATWI saturation, water, initial
Siw Piw,Siw SATIW saturation, water irreducible
Swr Pw"swr SATWR saturation, water, residual
I<j>2 i<j>2 PRXSE secondary porosity index
qs Qs RTES segregation rate (in gravity drainage) L3/t
Psp Psp PRSSP separator pressure mlLt 2
Ish script t Atsh TACSH shale interval transit time tiL
Rsh psh,rsh RESSH shale resistivity mL3 tq2
IShGR ishGR SHXGR shaliness gamma-ray index
(Ylog - Ycn)/(Ysh - Yen)
G Es ELMS shear modulus miLe
y e SRT shear rate lit
As AMPS shear wave amplitude various
bo fmFo RVFO shrinkage factor (reciprocal oil formation
volume factor)
Pws P ws PRSWS shut-in bottomhole pressure, at any time mlLt 2
Atws A'tws DELTIMWS shut-in time (time after well is shut in) t
(pressure buildup)
Dsp DSCSP single payment discount factor
Dspc DSCSPC single payment discount factor
(constant annual rate)
8 rs SKD skin depth (logging) L
S S,a SKN skin effect various
rs Rs RADS skin radius (radius of well damage or stimulation) L
m A SLP slope various
M meD SAD slope, interval transit time vs density (absolute tL2/m
value)
N meND SND slope, neutron porosity vs density (absolute L 3/m
value)
< LT smaller than
PsE DsE DENSEX solid particles density of experimental rock m/L3
Vs VS VOLS solid(s) volume (volume of all formation solids) L3
Pma Dma DENMA solids (matrix, grain) density m/L3
Rs Fgs, Fgos GORS solubility, gas in oil (solution gas-oil ratio)
Rsw GWRS solubility, gas in water
Rsb Fgsb GORSB solution gas-oil ratio at bubble-point conditions
Rs Fgs, Fgos GORS solution gas-oil ratio (gas solubility in oil)
Rsi Fgsi GORSI solution gas-oil ratio, initial
Ec <Pc EMFC SP, electrochemical component of mL2/t2q
Ek <Pk EMFK SP, electrokinetic component of mL2/t2q
Esp <Psp EMFSP SP (measured SP) (Self Potential) mL2/t2q
Epsp <Ppsp EMFPSP SP, pseudo mL2/t2q
Essp <Pssp EMFSSP SP, static (SSP) mL2 /t 2 q
Ls ss,/s script I LENS spacing (electrical logging) L
S a HERS specific entropy L2/t 2T
Y s,Fs SPG specific gravity (relative density)
Yg sg,Fgs SPGG specific gravity, gas

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
Yo sOJFos SPGO specific gravity, oil
Yw sw,Fws SPGW specific gravity, water
C c HSP specific heat capacity (always with phase or L 2/eT
system subscripts)
Y k HSPR specific heat capacity ratio
Is is IJXS specific injectivity index L 3t/m
Is js PDXS specific productivity index Ct/m
v VS SPY specific volume L 3/m
Fwv Y WGTS specific weight mL2/t2
Essp <Pssp EMFSSP SSP (static SP) mL2/eq
ts 1:s TIMS stabilization time of a well t
(J SDV standard deviation of a random variable
s SDVES standard deviation of a random variable, estimated
Piws Piws PRSIWS static bottom-hole pressure, injection well m/Lt2
Pws Pws PRSWS static pressure, bottom-hole, mlLt 2
at any time after shut-in
Pes Pes PRSCS static pressure, casing m/Lt2
Pts Pts PRSTS static pressure, tubing miLe
rs Rs RADS stimulation or damage radius of well (skin) L
£ e'£n STN strain, normal and general
Y lOs STNS strain, shear
8 8v STNV strain, volume
'P STR stream function various
(J s STS stress, normal and general m/Lt2
1: SS STSS stress, shear m/Lt2
k SUM summation (operator)
u 1jJ VELV superficial phase velocity (flux rate of a Lit
particular fluid phase flowing in pipe;
use appropriate phase subscripts)
qse qmQse RTESC surface production rate L3/t
(J Y,Y SFT surface tension, interfacial m/t2
Rs ps,rs RESS surrounding formation resistivity
k K SUSM susceptibility, magnetic mLlq
T 8 TEM temperature T
Tbh 8BH TEMBH temperature, bottomhole T
Te 8e TEMC temperature, critical T
Tf 8f TEMF temperature, formation T
gT gh GRDT temperature gradient TIL
Tpe 8pe TEMPC temperature, pseudo-critical T
Tpr 8pr TEMPRD temperature, pseudo-reduced T
Tr 8r TEMRD temperature, reduced T
TR 8R TEMR temperature, reservoir T
Tse 8se TEMSC temperature, standard conditions T
(J Y,Y SFT tension, surface (interfacial) m/e
X tensorofx
kh A HCN thermal conductivity (always with additional mLlt 3T
phase or system subscripts)
f3 b HEC thermal cubic expansion coefficient liT
a a,'Yjh HTD thermal or heat diffusivity L2/t
h d,e THK thickness (general and individual bed) L
ht doet THKT thickness, gross pay (total) L

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
hmc dmoemc THKMC thickness, mud-cake L
hI dt,e t THKT thickness, pay, gross (total) L
hn dme n THKN thickness, net pay L
t 't TIM time t
Atwf i>'twf DELTIMWFtime after well is opened to production t
(pressure drawdown)
Atws A'tws DELTIMWS time after well is shut in (pressure build-up) t
't 'tc TIMC time constant t
'td td TIMD time, decay (mean life) (111..) t
td 'td TIMD time, delay t
At A't DELTIM time difference t
(time period or interval, fixed length)
tD 'tD TIMQ time, dimensionless
tDm 'tDm TIMMQ time, dimensionless at condition m
ts 'ts TIMS time for stabilization of a well t
rscript t At TAC time, interval transit tiL
ta script t Ata TACA time, interval transit, apparent tiL
ryscript t Atf TACF time, interval transit, fluid tIL
tina script t Atma TACMA time, interval transit, matrix tIL
Tsh script t Atsh TACSH time, interval transit, shale tIL
tdN TIMDN time, neutron decay (neutron mean life) t
'tp,tpo TIMPO time, pay-out (pay-off, pay-back) t
!t A't DELTIM time period or interval, fixed length t
tp 'tp TIMP time well was on production prior to shut-in, t
equivalent (pseudo-time)
't TOR tortuosity
'te TORE tortuosity, electric
'tH TORHL tortuosity, hydraulic
SL PL,SL SATL total (combined) liquid saturation
S HER total entropy L2/t2T
At A MOBT total mobility of all fluids in a particular region L 3 t/m
ofthe reservoir, e.g., (1"0 + I..g + I.. w)
Mt Ft..t MBRT total mobility ratio [(I..t )swep/(I..t )unsweptl;
'swept' and 'unswept' refer
to invaded and uninvaded regions behind and
ahead of leading edge of a displacement front
ht dt,e t THKT total (gross) pay thickness L
V R, Vt,R t GRRT total gross revenue ('value') M
G g GASTI total initial gas in place in reservoir L3
n nt, Nt NMBM total moles
CPt ft,Et PORT total porosity
Bt Ft FVFT total (two-phase) formation volume factor
h hh,hT HTCC transfer coefficient, convective heat rnIeT
U UT,Ue HTCU transfer coefficient, heat, over-all rnIt 3T
I Ir,ls HTCI transfer coefficient, heat, radiation rnIt 3T
tscript t At TAC transit time, interval tIL
ta script t Ata TACA transit time, apparent, interval tIL
ryscript t Atf TACF transit time, fluid interval tIL
tina script t Atma TACMA transit time, matrix interval tIL
Tsh script t Atsh TACSH transit time, shale interval tIL
::z (y) script L J00
transform, Laplace of y y (t)e-stdt

0

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
s transform, Laplace, variable
T T TRM transmissivity, transmissibility various
Pt Dt DENT true density mlL3
Rt Pt,rt REST true formation resistivity mL3 tq2
Gt fat GMFf true geometrical factor (multiplier)
(non-invaded zone) (electrical logging)
Ptt Ptt PRSTF tubing pressure, flowing mlLt 2
Pts Pts PRSTS tubing pressure, static mlLt 2
FB FACB turbulence factor
Bt Ft FVFf two-phase or total formation volume factor
Gpa gpa GASPUL ultimate gas recovery L3
Cuk INVUK unamortized investment over year k
P un discounted cash flow M
V Ru VRu VOLRU unburned reservoir rock, volume of L3
aE FaE AIREX unit air requirement in laboratory experimental L 3/m
run, volumes of air per unit mass of pack
aR FaR AIRR unit air requirement in reservoir, volumes of air
per bulk volume of reservoir rock
Cm cm,n m CNCFU unit fuel concentration (see symbol m) various
R RRR universal gas constant (per mole) mL2/t2T
e02 E02 UTL02 utilization, oxygen
z VAL valence
y MFRV vapour phase, mole fraction of component
V MOLV vapour phase, moles of
L{ Av HLTV vaporization, latent heat of L2/t2
0 VAR variance of a random variable
S2 VARES variance of a random variable, estimated
x vectorofx
v V,u VEL velocity Lit
v V,u VAC velocity, acoustic Lit
Va VmU a VACA velocity, acoustic apparent (measured) Lit
Vt Vt,Ut VACF velocity, acoustic fluid Lit
Vma Vma,uma VACMA velocity, matrix acoustic Lit
Vsh Vsh,Ush VACSH velocity, shale acoustic Lit
Vb Vb,Ub VELB velocity (rate) of burning-zone advance Lit
El 'YJbel EFFI vertical (invasion) efficiency: hydrocarbon pore
space invaded (affected, contacted) by the
injected-fluid or heat front divided by the
hydrocarbon pore space enclosed in all layers
/La 'YJa VISA viscosity, air miLt
/LjJ 'YJjJ VISPAV viscosity at mean pressure miLt
/L 'YJ VIS viscosity, dynamic miLt
/Lg 'YJ g VISG viscosity, gas miLt
/Lga 'YJga VISGA viscosity, gas, at 1 atm miLt
v N VSK viscosity, kinematic L2/t
/La 'YJa VISO viscosity, oil miLt
/Lw 'YJw VISW viscosity, water miLt
V v VOL volume L3
V bp Vbp VOLBP volume at bubble-point pressure L3
Vb Vb VOLB volume, bulk L3

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
V bE VbE VOLBEX volume, bulk, of pack burned in L3
experimental run
Ve Vpe, Ve VOLG volume, effective pore L3
V iv,Fv VLF volume fraction or ratio (as needed, use same various
subscripted symbols as for 'volumes'; note
that bulk volume fraction is unity and pore
volume fractions are <1>])
G Fi gFi GASFI volume, free-gas, initial reservoir L3
(=mNho)
Vgr Vgr VOLGR volume, grain (volume of all formation solids L3
except shales)
V ig Vig VOLIG volume, intergranular (volume between grains; L3
consists of fluids and all shales)
(Vb - V gr )
Vim Vim VOLIM volume, intermatrix (consists of fluids and L3
dispersed shale) (Vb - V rna)
V ma Vma VOLMA volume, matrix (framework) (volume of all
formation solids except dispersed shale)
V ne Vpne' Vne VOLNE volume, noneffective pore (Vp - V e) L3
V Rb VOLRB volume of reservoir rock burned L3
V Ru VOLRU volume of reservoir rock unburned C
VM VOLM volume per mole (molal volume) L3
Vp vp VOLP volume, pore (Vb - V s) L3
VpD VpD VOLPQ volume, pore, dimensionless
V shd Vshd VOLSHD volume, shale, dispersed L3
Vshl'script I Vshi script I VSHLAM volume, shale, laminated L3
Vshs Vshs VOLSHS volume, shale, structural L3
Vsh Vsh VOLSH volume, shale(s) (volume of all shales: C
structural and dispersed)
Vs VS VOLS volume, solid(s) (volume of all formation L3
solids)
v VS SPY volume, specific Clm
EVb 'YJVb,eVb EFFVB volumetric efficiency for burned portion only,
Ev 'YJv,ev EFFV volumetric efficiency: product of pattern sweep
and invasion efficiencies
q Q RTE volumetric flow rate Cit
qdh qw/,qDH,Qdh RTEDH volumetric flow rate downhole L3/t
qsc qmQsc RTESC volumetric flow rate, surface conditions Cit
M HSPV volumetric heat capacity mlLeT
u 'P VELV volumetric velocity (flow rate or flux, Lit
per unit area)
W w WTR water (always with identifying subscripts) various
Cw kw,Kw CMPW water compressibility Lt 2/m
Pw Dw DENW water density mlL3
Owb FWb DPRWB water displaced from burned volume, volume
per unit volume of burned reservoir rock
C WDC water-drive constant L 4elm
CL WDCL water-drive constant, linear aquifer L 4elm
kw Kw PRMW water, effective permeability to L2

symbol SPE letter
letter symbol
symbol
Bw Fw FVFW water formation volume factor
FwF FACWFU water-fuel ratio various
Rsw GWRS water, gas solubility in
W W WTRTI water in place in reservoir, initial L3
We We WTRE water influx (encroachment), cumulative L3
J1We J1we DELWTRE water influx (encroachment) during an interval L3
ew iw ENCW water influx (encroachment) rate L3/t
Wi Wi WTRI water injected, cumulative L3
J1Wi <1 Wi DELWTRI water injected during an interval L3
iw INJW water injection rate L3/t
Aw MOBW water mobility L 3t/m
kwlko KwlKo PRMWO water-oil permeability ratio
Fwop FACWOP water-oil ratio, cumulative
Fwo FACWO water-oil ratio, producing, instantaneous
Wp wp WTRP water produced, cumulative L3
J1Wp J1wp DELWTRP water produced during an interval L3
qw Qw RTEW water production rate L3/t
qwD QwD RTEWQ water production rate, dimensionless
k rw K rw PRMRW water, relative permeability to
Rw pw,rw RESW water resistivity mL3tq 2
Sw Pw,sw SATW water saturation
Swc Pwoswc SATWC water saturation, critical
Swi Pwi,Swi SATWI water saturation, initial
Swo Swb SATWO water saturation (interstitial) in oil band
Swg Pwg,Swg SATWG water saturation in gas cap, interstitial
Siw Piw,Siw SATIW water saturation, irreducible
Swr PwnSwr SATWR water saturation, residual
Yw Sw.Fws SPGW water specific gravity
ILw 1']w VISW water viscosity mILt
A WVL wave length (I/o) L
0 v WVN wave number (III...) I/L
W w,G WGT weight (gravitational) m/Lt2
fh 15 L DENAVL weight-weighted average density mlL3
of produced liquid
A AWT weight, atomic m
M MWT weight, molecular m
rw Rw RADW well radius L
rs Rs RADS well radius of damage or stimulation (skin) L
Is 1: TIMS well stabilization time t
rwa Rwa RADWA wellbore radius, effective or apparent (includes L
effects of well damage or stimulation
Cwg cwg,nwg CNTWG wet-gas content various
G wgp gwgp GASWGP wet gas produced, cumulative L3
b W WTH width, breadth, or (primarily in fracturing) L
thickness
W W WRK work mL2/t2
E y ELMY Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity) mlLt2
di dbDi DIAl zone diameter, invaded, electrically equivalent L
Ri Pbri RESI zone resistivity, invaded mL3tq 2
B. Subscripts alphabetized by physical quantity
Subscript de£mition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

subscript subscript letter
subscript
abandonment a A A
acoustic a A, «alpha A
activation log, neutron NA na NA
active, activity, or acting a A
after taxes a A
air a A A
air-fuel aF AFU
altered a A
amplitude log A a A
angle, angular, or angular coordinate () theta THE
anhydrite anh AH
anisotropic ani ANI
annulus apparent (from log readings; an AN AN
use tool description subscripts)
apparent (general) a ap A
apparent wellbore (usually with wellbore radius) wa WA
areal A A
atmosphere, atmospheric a A A
average or mean pressure 2- PAY
average or mean saturation S s,p rho SAY
band or oil band b B B
bank or bank region b B
base b r, f3 beta B
before taxes b B B
bond log, cement CB cb CB
borehole televiewer log TV tv TV
bottom hole bh w,BH BH
bottom-hole, flowing (usually with pressure or time) wi WF
bottom-hole, static (usually with pressure or time) ws WS
boundary conditions, external e 0 E
breakthrough BT bt BT
bubble b B
bubble-point conditions, oil at (usually with ob OB
formation volume factor, Bob)
bubble-point conditions, solution at (usually sb SB
with gas-oil ratio, R sb )
bubble point (saturation) b s,bp B
bubble-point or saturation (usually with bp B
volume, V bp )
bulk (usually with volume Vb) b B,t B
burned in experimental tube run (usually bE BEX
with volume, V bE )
burned or burning b B B
burned portion of in situ combustion pattern, displacement Db DB
from (usually with efficiency, E Db)
burned portion of in situ combustion pattern, volumetric Vb VB
of (usually with efficiency, E vb )
burned reservoir rock Rb RB
Subscript definition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

subscript
burned volume, oil from (usually ob OB
with displacement ratio, Oob)
burned volume water from (usually wb WB
with displacement ratio, Owb)
calculated C calc CA
caliper log C c C
capillary (usually with capillary pressure, Pc) c C CP
capture cap C
carbon dioxide CO 2 CO2
carbon monoxide CO CO
casing or casinghead c cg CS
casing, tlowing (usually with pressure) cf CF
casing, static (usually with pressure) cs CS
cement bond log CB cb CB
chemical c C
chlorine log CL cl CL
clay cl cla CL
clean en cln CN
coil C c C
compaction cp CP
compensated density log CD cd CD
compensated neutron log CN en CN
component(s) C C
componentj j J
component j produced pj PJ
(usually with moles, npj)
compressional wave c C C
conditions for infinite dimensions 00 INF INF
conductive liquids in invaded zone z Z
constant c C C
contact c C C
(usually with contact angle, 8c)
contact log, microlog, minilog ML mlscript I ML
convective C
conversion (usually with conversion factor in c C
Newton's law of motion, gc)
core c C C
corrected cor COR
critical c cr CR
cumulative intlux (encroachment) e i E
cumulative injected i I
cumulative produced p P
cumulative produced free value Fp FP
(usually with gas, GFp )
cumulative produced liquid Lp
(usually with condensate, GLp )
damage or damaged (includes 'skin' conditions) s d S
decay d D
deep induction log ID id ID
deep laterolog LLD Il'd script II LLD
delay d odelta D
Subscriptdeflnition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

subscript . subscript letter
subscript
density prho RHO
density log, compensated CD cd CD
density log D d D
depleted region, depletion d 6 delta D
dew-point d D
differential separation d D
differential temperature log DT dt DT
diffusivity 'YJ eta ETA
dimensionless pore value pD PQ
(usually with volume VpD )
dimensionless quantity D Q
dimensionless quantity at condition m Dm QM
dimensionless time tD TQ
dimensionless water wD WQ
dip (usually with angle, ad) d D
diplog, dipmeter DM dm DM
directional survey DR dr DR
dirty (clayey, shaly) dy dty DY
discounted value, present worth, or present value PV pv PV
dispersed d D D
dispersion K d K
displaced d s,D DD
displacement from burned portion of in situ Db DB
combustion pattern (usually with efficiency,
EDb )
displacement from unburned portion of in situ Du DU
combustion pattern (usually with efficiency,
EDu )
displacing or displacement (efficiency) D s, (J sigma DN
dolomite dol DL
down-hole dh DH DH
drainage (usually with drainage radius, rd) d D
dual induction log DI di DI
duallaterolog DLL dll'script II DLL
earth e E E
effective (or equivalent) e E
electric, electrical e E E
electrochemical c ec C
electrode E e E
electrokinetic k ek K
electrolog, electrical log, electrical EL el, ES EL
survey
electromagnetic pipe inspection log EP ep EP
electron el e/script el E
empirical E EM EM
encroachment (influx), cumulative e i E
entry e E E
epithermal neutron log NE ne NE
eqivalent eq BV EV
estimated E est ES
ethane C2 C2
experimental E EX EX

subscript
experimental value per mole of produced gas Eg EXG
(usually with fuel consumption, mEg)
external, outer boundary conditions e 0 E
extrapolated ext XT
fast neutron log NF nf NF
fill-up F f F
finger or fingering f F F
flash separation f F F
flowing bottom-hole (usually with pressure or time) wf WF
flowing casing (usually with pressure) cf CF
flowing conditions, injection well (usually with iwf IWF
pressure, Piwf)
flowing conditions, well (usually with time) wf f WF
flowing tubing (usually with pressure) if TF
fluid f fl F
fluids in an invaded zone, conductive z Z
flushed zone xo XO
formation 100% saturated with ozero 7ZR
water (used in Ro only)
formation (rock) f fm F
formation, surrounding s S
fraction or fractional f r F
fracture, fractured or fracturing f F FR
free (usually with gas or gas-oil ratio quantities) F f F
free fluid Ff f FF
free value, cumulative produced, Fp FP
(usually with gas, G Fp )
free value, initial (usually with gas, G n) Fi FI
front, front region, or interface f F F
fuel, mass of (usually with fuel concentration, em) m FU
fuel (usually with fuel properties, such as PF) F FU
gamma-gamma ray log GG gg GG
gamma ray log GR gr GR
gas g G G
gas at atmospheric conditions ga GA
gas at bubble-point conditions gb GB
gas cap, oil in (usually with saturation, Sag) og OG
gas cap, water in (usually with saturation, Swg) wg WG
gas, dimensionless gD GQ
gas-oil, solution (usually with gas-oil ratios) s S
gas-water, solution sw
(usually with gas solubility in water, Rsw)
geometrical G G
geothermal G T GT
grain gr GR
grain (matrix, solids) ma MA
gravity meter log GM gm GM
gross (total) t T T
guard log G g G
gypsum gyp GY
half 112 H

subscript
heat or thermal h T, e theta HT
heavy phase HP hp HP
hole h H H
horizontal H h H
hydraulic H HL
hydrocarbon h H H
hydrogen nuclei or atoms H HY
hydrocarbon, residual hr HR
hydrogen sulphide H2S H2S
imbibition I i script i I
induction log, deep investigation 1D id ID
induction log I i I
induction log, dual D1 di DI
induction log, medium investigation 1M im 1M
infinite dimensions, conditions for 00 INF
influx (encroachment), cumulative e E
initial conditions or value i I
initial free value (usually with gas, G Fi ) Fi PI
initial solution (usually with gas-oil ratio, R si ) si SI
initial value or conditions I
injected, cumulative I I
injection, injected or injecting i inj I
injection well, flowing conditions (usually with pressure, iwf IWF
Piw/)
injection well, static conditions (usually with pressure, iws IWS
Piws)
inner or interior i l iota, t script i I
interface, front region, or front f F F
interference I i, t script i I
intergranular ig IG
intermatrix 1m 1M
internal i l iota, { script i I
intrinsic int I
invaded I I
invaded zone i I I
invaded zone, conductive liquids in an z Z
invasion (usually with invasion efficiency, E /) I I
irreducible ir, l iota, t script i IR
jth component j J
jth component, produced pj PJ
junction j J
laminar ('script 1 L LAM
laminated, lamination ('script L L LAM
lateral (resistivity) log L ('script 1 L
laterolog (add further tool configuration LL If script II LL
subscripts as needed)
laterolog, dual DLL d Il"script II DLL
lifetime log, neutron, TDT PNL n i'script 1 PNL
light phase LP i'p script 1 LP
limestone Is 1st LS
limiting value lim LM
SubscriptderlOition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

subscript su!'script Htter
subscript
linear, lineal L tscript I L
liquid or liquid phase L tscript I L
liquids, conductive, invaded zone Z Z
liquid produced, cumulative (usually with Lp
condensate G Lp)
location subscripts, usage is secondary to that for 1,2,3, etc.
representing times or time periods
log LOG log L
lower tscript I L L
magnetism log, nuclear NM nm NM
mass of fuel (usually with fuel concentration, m FU
Cm)
matrix (solids, grain) ma MA
matrix [solids, except (nonstructural) ma MA
clay or shale]
maximum max MX
mean or average pressure PAY
mean or average saturation S, prho SAY
medium investigation induction log 1M im 1M
methane C1 Cl
microlaterolog MLL md'script II MLL
microlog, minilog, contact log ML mtscriptl ML
micro-seismogram log, signature log, variable VD vd VD
density log
minimum min MN
mixture M z,m M
mobility Alambda M LAM
molal (usually with volume, V M) M M
Mth period or interval M m M
mud m M
mud cake me MC
mud filtrate mf MF
net n N
neutron N n N
neutron activation log NA na NA
neutron lifetime log, TDT PNL ntscript I PNL
neutron log, compensated CN en CN
neutron log N n N
neutron log, epithermal NE ne NE
neutron log, fast NF nf NF
neutron log, sidewall SN sn SN
neutron log, thermal NT nt NT
nitrogen N2 N2
noneffective ne NE
nonwetting nw NW NW
normal n N
normal (resistivity) log N n N
(add numerical spacing to subscript to N; e.g., N16)
normalized (fractional or relative) n r,R N
nth year, period, income, payment, or unit n N N
nuclear magnetism log NM nm NM

subscript
numerical subscripts (intended primarily 1,2,3, etc.
to represent times or time periods;
available secondarily as location
subscripts or for other purposes)
observed DB OB
oil at bubble-point conditions (usually with formation ob OB
volume factor, Bob)
oil, dimensionless oD 00
oil 0 N,n 0
oil from burned volume (usually with displacement ob OB
ratio, Sob)
oil from unburned volume (usually with displacement ou OU
ratio, Sou)
oil in gas cap (usually with saturation, Sog) og OG
outer (external) e 0 E
oxygen O2 02
particle (usually with diameter, dp) p P
particular period, element, or interval k K K
pattern (usually with pattern efficiency, Ep) P P
pay-out, pay-off, or pay-back p po PO
permeability k K K
phase or phases P P
pipe inspection log, electromagnetic EP ep EP
pore (usually with volume, Vp) p P P
pore value, dimensionless (usually with volume, pD PO
VpD )
porosity phi f, E epsilon PHI
porosity data phi j, E epsilon P
pressure, mean or average p PAY
primary 10ne p,pri PR
produced p P P
produced component j (usually with moles, npj) pj Pl
produced, cumulative p P
produced free value, cumulative Fp FP
(usually with gas, G Fp )
produced in experiment pE PEX
produced liquid, cumulative Lp
(usually with condensate, G Lp)
produced water-oil (cumulative) wop WOP
(usually with cumulative water-oil ratio, Fwop)
production period (usually with time, tp) p P P
profit - unamortized investment Pk PK
proximity log P p P
pseudo p P
pseudo-critical pc PC
pseudo-dimensionless pD PO
pseudo-reduced pr PRD
pseudo-SP pSP PSP
radial r R R
radius, radial, or radial distance r R R
rate of return r R R

subscript
recovery (usually with recovery efficiency, R R
ER )
reduced r RD
reference r b, prho R
relative r R R
reservoir R r R
reservoir rock, burned Rb RB
reservoir rock, unburned Ru RU
residual r R R
residual hydrocarbon hr HR
resistivity R R
resistivity log R r, p rho R
Reynolds (used with Reynolds number Re
only, N Re )
rock (formation) f fm F
sand sd sa SD
sandstone ss sst SS
saturation, mean or average S 5, prho SAY
saturation or bubble point b s B
saturation or bubble point (usually with bp BP
volume, Vbp )
scattered, scattering sc SC
secondary 2 two s,sec SE
segregation (usually with segregation s S, a sigma S
rate, qs)
separator conditions sp SP
shale sh sha SH
shallow laterolog LLS It s script II LLS
shear s 1: tau
shear wave s 1: tau S
sidewall S SW SW
sidewall neutron log SN sn SN
signature log, micro-seismogram log, VD vd VD
variable density log
silt sl sit SL
single payment sp SP
skin (stimulation or damage) s S S
slip or slippage s a sigma S
slurry (,mixture') M z,m M
solid( s) (all formation solids) s a sigma S
solids in experiment sE SEX
solids (matrix, grain) ma MA
solution at bubble-point conditions (usually with sb SB
gas-oil ratio, Rsb )
solution in water (usually with gas solubility sw
in water, Rsw)
solution, initial (usually with gas-oil si SI
ratio, Rsi )
solution (usually with gas-oil ratios) s S
sonde, tool T t T
sonic velocity log SV sv SV

subscript
SP SP sp SP
spacing s L
specific (usually with J and l) s S
SSP SSP SSP
stabilization (usually with time) s S S
standard conditions sc (J sigma SC
static bottom-hole (usually with pressure or time) ws WS
static casing (usually with pressure) cs CS
static conditions, injection well (usually with pressure) iws IWS
static or shut-in conditions (usually with time) ws s WS
static tubing (usually with pressure) ts TS
static well conditions (usually with time) ws s WS
steam or steam zone s S S
stimulation (includes 'skin' conditions) s S S
stock-tank conditions st ST
storage or storage capacity S s, (J sigma S
strain £ epsilon e EPS
structural st s ST
surface s (J sigma S
surrounding formation s S
swept or swept region s S, (J sigma S
system s (J sigma S
TDT log, neutron lifetime log PNL pnfscript I PNL
televiewer log, borehole TV tv TV
temperature T h, 8 theta T
temperature log T t,h T
temperature log, differential DT dt DT
thermal (heat) h T, 8 theta HT
thermal decay time (TDT) log PNL pnfscript I PNL
thermal neutron log NT nt NT
time, dimensionless tD TQ
times or time periods 1,2,3, etc.
tool-description subscripts: see individual entries
such as 'amplitude log', 'neutron log,' , etc.
tool, sonde T t T
total initial in place in reservoir ti TI
total (gross) t T T
total, total system t T T
transmissibility T t T
treatment or treating 1: tau T
true (opposed to apparent) t tr T
tubing flowing (usually with pressure) if TF
tubing or tubinghead t tg T
tubing, static (usually with pressure) ts TS
turbulence (used with Fonly, FB ) B B
ultimate a ul UL
unamortized u U U
unburned u U
unburned portion of in situ combustion pattern Du DU
displacement from (usually with efficiency, E Du)
unburned reservoir rock Ru RU
Subscript deDnition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

subscript letter
subscript
unburned volume, oil from (usually with ou OU
displacement ratio, 60u )
unit u U U
unswept or unswept region u U U
upper u U U
vaporization, vapour, or vapour phase v V V
variable density log, micro-seismogram log, VD vd VD
signature log
velocity v V V
velocity, sonic or acoustic log SV sv SV
vertical V v V
volumetric of burned portion of in situ combustion Vb VB
pattern (usually with efficiency, E vb )
volume or volumetric V v V
water w W W
water, dimensionless wD WQ
water from burned volume (usually with displacement wb WB
ratio,6 wb)
water-fuel wF WFU
water in gas cap (usually with saturation, Swg) wg WG
water-oil (usually with instantaneous producing wo WO
water-oil ratio, Fwo)
water-oil produced (cumulative) wop WOP
(usually with cumulative water-oil ratio, Fwop)
water, solution in (usually with gas solubility sw SW
in water, Rsw)
water-saturated formation, 100% ozero zr ZR
weight W w W
well conditions w W
well, flowing conditions (usually with time) wI I WF
well, static conditions (usually with time) ws s WS
well, injection, flowing conditions iwl IWF
(usually with pressure Piw/)
well, injection, static conditions iws IWS
(usually with pressure Piws)
well, static conditions (usually with time) ws WS
wellbore, apparent (usually with wellbore wa WA
radius, rwa)
wellhead wh th WH
wet gas (usually with composition or content, wg WG
Cwg )
wet gas produced wgp WGP
wetting w W W
Young's modulus, refers to Y Y
zero hydrocarbon saturation ozero zr ZR
zone, conductive fluids in an invaded z Z
zone, flushed xo XO
zone, invaded I I
Appendix 2
Solutions to Examples
Chapter 2
Solution 2.1
Although this problem should place probabilistic ranges on the given data and assumptions, it will be calculated
deterministically.
We will assume that the combination of oil expelled from source rocks and trapped in potential structures represents
some 8% of the converted source rocks, i.e.:
Oil converted for source rock = 5 x 4500 x 12 x 106 m 3
Trapped oil ( = OIP) = 0.085 x 4500 x 12 x 106 m 3
= 2.16 x 1010 m3
Assuming an average formation volume factor of 1.4 rm 3/sm 3 this yields a stock tank oil in place of 1.54 x 1010 sm3 .
For an assumed overall technical recovery factor of 0.35 this yields a recoverable reserve of
1.54 x 1010 x 0.35 = 5.4 x 109 sm 3
(This is equivalent to 34 x 109 STB.)
(N.B. The UK Government's 1983 'Brown Book' indicates a probable range of technically recoverable reserves between
11 and 23 x 109 STB, assuming an oil formation volume factor of 1.4 rm 3 /sm 3 .)
Chapter 3
Solution 3.1
Casing Design Example
(a) The buoyancy factor (BF) is given by
SGsteel- SGfluid
BF=-----
SGsteel
For the external system:
7.84 - 1.92
BF = = 0.755
7.84
and for the internal fluid system:
7.84 - 1.15
BF = 7.84 = 0.853
SOLUTIONS TO EXAMPLES 311
The neutral point (NP) is thus the depth at which the string above is in tension and below in compression.
NP = 13000 x BF
= 13000 x 0.755
= 9820 ft
This is rounded off to 9800 ft.
(b) For the design weight of casing (CWT) we have

CWT = weight in air x BR
where the buoyancy ratio BR is given by
BF for outside mud system 0.755
BR = = - - = 0 885
BF for internal fluid system 0.853 .
(c) In the lower section we can check criteria:

(i) Collapse
The external mud gradient is SG x 0.433 psi/ft
= 1.92 x 0.433
= 0.831 psi/ft
The collapse limit of the P-110 casing of the various weights is given from Table A3.1 as
9570
0.831 = 11520 ft for 20 ppf casing, and
11630
0.831 = 14000 ft for 23 ppf casing
:. Use 23 ppf casing from bottom to 11520 ft, that is (13000 - 11520) = 1480 ft
(NB no tension problem since neutral point is at 9800 ft.)
(ii) Burst check
Since a more dense mud is used outside the casing then the greatest internal:external pressure difference is at the top of
each section.
At 11 520 ft, internal differential is:
(max surface pressure) + (internal fluid head) - (external fluid head)
Internal pressure gradient = (SG x 0.433) = 1.15 x 0.433 = 0.498 psi/ft
:.8000 + 11520 [0.498 - 0.831] = 4164 psi
As burst pressure of 23 ppf casing is given as 11780 psi no problem arises.
(iii) Joint strength calculation check
Since the entire section is below the neutral point, tension is not a problem so an API joint with long threads is sufficient.
(iv) Design weight for the section (CWT)
CWT = Design length x wt per foot x BR
= 1480 x 23 x 0.885
= 301251bs.
(d) For the next section N-80, 23 ppf has the next highest collapse pressure to P-110, 20 ppf and can be set below the
neutral point (see Table A3.1).
8370
(i) Collapse limit = 0.831 = 10072 ft
Rounding off, we can propose a section length of

11 520 - 10 070 = 1450 ft
(ii) Burst check
8000 + 10 070 [0.498 - 0.831] = 4647 psi
no problem arises.
(iii) As we are below the neutral point no joint strength problem.

(iv) Design weight for this section
1450 x 20 x 0.855 =24 795lb
Total weight calculated so far = (30 125 + 24 795) = 54 920 lb.
(e) In the next section we might consider the use of P-ll 017 ppf but only a relatively short section could be used. It is
considered more economical to design for N-80, 20 ppf.
6930
(i) Collapse limit = 0.831 = 8339 ft, round to 8340 ft
This is above the neutral point and therefore subject to the weight of casing above.
We calculate the ratio (R) for unit tensile stress to minimum yield strength using the ellipse of biaxial yield stress curve
(Fig. A3.1) to obtain the percent offull collapse pressure that is appropriate. From Table A3.1 the plain end area (A) of
20 ppfN-80 is 5.828 in2 • For the minimum yield strength (Ym ) of 80000 psi we have:
weight in air of casing above neutral point
R= Y m .A
Assume casing above neutral point is 20 ppf
20 (9800 - D)
R = 80000 (5.828)
We have to choose D such that the reduction factor (FR ) correlated with R to obtain the effective collapse depth is
consistent:
. 6930 J 20 (9800 - D)}
I.e. 0.831 X FR = f(R) = f \80000 (5.828)
This is solved by trial and we might choose D to be 7900 ft
20 (9800 - 7900)
R = 80 000 (5.828) = 0.0815
From Fig. A3.1 the value of FR corresponding to 0.0815 is 0.956%
6930
Collapse limit is 0.956 x 0.831 = 7972 ft
We could converge a little better but might accept 7900 ft as a suitable depth, giving 2170 feet of casing required between
7900 and 10 070 ft.
(ii) Burst check for internal differential at 7900 ft
= 8000 + 7900 [0.498 - 0.831]
= 5369 psi
This is within the tolerance of both 20 and 23 ppf N-80
(iii) Joint strength check
Section design weight = (2170 x 20 x 885) = 38 409lb
Total design weight = 38 409 + 54 920
= 93 329lb
We can see that the joint strengths of 20 and 23 ppfN-80 casing are both greater than the design weights (Table A3.1):
23 ppf : 251 000 lb
20 ppf: 214000 lb
(f) In abnormal pressure wells, a depth can be reached where either collapse or burst may control. A design trial for the
next section is made using 17 ppf N -80.
5240
(i) Collapse check 0.831 = 6305 ft
05
g
go
-0
0;
.;;' 0.1
E
·c
·E
0.05
o
o
;;
·w'"
i
.'§ 0,02
'l;
o
c
a:
0.85 0.90 1.00

Of full collapse pressure
We can converge on a reduced setting depth of 5430 feet.

20(9800 - 7900) + 17(7900 - 5430) ..
R= 4.962 (80 000) = 0.202, gIvmg FR = 0.884
and a collapse limit of 5573 ft which is in tolerance.
The possible length of this section is thus (7900 - 5430) = 2470 ft
(ii) Burst check
Internal differential at 5430 ft
= 8000 + (5430 [0.498 - 0.831])
= 6192 psi
The burst strength of 17 ppf N-80 is quoted in Table A3.1 as 6180 psi.
We must check the depth at which burst governs, i.e. the depth equivalent to a burst strength of 6180 psi.
8000 - 6180
Depth = 0.831 _ 0.498 = 5466 ft
The depth that 17 ppf N-80 will withstand the internal pressure differential is below its allowable collapse depth and this
grade cannot be used in this part of the design. We must therefore consider using 20 ppf N-80 as we know that this is
collapse designed down to 7900 ft. The burst strength for this is 7400 psi.
8000 -7400
Depth = 0.831 _ 0.498 = 1802 ft, round up to 1820 ft
This means that we could design a section of length (7900 - 1800) = 6080 ft
Design weight for section is (6080 x 20 x 0.885) = 107 616lb
Total weight is 107 616 + 93329
= 200 945lb
The joint strength for 20 ppf N-80 is given in Table A3.1 as 214000 lb. We have so far designed 11180 ft of the total well
depth of 13000 ft. The remaining 1820 ft are considered using P-110, 17 ppf grade casing.
(g) (i) Collapse check

20(9800 - 1820) + 17(1820)
R= 11 000 (4.962) = 0.35
FR = 0.78
7000 (0.78)
Setting depth = 0.831 = 6570 ft
a proposed setting at 1820 ft is acceptable.
(ii) Burst check

Internal difference at top of string is 8000 psi (max) and Table A3.1 gives burst rating as 8500 psi, therefore design is
acceptable.
Design weight of section added = 1820 x 17 x 0.885 = 27382lb
Total string weight = 27 382 + 200 945 ----------------------------------------
Section Length (ft) Casing Grade
Joint strength of P-ll0 L = 247 OOOlb design is acceptable.
(h) We can summarize the design as follows: Surface -1820 1820 17 ppfP-ll0L
1820-10 070 8250 20 ppfN-80L
10 070 - 11 520 1450 23 ppfN-80L
11 520 - 13 000 1480 23 ppf P-11O L
It should be emphasized that this design is one of many combinations which may be acceptable and optimization in terms
of economics is possible.
Solution 3.2
The average gradients give a pore pressure at 13 000 ft of
13 000 x 0.455 = 5915 psi
and a fracture pressure at 13 000 ft of
13 000 x 0.80 = 10 400 psi
The minimum setting depth is given by equating, above 13 000 feet, the gas and fracture gradients to a common
pressure. If the distance above 13 000 ft is D' then
Pg = 5915 - (0.1 x D')
Plr = 10 400 - (0.8 X D')
Setting Pg = Plr we have
10400 - 5915
D' = = 6407ft
0.8 - 0.1
Minimum setting depth is 13 000 - 6407 = 6593 ft.
TABLE A3.1 Casing data for example (Grade NSO-L/PllO-L 5.5 in. OD.)
Weight Wall thickness Collapse incl. Burst strength Joint strength Section
(lblft) (in) safety factor into wk. press (incl. S.F.) lOOOlb area
(psi) (incl. S.F.) psi (in 2)
17.0 PlIO 0.304 7000 8500 247 4.962
17.0 N80 0.304 5240 6180 174 4.962
20.0 PlIO 0.361 9570 10 180 274 5.828
20.0N80 0.361 6930 7400 214 5.828
23.0 PlIO 0.415 11 630 11 780 322 6.630
23.0N80 0.415 8370 8570 251 6.630
Minimum yield strength (Ym) = 80 000 psi for N-80

= 110 000 psifor P-ll0
Chapter 4
Solution 4.1
141.5
API = SG - 131.5
SG API SG API
0.70 70.6 0.80 45.4
0.72 65.0 0.82 41.0
0.74 59.7 0.84 36.9
0.76 54.7 0.86 33.0
0.78 49.9 0.88 29.2
0.90 25.72
NB API gravity is non-linear, inverse scale.

Water SG = 1.0; API = 10.
Solution 4.2
Yj MW YjMW Pc YjPci Tc YjTcj
C1 0.90 16 14.4 673 605.7 343 308.7
0.05 30 1.5 708 35.4 550 27.5
C3 0.03 44 1.32 617 18.5 666 19.9
C4 0.02 58 1.16 551 11.0 765 15.3
(a) L = 18.38 (c) L = 670.6 (c) L = 371.5
MW 18.38
(b) Specific gravity = 28.97 =28.97 =0.634
. _ m _ MP _ 18.38 x 14.7 _ -2 3
Gas denSIty - V - RT - 10.732 x 520 - 4.8 x 10 Ibft
(d) At 2000 psia and 595°R
595
Tpr = 371.5 = 1.60
2000
P pr = 670.6 = 2.98
(e)Fromgraphsz=0.825 (fig 4.7)

. _ MP _ 18.38 x 2000 _ 3
(t) DenSIty - zRT - 0.825 x 10.732 x 595 - 6.9771bft
;,r(
6.977
6.9 x vowvoL
= 6.9 x 10-3 5.615 = 1.235 BBLIMSCF
(h) From graphs, Itl = 0.0116 (Fig. 4.8) and
Ratio
1-11
= 1.3 (Fig. 4.9)
Therefore 1-1 = 0.015 cp
1 1 dz
(i) Compressibility cg = PI - 1 dz )
= Ppc Ppr - -; dPpr
1
= Ppc
(Pp--;1 dP
pc dz )
pr
from graph (Fig. 4.7) of z vs. reduced pro1erties, by graphical differentiation

1 (670.6 1
cg = 670.6 2000 - 0.825 X ( - 0.01)
= 5.2 X 10-4 psi-!

0) At 4100 ft SS aquifer pressure would be 0.44 x 4100 = 1804 psi
Since gas has a smaller density than water, it will lie above water. At gas-water contact, pressures are equal. From the
given data clearly this gas-water contact will be below 4100 ft. Let this extra distance be x ft. Assume too that density of
gas is a constant over the distances concerned, and that the reservoir temperature is 135°F, thus the density takes the
value calculated in (f), 6.9771b ft3 (or gradient 0.0485 psi ft-!).
Pressure balance at gas-water contact:
(4100 + x) 0.44 = 2000 + 0.0485 x

:. x = 196/0.3915 = 500 ft
Therefore gas-water contact depth = 4600 ft SS

(k) From 0), gas-water contact is at 4600 ft SS, and pressure is 4600 x 0.44 = 2024 psi
Assuming the gas density remains constant for 1000 ft, pressure due to gas = 0.0485 x 1000 = 48.5 psi
Therefore pressure at crest of structure = 2024 - 48.5 = 1975.5 psi
Therefore pressure of mud at this point will be = 1975.5 + 500 = 2475.5 psi
Assuming the mud to be incompressible, let density of mud = p Ibslcu ft

Pressure exerted by mud at 3600 ft = x 3600 = 2475.5 psi
Therefore p = 99.0 Ibslcu ft
i.e. specific gravity of mud = 1.58
Solution 4.3
Cg = IIp = 1/1923 = 520 x 10-6 psi-!

(a) Total compressibility (b) Effective hydrocarbon compressibility
CT 171.5 x 10-6
Coe = = 225 X 10-6 psi-!
1 - Swi 0.76
= 10-6 [5 + 0.45(10) + 0.24(3) + 0.31(520)]

= 171.5 X 10-6 pS(1
Solution 4.4
"'" " .
(a) From graphs (Fig. 4.21, 4.22) or correlation equations for
API = 38°; GOR = 750; T = 175°F; and Yg = 0.7: ""'¥7""b-=t---t-I---1--t--l
,OOO"----'-----'----'-_L-.-'-----'----'
= 2800 psia
Pp,:{ps;.) &00
bubble point pressure
formation volume factor = 1.4 RB/STB 1-"':::: ..."
'" ::::::--
specific gravity oftank oil =
141.5
131.5 + 38 = 0.834 300
"-
12 -.::::: ::-:::: f:::
weight of oil and gas in SOlution} 100 120 140 1SO t80 200 220 240
(b) Density of reservoir oil =( . MOlECULAA WEIGHT
volume of oIl reservoir conditions Fig. A4.1 Pseudo critical properties

of hydrocarbon liquids
Weight of one barrel of water = 5.615 x 62.4 = 350.4 pounds (density of fresh water is 62.4lb/fe and 5.615 cu ft =1
barrel).
From specific gravity of tank oil, weight of one barrel of oil is 350.4 x 0.834 = 292.2 lb.
Avogadro's law states that lIb-mole of any ideal gas occupies 379.4 cu ft at 60°F and 14.7 psia.
:. weight of gas which will dissolve in 1 STB of tank oil is given by the number of moles of gas times its molecular weight.
The molecular weight of gas is the gas gravity x molecular weight of air
:. weight of gas/STB = (R,I379.4) x 0.7 x 28.971bs = 0.05345 Rslbs.
Volume of 1 STB oil at reservoir conditions = Bo BBL

[292.2] + [750 x 0.053445]
:. Density of reservoir condition oil = 1.400 lbs/BBL
density at reservoir conditions
:. SG = 350.4 = 0.677
The reservoir oil gradient is therefore 0.677 x 0.433 psi/ft where 0.433 is the fresh water gradient
:. oil gradient = 0.293 psi/ft.
For an oil-water contact of 7000 ft SS the hydrostatic pressure is 7000 x 0.465 = 3255 psi.
The bubble point pressure is the pressure of oil saturated with gas in equilibrium at the gas-oil contact :. pressure at top
of oil column = 2800 psi.
8255 - 2800
For constant oil gradient, height of oil zone = 0.293 = 1550 ft
:. GOe = 7000 - 1550 = 5450 ft SS
For a molecular weight of 180 and 38° API oil the liquid critical temperature is 12200R and the liquid critical pressure is
310 psia
(460 + 175) 4000
Tpr = 1220 = 0.52 and P pr = 310 = 12.9
The reduced compressibility from charts (Fig. A4.1) is given at this Tpn P pr condition as CR = 0.002.
0.002
Since CR = Co· Pc then Co = 310 = 6 x 10-6 psia- I
From a constant oil compressibility between 2800 and 4000 psia

Bo = Bob (1 - Co!).P)
= 1.40 ( 1.0 - 6 X 10-6 (4000 - 2800))
= 1.389 RB/STB
From graphs, viscosity of dead oil at reservoir conditions = 1.4 cP
:. viscosity ofreservoir crude = 0.6 cPo

Solution 4.5
From graph of system pressure vs. system volume the bubble point is estimated by inflexion at 2500 psi.
Liquid volume at standard conditions =

At 3000 psi a liquid compressibility Co = - V \dP T 4000
3500
(404-410) _1_ -6 '-1
= (4000 _ 2500) . 408 = 9.8
::l
Co X 10 pSI til 3000
0.
408 2500
B03000 psi a = 295 = 1.383 RB/STB If)
'"'
(f)
2000
410
Bo2500 psia = 295 = 1.390 RB/STB
400
26.275 System volume
Rs = 295 (10-3) = 89.06 v/v = 89.06 (5.615) = 500 SCF/STB
At 2000 psia
388 430
Bo = 295 = 1.315 RB/STB ; B t = 295 = 1.457 RB/STB
21
Rs = 295 X 10-3 X 5.615 = 400 SCF/STB
:. B t = Bo + (Rsi - Rs) Bg
. B t - Bo (1.457 - 1.315)(295) -3
.. Bg = (Rsi _ Rs) = (26.275 _ 21.0)103 = 7.94 x 10 v/v
Z (Pl) (T2) (Vl) _(2000)

= Tl . P2 . V2 . - 660 . (520)
14.7 ·7.94 x 10-3_
- 0.85
ChapterS
Solution 5.1
F: 30 19.3 12.5 8.4 6.0

<p: 0.092 0.120 0.165 0.205 0.268
Plot either on log: log scales, or log F: log axis =
40 \\ = -1.53
30 o
._,, , Intercept at '" =1
,0. a = 0.774
20 ,,
,
'0\
10 ,,
t
LL
8
6
0,\
'0
'\,
,,
4
,
3 \,
,,
,,
2
, \
\
\,
1 ,,
0.8 --a
0.6
0.5 '-------'--'---'--L.L--'-l0=-'.OO:-:1-----'----'---'---'----'---L--L..11,J.0
Fig.A5.1 Fvs. </>
From plot m = - 1.53

a = 0.774
Substitute back into laboratory data to calculate check values of F.
Check </> 0.092 0.120 0.165 0.205 0.268

Calculate F 29.8 19.8 12.2 8.7 5.80
If the true resistivity is 1.29 Qm and water resistivity is 0.056 Qm then

Ro 1.29
F = Rw = 0.056 = 23.04
</>= 0.109
1
If I = where exp n = 2
w
R/ = 11.84 Qm Ro = 1.29 Qm
11.84
then I = 1.29 = 9.18
Sw = [I1]0.5 = 0.330
If exp = 1.8 Sw = 0.292
Ifexp = 2.2 Sw = 0.365
Solution 5.2
(a)
Data values Calculated values
Log values GR FDC SNP C1LD R 1Ld V SHGB VSHDas: CPDIN

Shale 102 2.52 29.0 1100 0.91 1.00 1.00
Zone A 52 2.22 22.5 150 6.67 0.39 0.00 0.26
B 72 2.37 20.5 350 2.86 0.63 0.31 0.14
C 20 2.20 21.0 4650 0.215 0.00 0.00 0.25
Bul k density
grams/cc Porosity %
Correction
r-------T------
-0.5 0 +0.5
2.0 2.5 3.0 Sidewall
Fig.A5.2.1
Gamma ray Resistivity Conductivity
20 API units 120 Depth Ohms mlm Millimhos 1m
10 divisions lS"normol Induction conductivity
o 40" spacing
Radiation intensity
increases
o 4000 o
o 4000
Oil bose mud Induction resistivity 8000
Temp =226 0____ __19
0_____________ 1<2.0
I
I
I
,
I
I
I
I
:
I
I
I
I
I
I
,
I
\
" ... _--- .....
A
B ,,/
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
"
C
Fig. AS.2.2 '--_ _---"'"--'

,,
, .. I
2.0
Pr=1.0g/cc
2.2
Shale
Matrix
point
2.8
Fig. AS.2.3 () '"

Density/SNP crossplot. Sidewall neutron apparent limestone porosity (%)
(b) For zone C, point plots close to clean sandstone line with cJ> = 0.25. Assuming C to be water bearing
Ro = FRw = 1/cJ>2 . {Rw}
Rw = cJ>2Ro = 0.262 X 0.215 = 0.0145 (taking R 1Ld as Ro)
(c) Shale values are listed above.
(d) GRclean = 20, GRshale = 102

GR - GRclean GR-20
VshGR = - - - - - - - -
GRshale - GRclean 82
VshGR values calculated are tabulated above.
(e) See Fig. A5.2.3 for shale point. Only level B shows a significant displacement from clean line. Graphically Vsh for
zone B = XB/XS = 1.25/4 = 0.31.
(f) Taking the minimum shale indication (from DIN) gives only B as shaly. Presumably there are radioactive minerals in
the sands (such as feldspar) so the GR overestimates shale content.
As above graphically for level B, Vsh = 0.31. The porosity is given by point Yon the clean sandstone line where BY
is parallel to the matrix shale line, i.e. cJ> = 0.14. The graphical construction is complicated by the curve on the
sandstone line. More rigorously convert density and neutron values to sandstone matrix cJ>D = 16.5, cJ>N = 24.2. cJ>NSH
= 32, cJ>DSH = 7.5, cJ> = cJ>N - V SH cJ>NSH, cJ> = cJ>D - VSH cJ>DSH
Solving the equations for unknown VSH
cJ>N - cJ>D 24.2 - 16.5
V SH = = = 0.31
cJ>NSH - cJ>DSH 32 - 7.5
cJ> = cJ>N - VSHcJ>NSH = 24.2 - 0.31 x 7.5 = 0.14

(g) Saturation calculations
LevIe! eq)uatiO:S reduce ()VSH / Rw 1 '\ /0.0145

:·Rr = FRw ·Sw :.Sw= VR; V6.67 =0.18 0.26
Level B with n =2, Rw =0.0145, R =2.86, RSH =0.91, V SH =0.31, =0.14.

t </>
Archie
.Sw' :. 0.35 1.352 S.'

:. Sw = 0.51
S.' + :. 035 I.352S.' + 0341

:. Sw = 0.082
Si)mandzoux(VSH ) . _ z
R - FR . Sw + R . Sw .. 0.35 - 1.352 Sw + 0. 341Sw
t w SH . .
Solvmg quadratIc + ve root only
:. Sw = 0.376
Poupon and Leveaux (Indonesia)

1 1 V SH (1-VsH/2)
'I!Rr = YFRw Sw + VRsH . Sw
:. 0.592 = 1.163 Sw + 390 Sw
:. Sw =0.38
where
1 1 1
-=-
Rt 2.86 VRt V (1-VsHI2)
V SH = 0.341 ; VSH(l - VSH/2) = 0.372; = 0.390
RSH SH
1 1
FRw = Rw = 1.352 ; YFRw= 1.163
Thus the modified Simandoux and Indonesia equations give similar Sw's which are less than the Archie Sw. The shale
conductance in the basic Simandoux is already near to the measured conductance so the solution gives an unlikely
optimistic value for a shaly sand.
Solution 5.3
Waxman and Thomas equation with a = 1, m = 2, n = 2

2+BQv Sw
Rt FR w Sw F
= -1 { -1 Sw 2 + BQvSw )
F Rw
BQv = 0.046 x 0.3 mho.cm2 .meq-!.meq/cc

= 0.0138 mho cm-! or ohm-! cm-!
= 100 x 0.0138 = 1.38 ohm-) m- l
1 1
:. Rt = F (10 Sw 2 + 1.38 Sw)
F= = 1/0.262 = 14.79 R t = 5
:. 0.2 = 0.0676 (10 S} + 1.38 Sw)
= 0.676 S} + 0.0933 Sw
:.0.676 Sw 2 + 0.0933 Sw - 0.2 = 0
Solving the quadratic
_ (-0.0933 ± \1[0.0933 2 - 4.676 . ( -0.2) 1) = 0.4
Sw - 2(0.676)
'\ 1FRw
(see Archie solution, Sw = VIi; = 0.544)
Modified Simandoux model
2 VSH
Rt FRw Sw + RSH . Sw
Comparing with the Waxman Thomas equation
BQv VSH BQv

p= RSH :. VSH=RsHp
1.5 X 1.38
VSH = 14.79 = 0.140
i.e. it would take 14% shale with resistivity 1.5 ohm-m to get the same result as the Waxman Thomas equation
.. ! 2 VSH.. _ 0.0676 2 0.14
BaslcSlmandoux R t - FRw Sw + RSH , .. 0.2 - 0.1 Sw + 1.5
0.2 = 0.676 Sw2 + 0.0933
1 1[0.2 - 0.0933]
Sw = V 0.676 = 0.397
Solution 5.4
(a) Prove
From Darcy's law:
-kA JP
q=---
!.t Jx
Assuming Boyle's law:
3000ff
QscPo = qP and Po = 1 atm.
Hence:
-kA JP 1000 ft:-I______----'
Qsc = -
!.t
P-
Jx
kA p/- P12
orQsc =-; 2L
Qsc!.t2 L
(b) k = A(P12 - p/)
6.2 x 2 x 0.018 x 2.54
XX
=0.2D
127' - 1)
Solution 5.5
The problem requires correction of pressure so that the linear Darcy law can be used. In field units:
kAAP
q = 1.127 X lO-3 - ; BBLIdL
Assuming average water gradient of 0.45 psi/ft (0.433 x 1.038) and referring to a HWC datum of 5250 ft SS, static
pressure at the outcrop is:
PS2so = 0.45 x 5250 = 2362.5 psi
But pressure = 1450 psi at 5250
3 750 x 3000 x 65 (2362.5 - 1450)
Hence, q = 1.127 x lO- x 1 x 52 800 --\
_------- j Poutcrop
q = 2848.5 BBLId
---------- ----------
P HWC . : : : : / / / - / f Poutcrop at HWC datum
....."";------10 miles - - - - "
Solution 5.6
Using the equation:
Qsc 2 ilL (6.4/60) x 2 x 0.018 x 2.54
k = A(P I2 - pl)
3t 1.272 (760
(861)2 - 12)
Sc for rate 1 = 0.0068 D = 6.8 mD

Scfor rate 2 = 6.02mD
Scforrate 3 =5.0mD
This is because of the Klinkenberg effect.
Plotting k against 11Pmean gives k L as 11Pmean 0 as 3 mD.
Solution 5.7
Assume cross-sectional area A.
dh
q = -A dt where q is flow rate and h is current height measured from bottom of core plug.
Flow across core is:
-kA I1P
q=--
Il L
But I1P = datum correction pressure difference, so:
-kA pgh dh
q=--=-A-
Il L dt
so- J
L dh kPg'Jt
- = - dt
h
ho
ilL
0
-J
ho kpg'
or log., It = L t ho ho
so k = IlL
Il
(holh)] = ilL
(lOge -h2 - loge hI
pg' pg' I1 t
Note: pg' has to be in units such that pg' h = atm.
1 x 2 X 106 loge84 -loge 15.5
Hence k = 1.02 x 981 x 4500
=0.8D
Note: a plot of log.,h against t would be best.
Solution 5.8
50
Poil = 50 lb/fe = .144 psi/ft = 0.3472 psi/ft
(a) Correct well pressures to 5750 ft = 1750 + 0.3472 x 750

= 2010.4 psi
(b) Flowing gradient
kA I1P
q = -;- L 1.127 X 10-3
I1P = qllL 1000 x 1.135 x 7 x 3000

1.127 X 10-3 x k x A = 1.127 X 10-3 x 150 x 150 x 1000
= 94 psi
So, Powc = 2010.4 + 94 = 2104.4 psi

PV res = 3000 X 1000 X 150 X cp
Equating production Vp = VTc· llP, then
3000 X 1000 X 150 x 
PVaquifer = (2104.4 _ 500) 3 X 10-6 = 93.5 X 109 x ft3
Solution 5.9
Q k dP
Darcy's equation A = - -; dx for non-compressible flow
(a) Linear beds - parallel flow P,

Q = qi + q2 + q3
Assume infinitely thin barriers between layers q, ---fIto-\
Q
llP llP - -... Q
Q=qI+q2+" .=kIAIf..tL +k2A 2 f..tL + ... k,
llP
=k'A-
f..tL
where k' is the apparent permeability and A the total area.
Hencek'A = kiAI + k2A2 + ...
n
Lk;A;
Therefore k' =
LA;
I
or if beds all same width = fLkh·

(b) Series flow
Assume equal areas P, P2 P2 P3 P3 p.

Al =A2
q, = qi
=. - .
= q2 = q3 - ..
o D B B
Now PI - P4 = (PI - P2 ) + (P2 - P3 ) + (P3 - P4 ) ..•
L, L2
Using Darcy's law
L f..t LI f..t L2 f..t
qtAk' = qi Aki + q2 A ki + ...
Since flow rates, cross-sections and viscosities are equal in all beds
(c) Radial flow parallel

From the figure, it is noted that the same terms appear in the radial flow network as in the linear system.
2Jtkh (Pe - Pw)
Q= f..tln(re/rwJ
e - external boundary
w - internal boundary
-
-
hi qi k,
1
ht
-
h2 q2 k2
h3 q3 k3 j
The only difference in the two systems is the manner of expressing the length over which the pressure drop occurs. All
these terms are the same in each case.
"[k·h·
Therefore k' = - - '-'
hI
(d) Radial flow series

By same reasoning as in the linear case
k' = -
't In (r/rj_l)
j=1 kj
Bed Depth/ Horizontal permeability; mD

Length of bed
1 250 25
2 250 50
3 500 100
4 1000 200
For radial systems, wellbore = 6", and radius of effective drainage 2000' and bed 1 is adjacent to wellbore.
Linear flow - parallel, and radial flow - parallel, take data lengths as bed depths and bed lengths and radii to be equal.
Linear flow in parallel

k' = 250 x 25 + 250 x 50 + 500 x 100 + 1000 x 200 = 134.4 mD
2000
Radial flow in parallel
"[kh
k'=T
250 x 25 + 250 x 50 + 500 x 100 + 1000 x 200
k' = 2000
268750
k' = 2000 = 134.4 mD
Linear flow in series

2000 2000
-=80mD
k' = 250 250 500 1000 25
2s +50 +100+ 200
Radial flow in series
In (200010.5)
In 25010.5 + In 500/250 + In 10001500 + In 200011000
25 50 100 200
= 30.4mD
i.e. permeability near wellbore most important.
Chapter 6
Solution 6.1
Pc 0 4.4 5.3 5.6 7.6 10.5 15.7 35.0

Sw 100 100 90.1 82.4 60.0 43.7 32.2 29.8
h 0 33.3 40.2 42.4 57.5 79.6 119.0 265.3
Pc
(h = )
(Pw - Po)/144
- Crest
200 -
-
-
-
-
-
.e
150 r-
l-
\\-+-\-----samPle location Sw =0.31
I-
a;
\0
> I- o
... I-
c
100 I-
-
CI)
CI)
>
0
-
.Q
c -
"-----0-0
1:
c> -
'CD
:I: 50-
OWC at 33 ft relative
I J I I I I I I J
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Sw (fraction)---
Fig. A6.1 Saturation distribution.

Note that the oil-water contact is at Sw = 1.0, not at Pc =0.

At 100 ft above owe, Sw = 0.31 (135 ft relative)
- ISw dh
S =--
w h
From area under Sw against h curve:
Sw = 0.37
Solution 6.2
Sw 100 100 90.1 82.4 60.0 43.7 32.2 29.8
(Pc)O-w 0 4.4 5.3 5.6 7.6 10.5 15.7 35.0
(PdHg 0 65.1 78.4 82.9 112.5 155.4 232.4 518.0
f(J)=PcYf 0 1534.4 1847.9 1954.0 2651.7 3662.8 5477.7 12209.0
(PC)Hg 0 110.7 133.3 140.9 191.2 264.1 395.0 880.4
for25mD
and 0 = 0.13
Solution 6.3
For the laboratory data YkTcj>c = (150/0.22) 0.5
](sw) vs Sw relationship is calculated.
= 26.11 and using ](Sw) =
CJ cos
Vi
cj>
with CJ cos e = 72 dyne/cm the
] (Sw) = 0.363 Pc (Sw)Jab
1.0 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
o 0.363 1.451 2.176 2.901 3.445 4.862 4.968 5.984 8.341 36.27
](sw> CJcos e
At reservoir conditions PC(Sw)", =
v'kicj>
for CJ cos e = 26 and v'kTcj> = 44.72
Pc (Sw)", = 0.581] (Sw) and the reservoir condition Pc curve is therefore calculated as
1.0 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
o 0.211 0.843 1.264 1.685 2.00 2.823 2.886 3.451 4.846 21.07
For the reservoir specific gravity of oil and water given

Ap = (1.026-0.785)
= 0.241
The relationship between capillary pressure and height H above FWL is, in the units required, pc(sw) = 0.433 HAp
:. H= Pc(sw)
0.104
Using the threshold value of pc(sw) (= Pct) as the observed oil water contact, then
0.211
Howe = - - = 2 ft above the FWL
0.104
4.85
H TIZ = 0-- = 46.5 ft above the FWL
.104
Chapter 7
Solution 7.1
From Darcy's law modified for effective permeability in horizontal linear flow
qo!-loL qw!-lw L
Ko (s) = A I1P and Kw (s) = A I1P
o w
Assuming zero capillary pressure (Pc = 0 = Po - Pw) so I1Po = I1P w = I1P, and using Darcy units of eels for rate and
atmospheres for I1P, then:
q!-l [(4) (9) (1000)]
Ke (md) = I1P n: (3.2)2 3600
For oil Ko = (9.14)

qw
For water Kw = I1P (5.0)
Ko Kw
For Kro= Krw =
O(cw) o (cw)
90
Ko(cw) = 49.25 (9.14) = 16.7 md
15.0 1.0 o
19.8 0.452 0.017
25.1 0.30 0.025
32.1 0.20 0.049
41.0 0.12 0.075
54.9 0.05 0.156
68.1 o 0.249
These data are plotted in Fig. A 7.1
1.0 0
0.9
0.8
0.7
t 0.6
0.5
II
OA
0.3
0
0.2
0.1
I I
0.8 10
sw-
Fig. A7.1 Steady-state relative permeability.

Solution 7.2
For pressure maintenance, the oil rate in RB/D is
10 000 x 1.2765 = 12765 RB/D
The end points of the relative permeability curve are
K ro ' = 0.9 at Swi = 0.28
Krw ' = 0.7 at Sor = 0.35
The ratio Ilw is then calculated from the given end point mobility ratio of 2.778.
flo k rw ' flo flw krw' 0.7
Since M' = flw • k ro ' , then flo = M' k ro ' = 2.778 (0.9) = 0.28
The fractional flow curve can now be calculated for the horizontal reservoir:
1
fw = fk::
k }
1 + 0.28
l
0.28 0.30 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.60 0.65
o 0.082 0.295 0.708 0.931 0.984 1.00
A line tangential to the fractional flow curve from Sw = 0.28 gives the tangent at Swf = 0.4 (fw = 0.535) and the intercept
withfw = 1 at Sw = 0.505. The gradient of this tangent[dfwfdSwlswis 4.44.
From Buckley-Leverett theory the constant rate frontal advance of the 40% saturation front is:
q(t) (5.615) [df ]
Xflday = (A)(<I» dS w swf
(12765) (5.615) (4.44)

Xflday = (5280) (50) (0.25) = 4.82 ftlday
For a system of 5280 ft, breakthrough therefore occurs in 1095 days (= 3 years)
At year 4 the pore volume injected is
_ _4-,-(3_65...:.)-,-(1_2_7_65.:....)..:.-(5_.6_15..;...)_
=0.3PV
(5280) (50) (5280) (0.25)
and dflds] Swe = _1_ = 3.33

0.3
The tangent of gradient 3.33 to the fractional flow curve at saturations greater than frontal occurs at Swe = 0.45
dfw
(from a plot of dS vs Sw)·
w
At this saturation (Swe),fwe = 0.71, the reservoir condition water cut.

The average saturation remaining in the reservoir is given by the Welge equation as:
- foe
Sw = Swe + [dfwfdSwls we
_ (1-0.71)_
Sw = 0.45 + 3.33 :. Sw = 0.537
The factor is thus:
S -S .
RF = W WI = 0.36
1- Swi
Solution 7.3
The critical injection rate for gas is given in field units of SCF/D as:
4.9 x 10-4 k k r / A (Yg - Yo) sin a:
q SCFID = Ilg Bg (M - 1)
where Bg is in units of RBISCF and a: is negative for updip injection.
The density difference in terms of specific gravity is:

17 -48
Ay = 62A = -0.4968
0.5 (1.8)
M' = 0.028 (0.9) = 35.71
sin (-10°) = -0.1736
4.9 x 10-4 (800) (0.5) (8000) (100) (-0.4968) (-0.1736)
:. qcrit = (0.028) (35.71 - 1) (7.5 x 10-4)
= 18.589 MMSCF/D
The rate of injection proposed (15 MMSCFID) is less than the critical rate and might almost lead to a stable
displacement.
The oil rate expected prior to breakthrough is therefore:

15 x 106 x 7.5 X 10-4
Qo = 1.125 = 10 MSTB/D
Solution 7.4
1.0
O8 \
I Distribution after 0.5 yrs
t .
. :--1:."
0.6 \ I
i ./ Calculated frontal
iY position
i
0.4 i
i
0.2
i
j
---.l....-_!.-
I Initio I
distribution
Fig. A7.2 Saturation distributions
From the given data the saturation is plotted as shown in Fig. A 7.2
ql = 9434 rbld Dip = 6° 110 = 1.51 cp
h = 100' k = 276 mD Ilw = 0.83 cp
w = 8000' = 0.215
Ay = 0.04 A= 800 000 ft2
The fractional curv(e is calculated as [ ]1

fw = Ilw kro
1 + 1.127 X 10-3 qt 110 - 0.4335 Ay sina:
1+-·-
k rw 110
The results are shown in Fig. A 7.3
1.0
/ .....
I
0.9
0.8
0.7
•
t
/
0.6
-
0.5
0.4
•
/
0.3
0.2
0.1 /.
• ...,.. I I I I I
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Sw
Therefore:
Fig. A7.3 Fractional flow curve.
Sw 0.16 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.79
fw 0 0.036 0.127 0.344 0.64 0.88 0.98 1.0
Since there is no uniform saturation distribution initially a material balance solution is used:
(LlX)s"'j = 5.615 Aq, At [Afw

LlS
1 = 0.308 At [Llfw
LlS 1 for At in days
<P w S"'j w S"'j
2.5
2.0 t
1.5 ;-',
-(/)
1.0 -0
0.5
1.0
Sw
Fig. A7.4 Slopes of fractional flow curve.
The slope of the fractional flow curve as a function of saturation is plotted in Fig. A 7.4. Selecting saturations
ForSw = 0.79 ForSw = 0.75 ForS w = 0.7

t(yrs) X t (yrs) X t(yrs) X
o 10ft o 12 ft o 15 ft
0.5 10 + 23.5 = 33.5 0.5 12 + 36.5 = 48.5 0.5 15 + 56.2 = 71.2
1.0 10 + 47 = 57 1.0 12 + 73.0 = 85 1.0 15 + 112.4 = 127.4
2.0 10 + 94 = 104 2.0 12 + 146 = 158 2.0 15 + 225 = 240
At 0.5 years the saturation distribution is shown on Fig. A7.2 and is represented in 10' increments.
5.615 qt Llt )
( Note: <j>A = 56.22
Llx LLlx Swi Sw (0.5 yr) Llx (Sw - SWi) LLlX (Sw - SWi)
10 10 0.79 0.79 0 0
10 20 0.70 0.79 0.9 0.9
10 30 0.56 0.79 2.3 3.2
10 40 0.45 0.78 3.3 6.5
10 50 0.375 0.755 3.8 10.3
10 60 0.33 0.730 4.0 14.3
10 70 0.30 0.710 4.10 18.4
10 80 0.278 0.690 4.12 22.52
10 90 0.254 0.675 4.21 26.72
10 100 0.24 0.650 4.10 30.83
10 110 0.23 0.640 4.10 34.93
10 120 0.215 0.630 4.15 39.08
10 130 0.205 0.620 4.15 43.23
10 140 0.20 0.613 4.13 47.36
10 150 0.195 0.605 4.10 51.46
10 160 0.190 0.600 4.10 55.56
10 170 0.183 0.595 4.12 59.68
{ 56.22 - 55.56)
Interpolation :. X f = 160 + 10 59.68 _ 55.56 = 161.6 ft from owe
From Fig. A 7.2, at X f = 161.6 ft, Swf = 0.60
Solution 7.5
For the particular example the problem reduces to the following tabulation, numbering layers n, from n = 0 to n = N =
5, bottom to top. n 5
- _ 0.7n + 0.15 (5 - n) . -
Swn - 5
_ 0.5 k
,Krwn - _ _ _ , K ron - 0.9_
f. j . - _ 'hf'j
5 5
kj kj
5
where: L kj = 50 + 500 + 1500 + 2000 + 500 = 4550 mD.
1
n
f. k j
N
Lk·
n+l 1
5 5
n N
n L kj Lk· L kj Lkj krwn kron SWn
n+l 1 1 1
1
0 0 4550 0 1.000 0 0.900 0.15

1 50 4550 0.0110 0.989 0.0055 0.8901 0.26
2 550 4000 0.1209 0.879 0.0605 0.7911 0.37
3 2050 2500 0.4505 0.5494 0.2253 0.4940 0.48
4 4050 500 0.8901 0.1099 0.4451 0.0989 0.59
5 4550 0 1.00 0 0.50 0 0.70
The resultant pseudo-relative permeability is plotted as Sw n vs j(rwn and j(ron

ChapterS
Solution 8.1
Using the relationship h + 139 = 164/sinh x the saturation vs height relation is calculated as follows:
X (frac) 0.33 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.0

sinh x 0.3360 0.4108 0.5211 0.6367 0.7586 0.8881 1.0265 1.1752
h (ft) 349 260.2 175 118 77 45 20.8 0.55
Fig. A 8.1 shows the plot of water saturation and porosity as a function of depth. Fig. A. 8.2 shows the plot of isopach
value vs area contained within the contour. In the absence of a phinimeter to measure area use metric graph paper in a
simplified approach. Take 50 ft intervals from base to crest. Count squares to determine volume for each interval. Assign
appropriate value of 120
-
0
.J:l
C
.s::
CI 80
·CP
::I:
40
0
Water saturation (Sw)
Fig. AS.1 Sw and vs. depth.

Area within contour (acres)
Interval No. ofsquares Gross rock volume Saturation Porosity Hydrocarbon

(lffacreft) (Sw) (volume x UP
HHLs)
0- 50 46 115.00 0.875 0.160 16.73
50-100 35 87.50 0.70 0.178 36.25
100-150 26.7 66.75 0.57 0.197 43.87
150-200 21.5 53.75 0.49 0.215 45.72
200-250 17.0 42.50 0.43 0.234 43.98
250-300 11.3 28.25 0.39 0.252 33.69
300-350 3.0 7.50 0.36 0.271 10.09
L =401.250 L =230.326
Hydrocarbon in place = 230326250 BBLs reservoir oil
= 170 x 106 BBLs stock tank/oil
Solution 8.2
The oil in place at stock tank conditions is evaluated using the relationship
7758A h cjl So
Hoi
where N is in STB
A is in acres
h is in feet
cjlSo is a fraction
Hoi is in RBISTB
The recoverable reserve is N.(RF) where RFis the recovery factor (fraction). Deterministically, the minimum, 'most
likely', and maximum values are calculated as:
minimum 43 x 106 STB
'most likely' 116 x 106 STB
maximum 274 x 106 STB
The distribution functions of the reservoir parameters are shown in Fig. A 8.3. These data are interrogated randomly
using a Monte Carlo approach in the recoverable reserve calculation. The resulting cumulative frequency greater than a
given value plot is shown in Fig. A 8.4. The values associated with the 90%, 50% and 10% levels are as follows:
at 90% the recoverable reserve is at least 72 x 106 STB
100
.-i hne!
100
, Area
t
a.
I-'l
•
0
• .,
0\
100 100
\
\ 0\
• cf>So RF
t t
a.
I-'l
50 0: 50
I-'l
•
•\
0
100 100
cf>
t
\0
\
a. 50 50
I-'l
• •
0 0
Fig. A8.3 Distribution functions.

100
-0
.l!!
c
0 90
'ii
.E
c:
c 80
.,.....
C
70
c>
.!!!
., 60
=>
C 50
E:
£i
c
..c 40
.,a.
0
c>
c 30
.,
C
.,ea. 20
.,
C 10
:;
E
=>
u
20 260
10 6 STS----
Fig. A8.4 Recoverable reserves distribution.
Chapter 9
Kt Solution 9.1
to = <PJUr
with (a) to = 1481
(b) to = 14815
(c) to = 7.4 X 10-3
Solution 9.2
p;-p= [-+ 1
<PJUr
For (a) x = 4Kt = 4.2 x 10-3
as x is small
- E;(-x) = - 0.5772 -Jogex
= 4.895
Hence AP = 22.72 atmospheres
For (b) x = 0.4375 From graph - E; (-x) = 0.62
Hence AP = 2.875 atmospheres

For (c) x = 0.49 From graph - E; (-x) = 0.55
Hence AP = 64 atmospheres
Solution 9.3
From the plot shown in Fig. A 9.1, of P wi vs 10glOt
m = 18 psi/cycle
162.6 (500) (0.5) (1.7535)
ThenKh = 18
= 3960 mD ft
3960
KO=60=66mD
4940
m = 18 psi /cycle
4930
•
t
4920
."
•
Fig. A9.1 PwtVS 1091Ot.
Solution 9.4
f HAt) with the points in the table calculated, the slope is determined as
From a graph of P vs llog ---;;;:r
21. 7 psi/cycle ( = m).
For a reservoir rate q of 500 (1.454) rb/d (= 727 rb/d)
162.6q(..t
Then, kh = = 3800 mD.ft
m
For h = 120 ft then Ko = 32 mD.

The value of P{h' corresponding to a Homer time function of 3.16 is 4981 psi
4981 - 4728 32 )
S = 1.151 21. 7 10glO (0.135)(0.7)(17 X 10-6)(0.5)2 + 3.23
= +7
!!.Ps = 0.87 m S = 132 psi

4981 - 4728 - 132
Efficiency = 4981 - 4728 = 0.5 (approx.) t+!!.t [t+!!.t]
Data points for Horner plot on semi-log paper, P vs At or a plot of p vs log At on linear scales are as follows:
t = 60 x 24 = 1440 hours
Time (h) t+!!.t logJO P (psi)

!!.t {(t+ !!.t)/!!.t}
0.25 5761 3.76 4967
0.5 2881 3.46 4974
1.0 1441 3.16 4981
1.5 961 2.98 4984
2.0 721 2.88 4987
3.0 481 2.68 4991
6.0 241 2.38 4998
9.0 161 2.21 5002
18.0 81 1.91 5008
36.0 41 1.61 5014
48.0 31 1.49 5017
Solution 9.5
Examination of the data shows that: !!.P/day = 3 psi
Assuming 1 - Sw =0.7
We have NBoi = NpBo/(co).!!.P
and (co)e = 15 x 10-6/0.7 = 21.4 x 10-6
and Np = 500 bId. For Bo = Boi then
500 6
N = 21.4 X 10-6 x 3 = 7.8 x 10 BBL
Solution 9.6
Slope = 7 psi/cycle from Homer plot
Rate Q (MSCFID) (!!.p2) total 162.6 (q Bg) IA.
1 7290 42181 HenceKh = m
2 16737 126120
3 25724 237 162 0.00504zT
4 35522 391616 Bg = P BBLlscf = 0.00103·
Kh = 14 500 K= 72mD
Assume tflow prior to build up is 4.5 hours:
2 2_14241A.zTQ { )
NowPe -Pw - Kh InO.606re/rw +Sl
Time since P = 0.855 Q {8.93 + Sl}

shut in
Pe2 - Pw2
1 0.7404 2509.7 Or Sl = 0.855 Q - 8.93
1.5 0.6201 2510.7
2 0.5119 2511.3
2.5 0.4472 2511.7 Rate Q
3 0.3979 2512.1 1 -2.16 7290
4 0.3274 2512.5 2 -0.12
5 0.2788 2513.0 3 +1.85
6 0.2430 2513.2 4 +3.96 35522
D = AS/AQ = 2.16 x 10.4

S = -3.7
f3 = DhWw = 2.865 x 109
2.22510 15 KYg
48211
f3theoretical = <1>5.5 v'K = 1.80 X 109
This is order of magnitude agreement.
The inertial pressure term Ap2inertial is calculated from B as follows:

3.16 x1O-1ZygTzf3
B= 2
h rw
= 0.000185
Hence (Ap2)inertial is as follows:
Rate Q(MSCFID)
1 7290 9851 42181
2 16737 51928 126120
3 25724 122665 237162
4 35522 233906 391616
Comparison between the numbers shows that at high rates the inertial drop is over half the total drop, and that in this
case only the inertial drop is close to the total drop of the previous rate.
The AOF plot is shown in Fig. A 9.2 and when Ap2 is equal to Pe 2 (6.32X106psi2) then QAOF = 220 X 106 SCFld
AOF=
220mm SCF/D C B
-----------------e--------------------------------------------.
i
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
o'" I
I
n =0.65 [= distance AB] !

distance Be I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
tA
I
Fig. A9.2 AOF determination.

Chapter 10
Solution 10.1
Volume ofreservoir = V = 100 x (5280? x 500 cu.ft

Volume ofreservoir available for fluid = (1 - Sw) cj>V = Vr
= 0.65 x 0.12 x V
_ 2000 l520 _ 12
Vsc - 14.7 0.825595 - 15.6 x 10 SCF
(1) Assume no water influx,
Initial moles in place ni = Pi.RT

Vr = (PVi)
RT
Z, r SId
Vi - gas in place measured at standard conditions.
Abandonment moles left in place na =--n=

Pa Vr
Za r
(PVa)
RT
SId
- - -Pj = -Ps !1 V
Gas recovered !1n = -Vr (Pi
RTr Zi Za RTs
Recoverable gas measured at stan dar conditions
=Vr
-Ts
- (Pi
- - Pa)
-
TrPs Zi Za
500
At 500 psi, reduced pressure Ppr = 67 6 1. = 0.75 Z = 0.94
Vr TsPi Z, Pa)
Therefore recoverable gas =- T 1 - - -P
P
r s Zl Za I
_ X 12( 0.825 500)

- 15.6 10 1 - 0.94 ·2000
= 15.6 X 10 12 (1 - 0.219)
= 12.2 X 1012 SCF

12.2
Recovery factor = 15.6 = 78%
Solution 10.2
2nkoh 2nk h !1Pg
Radial flow of oil q0 = --B- Radial flow of gas qg = =..:::£.::B
flo 0 flg g re
log -
e rw
and if the capillary pressure gradient is negligible, and the pressure drop over the same radii are considered,
_ kgfloBo
qo - ko flgBg
To this must be added the gas evolved from solution in the oil.
The total measured gas-oil ratio will then be:
kg flo Bo
+ Rs
ko flg Bg
For the figures given:
(96)(0.8)(1.363)
(1000)(0.018)(0.001162) + 500
= 5005 + 500
= 5505 SCF/STB
Solution 10.3
We = Np B, + Bg(Rp - R si ) - N(B, - Bo;)

(i) At cumulative 1.715 x 106 BBL (P = 1600)
Wei = (1.715 X 106) [1.437 + 0.0015(878 - 690)] - 14.5 X 106[1.437 - l.363]
= 1.875 X 106
(ii) At cumulative 3.43 X 106 BBL (P = 1300)

We2 = (3.43 X 106) [1.594 + 0.0019(996 -690)] - 14.5 [1.594 - l.363]
= 4.112 x 106
At P = 1000 estimated water influx = 6.375 x 106 (from trend)
N(B, - B oi ) + We
Np=
B, + Bg(Rp - R si )
14.5(1. 748 - l.363) x 106 + 6 375 000
1.748 + 0.0025(1100- 690)
= 4.312 X 106 BBL
Solution 10.4
Total hydrocarbon in place = i:n: ,-2h<j> (1 - Sw)
9 750 x 0.17 x 0.76
3
= :n: (528W 5.615 = 4.54 x 109 BBL
Since bubble-point is 1850 psi, this must be pressure at any gas-oil contact.
Elevation of gas-oil contact above oil-water contact is:
(1919 - 1850) 144

43.4 = 229 ft
This is less than hydrocarbon column so gas-oil contact exists at 4031 ft SS

Height of gas zone = 750 - 229 = 521 ft
2
= r h = h = (520)3
2 3
Ratio gas/total 750 = 0.34
0.66 x 4.54 x 109

Therefore, oil in place = 1.363 = 2.198 x 109 STB
m = 0.5 (= 113 +- 2/3)

Material balance
Np[B/ + BiRp - Rs;)] - We + Wp Bw
N=
mBoi
(B/ - Bo;) + B. (Bg - Bgi)
gl
At 1600 psi:
B/ + BiRp - Rs;) = 1.437 + 0.00150(1100 - 690)
= 2.0520
m Boi 0.5 (1.363)
B/ - Boi + Bgi (Bg - Bg;) = 1.437 - 1.363 + 0.00124 (0.0015 - 0.00124)
= 0.0740 + 0.1429
= 0.2169
We = (2.052 X 3.1 X 108 + 31 X 106) - 2.198 X 109 X 0.2169
= 1.904 X 108 BBL
At 1300 psi:
B/ + Bg(Rp - R si) = 1.594 + 0.0019(1350 - 690)
= 2.8480
m Boi 0.5 (1.363)
B/ - Boi + Bgi (Bg - Bgi) = 1.594 - 1.363 + 0.00124 (0.0019 - 0.00124)
= 0.5937
We = 5.5 X 108 X 2.8480 + 55 X 106 - 2.198 X 109 X 0.5937

= 3.164 X 109
This is not simply linear with pressure but extrapolation is reasonably straightforward and water influx at 1000 psi is
estimated at 3.75 X 109 BBL
B/ + BiRp - Rs;) = 1.748 + 0.0025(1800 - 690)
= 4.523
m Boi (0.5)1.363
B/ - Boi + Bgi (Bg - Bgi) = 1.748 - 1.363 + 0.00124 (0.00250 - 0.00124)
= 1.0775 (denominator term)

N X + We - Wp Bw
denom.)
N=------'-----'--
P B/ + Bg (Rp - R si )
2.198 X 109 X 1.0775 + 3.75 X 108 - 63 X 106
4.5230
= 5.926 X 108
= 590 X 106 STB

Solution 10.5
. . . _ GBgi _ 120.7 X 109 X 6.486 X 10-4 _
Gas cap. OIl zone ratio m - NBoi - 300 X 106 X 1.3050 - 0.2
From PVT data the values of B o, Rs and Bg at 4300 psi can be estimated by linear interpolation as:
Bo = 1.228 RBISTB; Rs = 338 SCF/STB; Bg = 7.545 X 10-4 RB/SCF
From production data the value of Rp is calculated as GpfNp to give the following table.
Time pepsi) RpCSCFISTB) R.(SCFISTB)

1.1.80 5000 o o o 500
1.1.81 4300 o 21.9 550 338
1.1.82 4250 25.55 43.8 600 325
Using the relationship F = N(E T ) + We + WinjBwinj the following is calculated where:

E T = mEg + Eo + Efw
Units 1.1.B1 1.1.B2

(a) F = Np Bo + (Rp - Rs)Bg 106 RB 30.28 62.41
(b) Eo = (Bo - B oi ) + (Rsi - Rs) Bg RB/STB 0.0420 0.0435

RB/STB 0.2131 0.2302
(c) Bo;
(d) [c.$W + cf1 RB/STB 0.0061 0.0065

Efw = (1 + m) Boi t!..P 1 - Sw
(e) ET = mEg + Eo + Efw RB/STB 0.0887 0.0960
(f) We = F - N (E T ) - Winj Bwinj 106 BBL 3.67 8.06
Solution 10.6
The dimensionless radius ratio is:
r aquifer 81000
re = =--=9
D r oil zone 9000
The dimensionless time tD is related to real time by:
2.309 k t (years) 2.309 (707t)
tD = <l>ql, = (0.18)(7x 10-6) (0.4) (900W = 40t
The instantaneous pressure drops which at the start of each year are equivalent to the continuous pressure declines are:
Pi - PI 5870 - 5020 .
t!..Po = - - 2 - = 2 = 425 pSI
Pi - P2 5870 - 4310
t!..P I = - - - = = 780 psi
2 2
PI - P3 5020 - 3850
t!..Pz = --2-= 2 585 psi
The aquifer constant is:

U= 1.119 f<l>h c rb
U = 1.119 x 1 x 0.18 x 200 x (7 x 10-6) x (900W
U = 22841 BBLIpsi
From tables or charts for dimensionless influx at reo = 9 we have:
40 21
80 29
120 34
j=n-I
From We = U L APWD (TD - (Dj)
j=O
Wei = 22841 [425 (21)] = 203.9 X 106 BBL

We2 = 22841 [425 (29) + 780 (21)] = 655.7 X 106 BBL
We3 = 22841 [425 (34) + 780 (29) + 585 (21)] = 1127.3 X 106 BBL
Chapter 11
Solution 11.1
1 [0.00708 k kro h
PI=- 1
",,"0 In -re - 0.75 + S
rw
For re = 1500 ft
rw=0.5ft
S= +4
K ro = 0.6
h = 100ft
k= 1325mD
50
PI=-
!.to
0.5 5 50 500 5000

.. ------------------------------------------------
PI 100 10 1 0.1 0.01
Solution 11.2
The injectivity index is given in field units by:
0.00708 k k rw h
!'w In - 0.75+ s]
Assuming all other factors equal then
Solution 11.3
Use is made of the plot in Fig. 11.4 which correlates areal sweep efficiency E A as a function of end point mobility ration
(M') for different fractional injection volumes, VD.
Kw' !.to 0.4 3.4
M'=-·- =--·-=4
!.tw Ko' 0.4 0.85
The volume of injected fluid, in reservoir barrels, after 10 years is:
10 X 365.25 X 53 000 x 1.005
= 1.945 x 108 RB
The displaceable pore volume (= PV (I-SoT - Swi» is given in reservoir barrels as follows:
(4 x 5280) (1 x 5280) (98) (0.25)

5.615 [1 - 0.3 - 0.3]
= 1.946 x lOS RB
1.945 X 108
V D = 1.946 X 108 - 1
From Fig. 11.4 the value of EA corresponding to M' = 4 and VD = 1 is 0.7
Solution 11.4
For stable cone formation
= g' X (Pw - Po)
For (in psi), and cone height X (in feet) and density difference as specific gravities then
62.4
= 144 (1.01 - 0.81) 50
= 4.33 psi
Chapter 12
Solution 12.1
(a) In field units
1.25 (4000)
U= 70(1500)
0.0476 BID - ft3
The viscous-gravity force ratio is calculated from

2050 UItaL
R v_g = (
Po
_
Ps
) kh
2050 (0.0476) (0.5) (1500)
= (0.8 - 0.4) (130) (70) = 20
(a) (b)
Solvent
Oil
Oil
Regions I and n Region m

Region I : Single gravity override tongue
(c)
Region n : Single tongue but sweepout
independent of RV- G for given M
Solvent
Regionill: Transition region with secondary
fingers below main tongue
RegionN: Multiple fingers with sweepout
independent of RV- Gfor given M
Region N
Fig. A12.1 Displacement regimes.
For a mobility ratio, M represented by !1ot'1ls (= 25), Figure A 12.2 shows a breakthrough sweep efficiency of about 15%
and a flow dominated by gravity tonguing. (Fig A 12.1)
(b) In field units

1.25 (1000) 2
u = 30 (2000) = 0.0208 BID - ft
The viscous gravity force ratio requires an approximation of permeability as:

k=VKv·Kh
:. k = «1) (3»°·5 = 1. 73md
Then
2050 (0.0208) (0.36) (2000)
R v_g = (0.75 - 0.64) (1.73) (30)
= 5378
For a mobility ratio of M (IlJIls = 0.36/0.055 = 6.55), Figures A 12.1 and A 12.2 show a breakthrough sweepout
efficiency of around 50% and a flow dominated by viscous fingering.
100
>-
u
c:
Q)
·u
:::
-; 60
Q)
t-Regionill-i------Region N
0
0-
Q)
Q)
til M=6.5
.£:
CI>
:::J
e
.£:
0
M =27 Region N
E I-----Regionll---·I....• -----Region ill----------<-t-''-i
co
10 100 1000 10000
. . . .. 2050UJ-L L (B/O-FT 2 )(CP)(FT)
Viscous-gravity force ratiO (R V- G)' field units, _ 0 , '----,3:;--'-'----'--'----'
At kh (G/cm )(md) (FT)
Fig. A12.2 Breakthrough sweep efficiency.
Solution 12.2
The tie lines for the system join the equilibrium compositions of systems A and B in the two phase region. The
compositions are plotted in Figure A12.3
(a) The critical point (CP) is estimated where the limiting tie line becomes tangential to the phase envelope and has the
composition, wt%, 21 % surfactant, 67% oil; 12% brine.
(b) The point with the composition 4% surfactant and 77% oil is given on Figure A12.3 as point A. From the slope of tie
lines in this region the equilibrium phase compositions are AI and A2 with weight percents estimated as:
AI 10% oil; 10% surfactant; 80% brine
A2 97% oil; 2% surfactant; 1% brine
For an original 200 g mixture containing
8g surfactant, 154 g oil, 38 g brine
100% Surfactant
Wt%
\ Wt%
Brine Surfactant
100% 100t 100%

Brine 0 30 40 50 60 70 80 Oil
Wt%
Fig. A12.3 Ternary diagram.
The tie line ratios give:

wt of AI phase 3/13 x 200 = 46 g
wt of A2 phase 10/13 x 200 = 154 g
:. Composition of AI = 4.6 g oil
4.6 g surfactant
36.8 g brine
:. Composition of A2 = 149.5 g oil
3.0 g surfactant
1.5 g brine
(c) On Figure A 12.3 the composition 20% oil and 80% brine is shown at location B. A line from B to the 100%
surfactant point leaves the two phase region at location B', having a composition oil 16.5%, surfactant 17.5%, brine
66%. The oil + brine weight is 100 g and would constitute 82.5% of the mixture, so surfactant needed is 0.175
(100/0.825) = 21.2 g.
(d) On Figure A 12.3, location 1 is 10% oil, 40% surfactant and location 2 is 50% oil, 40% surfactant. They are in a
single phase region and the resulting mixture contains 30% oil, 40% surfactant and 30% brine, as denoted by
position 3.
(e) On Figure A 12.3, location 4 is 12% surfactant, 5% oil and location 5 is 20% surfactant, 77% oil.
The mixture weight is 200 g and contains 41 % oil, 16% surfactant, and 43% brine. It is shown as location 6. The
mixture is in the two phase region and equilibriates to compositions C and D on the equilibrium tie line through
location 6. The compositions are:
C: 58% brine; 21.5% oil, 20.5% surfactant (146 g total)
D: 94% oil; 5% surfactant; 1% brine (54 g total)
Solution 12.3
For conventional production
208.71AO. S
tJ.o In I - 0.964
700 (0.003541 (1000)(60»

= 161 rbld For 9 acre spacing and a 200 psi differential.
150 ... H2O':': (3») - 0964]
For thermal stimulation and steam injection a 5 fold improvement in flow resistance between producers and injectors
would lead to rates around 800 bid. To determine the steady state production/injection time at which such rates will lead
to 50% of the pattern volume being occupied by steam we can conduct the following analysis:
The cumulative heat injected into the reservoir, Q;, can be calculated from heat injection rate, using the mass rate of
injection Wi
tQi = Wi [ Cw fsdhLYdh
]
= qinj (5.615) (62.4) [C w (380 - 100) + 0.75 (845)]

The average specific heat, C w , over the temperature range 380 - 100°F is given by:
Cw = hw(Ts) - hw(Tres) 355 - 69
Ts - T res 1.02 Btullb m - degF
380 - 100
:. Qi = t· qinj . 322118 Btu
The ratio of latent heat to total energy injected, fhv is calculated from:
_ { Cw )"1 _{ (1.02 (380 - 100) )"1
fhv - 1 + fsdb LVdb - 1+ 0.75 (845)
= 0.689
Figure A 12.4 can now be used to estimate the thermal efficiency of the steam zone, Ehs , at different values of
The values of to are given from:
to = 4t MR h2
45]2 [0.75]
= 4t [ 35 (60?
= 0.00138t days or 0.504 t years
The following table may now be constructed usingfhv = 0.689 on Fig A 12.4.
t (yr) t(days) to
1.0 365.25 0.5 0.64 233.8
1.5 547.9 0.75 0.59 323.3
2.0 730.5 1.0 0.56 409.1
2.5 913.1 1.25 0.52 474.8
The volume of a steam zone, V., is in general given by:

QiEhs
Vs = 43560MR AT
1.0
W
.
.c:.
oJ
c::
0
N
E
c
2If)
0.6 fhv (ratio latent heat to
A
15 total energy injected) =
>-
()
c:: 1.O
-
Q)
.<3 0.50
;;:: 0.4 0.33
Q) 0.23
c 0.167
0.091
E
Q)
.c:: 0.2
I-
0
0.01 0.1 100
Dimensionless time, tD
Fig. A12.4 Thermal efficiency
For the case of 50% steam volume in the pattern of area A acres then
_
Qi - 0.5Ah
(43560 MR
E
AT)
hs
Equating values of Qi we obtain the relationship

0.5 (9) (60) (43560) (35) (280)
322118 qinj . t = E
hs
where t is in days
357817.5
That is
The injection rates needed to provide 50% pattern volume of steam at the following times are therefore as shown in the
following table.
t (yr) qinj(rblD)
1.0 1531
1.5 1107
2.0 875
2.5 753
These data may be further evaluated in terms of steam injection equipment capacity and project economics.
Solution 12.4
The wet condensate gas volume is obtained from the volumetric calculation:
Ah n </> (,5)
V = g
sc B .
g.
In terms of standard cubic feet this is:
Vsc =
1
s.
[It(3 x 5280? 300 (0.18) (0.75)]
gl
3.1937 X 1010
Vsc = B
g;
SCF
In order to find Bg; we need the super compressibility factor z which can be obtained from Fig 4.7 using the reservoir
condition molecular weight or gas gravity.
The oil molecular weight is given by

44.3 PL
Mo = (1.03 - PL)
141.5
NOWPL= API + 131.5 0 .75
:.Mo = 119
The weight associated with a stock tank barrel of liquid is given by:
W = (5.615 x 62.4 = 0.75) 5000 (0.58) (28.97)
+ 379.4
= 262.78 + 221.44
= 484.22
The number of moles associated with this weight is
5000 (62.4) (0.75) (5.615)
n = 379.4 + 119
n = 13.18 + 2.21
n = 15.39
W 484.22
:. MW(res) = -;;= 15.39 = 31.46
MW(res) 31.46
and Yg(res) = 28.97 = 28.97 = 1.086
i.e. Yg(res) = 1.09
From Fig 4.7, P pc = 620 and Tpc = 465
From reservoir datum conditions
4500 670
P pr = 620 = 726 and Tpr = 465 = 1.44
The dry gas volume
So, from Fig 4.7 z = 0.925
G -- [ 8.197 x 10 12] [5000/379.4]
15.39
Then:
(0.02829) (0.925) (670) G = (8.197 x J(p) (0.8563)
B g;= 4500 G = 7.019 X 10 12 SCF
= 3.8962 x
10-3 RCF/SCF
Similarly the oil volume
3.1937 x 1010
Vsc 8.197 x 10 12
Vsc = 3.8962 X 10-3
NX R = 5000
= 8.197 X 1012 SCF
N = 1.639 X 109 STB
Chapter 13
Solution 13.1
Using the relationship that the depth equivalent of the total head is equal to the sum of the depth equivalents of the well
head pressure and the well depth, then:
DT = D whp + Dwell
(a) From Fig. A 13.1 at a well head pressure of 400 psi then DwhQ = 3700 ft. Since Dwell = 6000ft then DT = 9700 ft. At
the GOR of 200 scf/stb the pressure at a depth equivalent of Y700 ft is read as 2400 psi.
(b) From Fig. A 13.2 at the bottom hole pressure of 1200 psi and GOR of 500 scflstb the depth equivalent Dr. is read as
8900 ft. Since Dwell is 5000 ft then Dwhp is 3900 ft. The well head pressure is read from the graph at 3900 ft as 360 psi.
Vertical flawing_pressure gradients (all oil)

Vertical flowing_pressure gradients (all oill
Tubing Size 4 in.I.D.
Producing Rate 2000 Bbls/day Tubing Size 4 in.I.D.
Oil API Gravity 35° API Producing Rate 3000 Bbls/day
Gas Specific Gravity 0.65 Oil API Gravity 35° API
Average Flowing Temp. 140° F Gas Specific Gravity 0.65
3 3 Average Flowing Temp. 140°F
Q;
Q;
4 4
0
0 0
0
$2 $2
.!: 5 5
.!:
.c .c
C.
c: C.
Q) 6 c:
..J
Q)
..J
6
7
7
8
8
9
9
10
10
Fig. A13.1 Fig.A13.2
Solution 13.2
The maximum production rate qrnax can be evaluated using the Vogel relationship, withp, the static pressure, i.e.
H.2 08
1 - 0.2 ] - 08 [= r
= 0.619
3315
therefore, qrnax = 0.619 = 5355 bid
Pressure in 100 PSIG
Verlical flowing_p.ressure gradienls (all oil)

Verlical flowing_pressure gradienls (all oil)
Tubing Size 4 in.I.O.
Tubing Size 4in.1.0.
Producing Rale 4000 8bls/day
Oil API Gravily 35° API
Gas Specific Gravily 0.65
Average Flowing Temp. 140°F
3 Average Flowing Temp. 140°F
3
Q;
0
4 Q;
0 4
$2 0
.S; 5 0
.t:: $2 5
"6>
c .S;
Q)
...J 6 .t::
"6>
c 6
Q)
...J
7
7
8
8
9
9
10
10
Fig. A13.3
Fig. A13.4
Verlical flowing_pressure gradienls (all oil)

Size 4 in. 1.0.
Average Flowing Temp. 140°F
3
Q;
4
0
0
$2
.S; 5
.t::
"6>
c
Q) 6
...J
10
Fig.A13.5
From Fig. A 13.1 to A 13.5 the different vertical flowing pressure gradient curves at different rates are found for 4 in.
tubing and a GOR of 200 SCF/STB. The total head depth is obtained as the sum of the well depth and the depth
equivalent to a tubing head pressure of 400 psig. The flowing bottom hole pressure equivalent to the total head depth is
recorded as a function of flow rate. It can be seen that the bottom hole pressure is essentially independent of rate at this
condition and is 2200 PSi[. (2200 ) (2200 )2]
Hence q = qmax 1 - 0.2 2600 - 0.8 2600
= 1400 bid
Solution 13.3
For a residence time of 3 min. the volume of oil in the separator will be:
(1000) (3) 3
Vo = (24) (60) = 2.083 m
At 40°C and 20 bar the volumetric rate of associated gas will be
V (1000) (95) (313.15) (1) 3
--II. = (24) (60) (60) (273.15) (20) = 0.06303 m Is
At separator conditions the gas density Pg is given by

(273.15)
Pg = 1.272 (0.75) (20) (313.15)
= 16.682 kg/m3
The maximum velocity equation is then used:
796 - 16.682]0.5
Umax = 0.125 [ 16.682 mls
= 0.8544m/s
Since cross-sectional area = volume ratelvelocity then for an interface half way up the separator we have:
n D2 0.06303
(2) (4) 0.8544
:.D = 0.4334 m
Total volume of the separator is thus twice the oil volume for an interface half way up the separator :.
Vsep = 2Vo
= 4.166 m3
Design length for LID = 3 gives
(4.166) (4)
3D = L = nD2
. 3_(4.166)(4)
.. D - 3n
:. D = 1.209m
and L = 3.627 m
Design length for LID = 4 gives
D3 = (4.166)(4)
4n
:. D = 1.099
and L = 4.396 m
In practice the separator design would be based on a standard size selected to be nearest the size calculated.
Index
Abandonment pressure 159 Capillary number 191,193

absolute permeability 102 capillary pressure 93
AFE (authorisation for expenditure) document 23, 24-S and residual fluids 111-12
Amerada gauge 147, 148 defined 92
API (American Petroleum Institute) gravity and oil density 14 capillary pressure data (given rock type, correlation 99
aquifer characteristics capillary pressure hysteresis 97-8
correlation with model 167 capillary suction pressure see imbibition wetting phase threshold
determination of 165-6 pressure
aquifers and pressure change 165 carbon dioxide in miscible displacement 195, 196
areal sweep efficiency 176, 182-3 casing a well, reasons for 2S
casing eccentricity 35-6
Back pressure equation 143-4, 221 casing selection 27
barrel 14 main design criteria 28
bedforms, grain size and stream power 242 casings 23, 25, 26, 28
biocides and injection water 229 caustic solutions 196
biopolymers 197 cementation problems 35-6
black oil reservoir modelling, uncertainties in 24&-7 chemical flood processes 196-200
black oil systems 42 choke assembly 146
blow-out 35 Christmas tree 36
blow-out preventers 34-5 coalescer 227
blowdown 210 Coates and Dumanoir equation 86
Boltzmann transformation 134 combination drive material balance equation 166
bond number 191 compaction drive 161
BOPs see blow-out preventers complete voidage replacement 173
bottlenecks 219 completion 28,29
bottom-hole sampling 52 completion for production (permanent, normal) 36
Boyle's law method and grain volume 73 composite cores 111
Brent Sand reservoirs 10, 11 compressibility 42-3,55
brine disposal 186 Compton scattering 76
bubble-point 41, 51, 53, 54, 55,159,220,221 conceptual models 233,245
bubble-point pressure 52, 54-5, 56-7,160,163,221 condensate analysis 208
in volatile oil reservoirs 211 condensate reservoirs and liquid drop-out 208
Buckley-Leverett theory 105 condensate systems 42
Buckley-LeverettlWelge technique 107, 109 condensing gas drive 194-5
cone height, critical 182
coning 181-2
core analysis
and permeability distribution 83-4
Footnote: Numbers in italic indicate figures; Numbers in bold routine 69-71, 81
indicate tables presentation of results 70,71
357
core data and palaeogeographical reconstruction 237-8 displacement principles 173-5

and recognition of sand body type 238 drawdown testing 138
core-derived data 68 drill bits 22, 32-3
core floods and surfactant testing 200 drill collars 23
core for special core analysis 67, 68 drill stem testing 145
core length and imbibition processes 110-11 testing tools and assemblies 145-7
core log 64,68 drilling, turbine versus rotary 33
core plug experiments, concern over drilling costs 23, 24, 25
laboratory-derived data 113-14 drilling fluid see drilling mud
core plugs 68 drilling logs 30
analysis on 65 drilling mud pressure, excessive 29
and effective permeability 109 drilling muds 22-3
and fluid saturation 93-4 control of 28-9
and oil saturation 193 main constituents 67
and permeability 81 drilling muds and cements, rheology of 29-30
and porosity 72 drilling optimization 32-3
and residual saturation 174 drilling, special problems in cementation problems 35--{i
core porosity, compaction corrected 131 pressure control and well kicks 34-5
core preservation 67-8 stuck pipe and fishing 33-4
core recovery, fluids for 31 drillstring 23
Core gamma surface logger 68 drive mechanisms 159
cores 62 dry gas reservoirs 41-2
composite 111 dual porosity systems 71,73
correlation with wireline logs 63,65,75 and gravity drainage 164-5
data obtainable from 63
diversity of information available 64 Early (transient) time solution 138
and geological studies 68-9 economic factors and oil production rates 180
and heavy oil reservoirs 202 effective permeability 102
residual fluid saturation and wettability 108
determination 69 enhanced oii recovery schemes and uncertainty 247
coring equity, distribution of, petroleum reservoirs 130-1
the case for 65 exploration well drilling 7, 8
conventional and oriented 66
of development wells 65--{i Faults, identification of 238
of exploration wells 65 faults (in-reservoir), effect on injection/production well locations
coring decisions 64--{i 180
coring mud systems 66-7 field processing 224
corresponding states, law of 44-5,47 filtration, injection water treatment 229
Cricondenbar 41 , 42 flash liberation at reservoir temperature 52-3
Cricondentherm 41 flash separation tests 53-4
critical displacement rate 177 flooding efficiency ratio 110
critical displacement ratio 112 flow equations, linear and radial 80-1
critical gas (equilibrium) saturation 159 flow string 145
critical production rate (coning) 182 fluid contacts 12-13
crude oil multiple 12
flow of in wellbore 221, 223 fluid flow in porous media 78-9
metering of 229 fluid pairs 93
processing 226-8 fluid pressure and overburden load 11-12
cushion 147 fluid pressures, hydrocarbon zone 12-13
cuttings logs 31 fluid saturation, laboratory measurements and relationship with
cyclic steam stimulation 205 reservoir systems 93--{i
fluids, recovery of by depletion 211
Darcy (def. )79 Forcheimer equation 143
Darcy's equation 79 formation breakdown pressure 30
data acquisition during drilling 30-1 formation density logs and interpretation of porosity 202-3
datum correction 79-80 formation density tool response 75--{i
deltaic environments, division of 238,240, 241,242 formation factor see formation resistivity factor
deltaic models, use of 238-43 formation interval tester (FIT) 148
deltaic system model 242, 244 formation resistivity factor 74
demulsifiers and heavy oil processing 228 formation tester (FT) 148
depositional processes and reservoir rocks 7 formation volume factor 14, 55
dew-point 41 two-phase 55--{i
dew-point locus 42 formation volume factors B 49-51
diamond coring 33 formation waters 14
differential liberation at reservoir temperature 53 fractional flow 104--{i
displacement calculations, validation of relative permeability data analysis methods 105--{i
for 113-14 effect of dip angle and wettability 175, 177
free water level (FWL) 12,95
INDEX 359
Gas cap expansion drive 163-4 hydrocarbon volume in place calculations 127-8
gas compressibilities 48-9 hydrocarbons, migration of (modelled) 93-4
gas condensate, critical properties of 210 hydrocarbons (commercial reservoirs),
gas condensate and volatile oil reservoirs, geological characteristics 62
uncertainties in 247 hydrostatic gradient, regional 10-11
gas condensate reservoirs 207-11
production methods for 209-11 Ideal gas law (and modification) 43
gas deviation factor Z 46, 47 imbibition processes
gas expansion during production 157 and core length 110-11
gas flow and gradient 159 liquid 104
gas flow and permeability 81 imbibition wetting phase threshold pressure 97
gas flow rate, measurement of 150, 229 in-place volume 122
gas formation volume factor 157 inflow performance relationship, 220
gas formation volume factor Bg 49-50 dimensionless, for oil wells 220-1
gas properties 45 for gas wells 221
gas recycling, gas condensate reservoirs 210 injection fluids, compatibility with reservoir fluids 183-4
gas reinjection 186 injection fluids, quality of 183-6
gas reservoirs, recovery from 157-9 injection water, viscosity of 184
gas viscosities 47-8 injection water treatment 229
gas-kicks 12 injectivity index 174,
gas-oil ratio 14,51-2,54,159 insert bits 33
gas-oil systems and relative permeability 103-4 isobaric thermal expansion coefficient 43
gas well testing 143-5 isocapacity maps 126
gases, behaviour of 43-4 isochores 124
gases, flow of in wellbore 221 isochronal testing 144
geological model, development of 237-8 isoliths 124
geothermal gradient and hydrocarbon generation 7, 9 isopachs 124
geothermal gradient and reservoir temperature 13 isoporosity maps 125
GOR see gas-oil ratio isosaturation lines 99
grain density 71 isosaturation maps 126
grain volume and Boyle's law method 73 isothermal compressibility 43
gravity drainage and dual porosity systems 164-5 isothermal retrograde condensation 42
gravity segregation and recovery efficiencies 164-5
gravity stabilization and reservoir dip 175
Kay's rule 45
Head loss in wellbores 221 kelly 23
heavy crude oil kick 34-5
characteristics of UKCS heavy crude oils 201 Kimmeridge Clay 7, 9
general classification 200 Klinkenberg correction 81, 82
Yen classification 200, 201 Kolmogorov-Smirnoff test 84
heavy oil processing 228
heavy oil recovery 200-2 Lasater correlation (bubble-point pressure) 55
heavy oil reservoirs leak off tests 30
examples of 201 Leverett J-function correlation 99
permeability increase and production improvement 204 light oil processing 226
production characteristics of 203-4 foaming problems 227-8
properties of 202-3 separator design considerations 227
and thermal energy 204-7 wax problems 228
and uncertainty 247 line source solution (fluid flowing in a porous medium) 134-5
heavy oil systems and thermal energy addition 204 development of 135-6
HKW (highest known water) 12,13 liquid drop out 208
homogeneous reservoirs and coning 181-2 liquids systems, generalized correlations 54-8
Horner analysis 13 lithofacies representation 125
hydrates 224 LKO (lowest known oil) 12,13
hydrocarbon accumulation and sedimentary basins 7 low interfacial tension (Iff) systems 193
hydrocarbon accumulations and formation waters 14
hydrocarbon exploitation, types of interactions 16 Material balance, reservoirs with water encroachment or water
hydrocarbon field 7 injection 165-8
hydrocarbon generation and geothermal gradient 7, 9 material balance calculations
hydrocarbon pore thickness (HPT) 126--7 generation of data 52
hydrocarbon pore volume maps 126--7 sources of error 168-9
hydrocarbon properties 47 material balance equation 158
hydrocarbon recovery, improved 191-211 combination drive 166
hydrocarbon reservoir fluids 15 gas cap expansion drive 163-4
hydrocarbon systems solution gas drive 161-3
volumetric and phase behaviour 40-1 material balance residual oil saturation 174
applications to field systems 41-2 mathematical models 233-4
mercury injection and porosimetry 73,96,97 oil saturation, local, influences on 191
meters 229 oil viscosity 56
microemulsion 198 oil-water contact (OWC) 96, 98-9
middle (late transient) time solution 139 oil-water systems and relative permeability 102-3
miscible displacement mechanisms 194-5 open-hole tests 145
miscible displacement processes 193 optimal salinity 198
miscible floods 194 orifice meters 229
applications 195-6 overpressure 11, 12
examples 196
miscible fluids, properties of 195 Packer 146
mobility ratio 104-5, 107, 175,176 Peng and Robinson equation 44
and polymers 197 permeabilities, averaging of 83
modelling of reservoirs 130-1 permeability 7, 78-86
models 233--4 and critical displacement ratio 112
mole (def.) 44 anistropy 82-3
Monte Carlo distributions 83--4
approach, probabilistic estimation 127 improvement 193--4
technique and recoverable reserves estimate 130 laboratory determination of 81-2
movable hydrocarbon formula (MHV) 130 ratios 104-5
mud cake 36 variation, effects of 106-8
mud circulation system 22, 23 permeameter 81
mud composition, general limitations on 67 petroleum
mud logging 30-1 migration of 9-10
mud systems, bland (unreactive) and core recovery 31-2,67 origin and formation of 7
multicomponent systems, phase behaviour 41 recovery 5
multimodal porosity 78 petroleum engineering
multirate data, analysis of 144-5 function of 1
multiphase flow, equations of 234-5 problem solving in 3
phase (def.) 14
Natural gas phase inversion temperature (PIT) 198
calorific value 226 physical models 233
dehydration 224-5 piston displacement, stratified reservoirs 107-8
onshore processing 225-6 planimeter 124, 127
sales specification 224 polyacrylamides 197
sweetening 225 polymer fluids 193
natural gas processing 224-6 polymer systems and adsorption 197
nitrogen in miscible displacement 195, 196 pool see reservoir
non-wetting phase fluid 94 pore fluid pressures 11
non-wetting phase saturation 102 pore pressure, significance in drilling and well completion 26, 28
North Sea, heavy oil reservoirs 202 pore size distribution 96-7
North Sea, hydrocarbon fields pore space characteristics and equilibrium saturation distribution
Beryl field 196 92-3
Brent field 196 pore volume compressibility 160
Buchan field 37 of reservoir rocks 203
Dunlin field 131,178 poro-perm data, validity of 242
Forties field 249 porosity 7, 71-8
Fulmar field 249-51 and permeability, relationship between 84-6
Magnus field 184 cut-off 124
Maureen field 187 distributions 77-8
Montrose reservoir (RFf data) 151 logs 75-7
Murchison field 125 main logging tools for 75
Rough gas field 123, 124, 126, 127 measurement of 72-3
Statfjord field 196, 245, 246 potential gradient 174
Thistle oil reservoir 122, 123, 125 pressure (abnormal) and d-exponent 25-6
North Sea, oil correlations, recent 56-8 pressure build-up analysis 139-40
North Sea, reservoirs, fluid choice for miscible displacement pressure build-up (testing) 149
196 pressure control and well kicks 34-5
North Sea, reservoirs and surfactants 198, 199 pressure decline, rates of 137
pressure depletion 210
ODT (oil down to) 13 pressure drawdown and reservoir limit testing 142-3
offshore production/injection system, pressure equilibrium, static system 12
principle components of 184,185,186 pressure gauges 137, 147
offshore system 21 (downhole), characteristics of 136
oil bank formation 195 pressure gradients and heterogeneity of reservoir pore space 129
oil density 14 pressure maintenance 173
oil flow rate, measurement of 150 pressure regimes, abnormal 11-12
oil formation factor Bn 51 primary recovery, oil reservoirs 159-64
INDEX 361
probabilistic estimation 127-8, 129, 130 reservoir rocks, characteristics of 62-86
produced fluids and offshore processing 184-{5 pore volume compressibility 203
produced water treatment 228 reservoir simulation modelling 233-7
producing rates (well inflow equations/pressure loss calculations) reservoir simulation and vertical communication 243, 245
174-5 reservoir temperatures 13
production costs, significance of 1, 3 reservoirs 7-18
production engineering, and well performance 220-1 areal extent of 122-4
production engineering described 218 residual oil 53, 191
production operations, influencing factors 218-29 influence of recovery mechanism 191, 193
production rate effects 180-2 residual oil saturation 192
production rates, technical and economic factors 219 average 174
production system 218-19 and material balance 174
production testing 150-1 measurement of 191, 192
productivity index (PI) 245 residual saturations 111-112
and inflow performance 220 resistivity factor see formation resistivity factor
pseudo-critical temperatures and pressures 45-7 resistivity index 74
pseudo-relative permeability in dynamic systems 115 retrograde condensation 208
pseudo-relative permeability functions 177,178, 243,245 reverse circulating sub 146
static 115-16 rotary table 23
pseudo-relative permeability
relationships and thicker sands 107
PVT analysis 52-4 Safety joints and jars 147
PVTrelationships, single and multicomponent systems 40-1 salinity and water viscosity 56
samplers 147
Radial equations in practical units 136 sand body continuity 180
radial flow in a simple system 134-5, 137 importance of 238,239-40
recombination sampling 52 sand body type
recovery efficiency, water reservoirs 168 effect on injected water and oil displacement 178-80
recovery factors and reserves 128-30 recognition of 238
recovery string 34 saturation distributions in reservoir intervals 98-9
recovery targets 191 saturation gradients 164
Redlich-Kwong equation 44 saturation pressure see bubble-point pressure
relative permeability 102-4,106-7 scribe shoe 66
effect of temperature 204 sea water as injection water 184
relative permeability seawater floods (continuous) and low surfactant concentration
data, laboratory determination of 109-11 199-200
from correlations 112-13 secondary recovery and pressure maintenance 173-86
improvement, heavy oil reservoirs 204 secondary recovery techniques 173
relative spreading concept 93 sedimentary basins
repeat formation tester (RFf) 148-50 and hydrocarbon accumulation 7
reservoir behaviour in production engineering 220-1 origin of7
reservoir condition worldwide 2
material balance techniques 160 segregated displacement 177
volumetric balance techniques 160-1 sensitivity studies 246-7
reservoir data, sources 14-15, 17 shaliness, effect of 13
reservoir (def.) 7 Shinoda diagrams 198
reservoir description in modelling 237-45 simulators
uncertainty in 245-7 applications 235
reservoir development, costs of3, 4 classification of 235,236
reservoir dip angle 175,177 single component systems, phase behaviour 40-1
reservoir flow rate, effect of 181 skin effect 140-2
reservoir fluid properties, negative factors 142
measurement and prediction of 43-9 skin zone 194
reservoir fluids slabbing 68
and compressibility 42-3 solution gas drive, analysis by material balance 159-63
nature of 14 solution gas-oil ratio 53, 54, 55
properties of 40-58 Standing-Katz correlations 46, 47
reservoir geometry and continuity 180, 238-45 Standing'S data (bubble-point correlation) 55
reservoir heterogeneity 177-80 STB (stock tank barrel) 14
reservoir mapping and cross-section interpretation 245-6, 247 steady state permeability tests 110
reservoir modelling steam flooding 205
analysis and data requirements 237 steam properties 206, 207
application in field development 248-51 steamdrive analysis, example data requirements 207
concepts in 233-48 Stiles technique 107-8
reservoir performance analysis 157-68 stock tank oil 54
reservoir pore volume and change in fluid pressure 42-3 and retrograde condensation 208
reservoir pressures 10-12 stock tank oil in place and equity
determination 130 Walther's law offacies 238

stock tank units 14 water drive and gas condensate reservoirs 209,210
stock tank volume 53 water drive reservoirs 167
Stratapax bits 33 recovery efficiency of 168
stratified reservoir analysis 106 water formation factor Bw 50-1
stripping 191 water influx 165, 166
structure contour maps 122 water influx, gas reservoir 158-9
stuck pipe and fishing 33-4 water injection 166, 178
summation of fluids and porosity 72-3, 74 water saturation distribution, homogeneous reservoir 96
superposition technique 140 water viscosity 56
surfactant concentration (low) and waterflooding 178, 179,180
continuous seawater floods 199-200 Welge analysis 106
surfactant flooding 198-200 Welge's equations 174
surfactant phase systems 197-8 well arrangements, dipping reservoirs 181
surfactant processes 197-200 well classification 20
surfactants 193 well description log 31, 32
synthetic 199 well drilling operations 20-3
sweetening, natural gas 225 well locations and patterns 182-3
well performance, radial flow analysis of 134-51
Tester valve 146 well productivity improvement 193-4
thermal energy 204-7 well test methods, applications of analytical solutions 136-9
thermal injection processes 204-6 well test procedures 145-50
thickness maps 124 data analysis 147-8
threshold capillary pressure (reservoir rocks) 95 well testing and pressure analysis 150-1
threshold pressure 94 well/reservoir responses, different reservoir systems 139
traps (structural and stratigraphic) 10 wellbore, altered zone 141
tricone bits 32, 33 wellbore flow 221-3
trip gas 34 wellbore inflow equations 174
turbine meters 229 wellsite controls and core recovery 68
wettability 175
Ultimate recovery formula see movable hydrocarbon formula change in 67, 196
uncertainty in reservoir model description 245-8 degree of 93
unitization 130-1 wettability control, in situ 112
universal gas constant, values of 43 wettabilityeffects 108
unsteady state relative permeability tests 109-10 wettability preference 93
USA, heavy oil resource distribution 202 wetting phase fluid 93
wetting phase saturation 94
Van der Laan method (volume in place) 128 wetting preference 175
vaporizing gas drive 194, 195 wireline logs, correlation with cores 63, 65, 75
vapour phase 42 wireline testing 148-50
vertical bed resolution 76 WUT (water up to) 13
vertical permeability variation and fractional flow curve 177
vertical pressure logging 148-50 Xanthan gums 197
Viking Graben area (N North Sea) 10
Vogel dimensionless IPR 220-1 Zonation 99, 131,242,243,245
volatile oil reservoirs 211 Forties reservoir 249
volatile oil systems 42 and geological core study 68-9
volumetric balance techniques 160 and histogram analysis 84
vugular carbonates and whole core analysis 69 and permeability distributions 84

SPE Nomenclature and Symbols PDF

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Appendix I

SPE Nomenclature and Units·

Standard letter symbols for reservoir engineering Gas volume

Specific gravity Oil densities

Recommended units: conversions

sPE SYMBOLS STANDARD original standards were published in 1956 following

Principles of letter symbol standardization nent part of a complex mathematical formula

Contrasting symbol usage

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

C ECQ capacitance q2e/mL2

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

R RRR constant, universal gas (per mole) mL2/t 2T

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

d DECE decline factor, effective

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Pe Pe PRSE external boundary pressure mlLt2

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

R RRR gas constant, universal (per mole) mL2/t2T

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Rp F gp, Fgop GORP gas-oil ratio, cumulative

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

s Laplace transform variable

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter feserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

npj Npj MOLPJ produced moles of component j, cumulative

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

transform, Laplace of y y (t)e-stdt

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

Letter Reserve Computer Quantity Dimensions

B. Subscripts alphabetized by physical quantity

Subscript de£mition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

Subscript definition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

Subscriptdeflnition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

Subscript definition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

Subscriptdeflnition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

SubscriptderlOition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

Subscript definition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

Subscriptdeflnition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

Subscriptdeflnition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

Subscript deDnition Letter ReserveSPE Computer

(b) For the design weight of casing (CWT) we have

(c) In the lower section we can check criteria: