Investigation of Various Wind Tunnel Construction

Abstract—Wind tunnels are large tubes with air moving

inside. The tunnels are used to copy the actions of an object in
flight. Researchers use wind tunnels to learn more about how an
aircraft will fly. The object to be tested is fastened in the tunnel so
that it will not move. The object can be a small model of a vehicle.
It can be just a piece of a vehicle. It can be a full-size aircraft or
spacecraft. It can even be a common object like a tennis ball.
Smoke or dye can be placed in the air and can be seen as it
moves. Computer simulation has reduced the amount of wind-
tunnel testing necessary, but the latter remains an important part
of the development process in the aerospace industry. This paper
briefly describes the fundamental and basics of a medium size
subsonic low-speed wind tunnel specifically design, construction,
application and developments. A very careful attention has been
focused to the design of the various types of wind tunnel, their
components and design. Discussion shedding light to the most
relevant technical aspects and an attempt is made here to present
some design improvements. Figure 1. Wind Tunnel Test Trend [3]
Keywords—Wind tunnel Model making, Geometric similarity, II. WORKING PRINCIPLE
Dynamic similarity, low speed wind tunnels, Wind tunnel Experiments in wind tunnels are based on the principle of
components. motion reciprocity according to which displacement of a body
I. INTRODUCTION relative to gas or liquid can be replaced by gas or liquid flow
Theory is incomplete and needs to be supplemented. around the body at rest. In mechanics, this is known as the
Experimental information towards solving aerodynamic Galileo principle and is applicable, strictly speaking, only to
problems could be obtained in a number of ways. Flight tests,
the case of a uniform rectilinear motion. Under these
rocket flights, drop tests water tunnels, ballistic ranges and
wind tunnels are some of the ways by which aerodynamic data conditions the stream force and heat effect on a body are
can be generated. With the help of well performed experiments identical in both direct and reverse motion. [3] Air velocity
even information of fundamental nature could be derived. through the test section is determined by Bernoulli's principle.
Majority of experimental data needed in aerodynamics is Measurement of the dynamic pressure, the static pressure, and
generated using wind tunnels.[1] Wind Tunnel is a device for (for compressible flow only) the temperature rise in the
producing airflow relative to the body under test. Wind tunnels airflow.
provide. Wind tunnels are used to determine aerodynamic III. MODEL MAKING, NON-DIMENSIONAL PARAMETERS
resistance forces of bodies, to investigate their stability and A. Geometric similarity
controllability, and to determine vehicle and building dynamic
One of the most important requirements of models is that
loads due to explosion waves and gusts. A special class of wind
there should be geometric similarity between the model and the
tunnels with heaters is used for estimating heat loads applied to
prototype. By geometric similarity it is meant that ratios of
the surface of the body in the flow and in developing heat
corresponding dimensions in the model and the prototype
protection techniques.[2] The development of wind tunnels
should be the same.
accompanied the development of the airplane. Large wind
B. Dynamic similarity
tunnels were built during World War II. Wind tunnel testing
Equally important as the geometric similarity is the
was considered of strategic importance during the Cold War
requirement of dynamic similarity. In an actual flight, when
development of supersonic aircraft and missiles. Since the very
the body moves through a medium, forces and moments are
first day, wind tunnels have been used to verify aerodynamic
generated because of the viscosity of the medium and also
theories and facilitate the design of aircrafts and, for a very
due to its inertia, elasticity and gravity. The inertia, viscous,
long time, this has remained their main application. Nowadays,
gravity and elastic forces generated on the body in flight
the aerodynamic research has expanded into other fields such
can be expressed in terms of fundamental units. The
as automotive industry, architecture, environment, education,
important force ratios can be expressed as non dimensional
etc., making low speed wind tunnel tests more important.
numbers. For example,
Although the usefulness of CFD methods has improved over
time, thousands of hours of wind tunnel tests are still essential  Reynolds number (Re) = Inertia force/Viscous force
for the development of a new aircraft, wind turbine or any other  Mach number = Inertia force/Elastic force
design that involves complex interactions with the flow.  Froude number = Inertia force/Gravity force
Consequently, due to the growing interest of other branches of The principle of dynamic similarity is that a scale model
industry and science in low speed aerodynamics, and due to the under same Reynolds number and Mach number will have
persistent incapability of achieving accurate solutions with forces and moments on it that can be scaled directly. The
numerical codes, low speed wind tunnels are essential and flow patterns on the full scale body and the model will be
irreplaceable during research and design.[3] Wind tunnels are exactly similar.[1]
important in making the new Ares rockets and Orion It is not necessary and may not be possible that all the
spacecraft. Ares and Orion are new vehicles that will take aforesaid non dimensional numbers be • simulated
astronauts into space. Not only the aerodynamics applications, simultaneously in any experiment. Depending on the flow
wind tunnels are also using now a days in Non-Aero regime or the type of experiments, certain non-dimensional
applications like in Civil Engineering, Automobile parameters are important. For example, in a low speed flow
Engineering, Calibration of instruments. regime, simulation of Reynolds number in the experiments is
important to depict the conditions of actual flight. In a high
speed flow, simulation of Mach number is significant. It may
even be necessary and significant that more than one non
dimensional parameter are simulated. The principle of
dynamic similarity is applicable in other fields of engineering
too.
IV. CLASSIFICATION OF WIND TUNNELS
Wind tunnels may be classified based on any of the following:
A. Speed / Mach no
They are classified as of low speed or high speed wind
tunnels .In wind tunnel parlance, high speed wind tunnels are
those operating at speeds where compressibility effects are
important. They are also classified based on the Mach number
of operation as subsonic, transonic, supersonic or hypersonic
wind tunnels. (having identical Mach number in a wind tunnel
and around the actual object is -not- equal to having identical
airspeeds). The critical Mach number corresponding to the
beginning of choking depends on "obstruction", i.e., the cross
section of model and its suspension relative to the cross-section
area of the working section.
B. Mode of operation
Pressure storage, in-draft or Pressure vacuum type.
C. Kind of test section (T.S)
Open, Closed or Semi enclosed.
Figure 2. Open Circuit wind tunnel [3]
Figure 3. Closed return wind tunnel [6]
V. LOW SPEED WIND TUNNEL
Low speed wind tunnels may be of open circuit or closed
circuit.
Figure 4. Schematic of an low speed wind tunnel [6]
Figure 4 shows an open circuit low speed wind tunnel. After
each run, the intake gets air fresh from the atmosphere. The
effuser of the wind tunnel is the part of the wind tunnel from
the beginning to the entry to the test section. The effuser makes
the flow ready for the test section conditions. The test section
provides the desired uniform flow conditions along and across
the section. It is important that the test section conditions are
controllable. Figure 1.2 shows a closed circuit wind tunnel.
Losses in vorticity, eddies and turbulence are unavoidable in
the tunnel circuit. If velocity is large, skin friction and losses
due to obstacles will be correspondingly large.[5]
VI. HIGH SPEED WIND TUNNELS
Experimental facilities for supersonic and hypersonic flow
regimes are different from those used at subsonic speeds. In
supersonic flows, the interest lies in simulating flow Reynolds
number and the Mach numbers in the test section of the tunnel.
In addition to these parameters, the total energy content (i.e.
enthalpy) of the flow also becomes important at hypersonic
speeds. The wind tunnels used in the Mach number range 1 to
5 are called as supersonic tunnels while the tunnels used for
higher Mach numbers (>5) are called as hypersonic tunnels.
The high speed tunnels can be of open/closed circuit type. The
open circuit wind tunnel takes the air from atmosphere and
rejects them to a vacuum chamber. In contrast, the same air is
re-circulated in a closed circuit wind tunnel. In the case of
subsonic wind tunnels, experiments can be performed by
running the tunnel continuously. But, when the velocity of air
in the test section increases, the power requirement becomes
very high because it is proportional to the cube of the velocity.
Thus, in many cases, it is preferred to run high speed wind
tunnels for a short duration and gather all the experimental
data in this short time period (~1-5s). So, such types of tunnels
are called as blow down tunnels. These tunnels operate
intermittently using high pressure tanks and/or vacuum
tanks.[6]
Fig 5. Hypersonic Wind tunnel [4]
VII. SHOCK TUNNEL
It consists of two major parts, the shock tube and the wind
tunnel portion. The shock tube portion consists of a constant
area tube separated by a diaphragm (generally, metal) into
regions of high and low pressures. High and low pressure
regions are called ‘driver tube’ and ‘driven tube’ respectively.
The shock tube works on the principle of using a high-pressure
gas in the driver tube to set up a shock wave, which propagates
into the low pressure gas in the driven tube at the instant of
diaphragm rupture. The propagating shock wave compresses
and heats the low-pressure test gas in the driven tube to a high
pressure and temperature, and also imparts the test gas a high
kinetic energy, with which it starts moving at a supersonic
Mach number behind the propagating shock wave. This shock
wave ideally travels through the driven section at a constant
velocity, and there exists a region of steady supersonic flow of
high temperature and pressure between the moving
driver/driven gas interface and the shock wave.
The wind tunnel portion of the shock tunnel consists of a
hypersonic nozzle that is attached to the driven end of the
shock tube, a test section at the exit of the nozzle where the
measurements are carried out, and a dump tank portion to
accommodate the gas. The shocked high pressure/temperature
gas from the shock tube is then expanded through the
hypersonic nozzle to the desired Mach number and velocity in
the tunnel test section. The ability of the shock tube portion of
the hypersonic shock tunnel to heat the test gas to the
conditions encountered in hypersonic flight makes it an
attractive tool for hypersonic flow research. The test flow
duration in a shock tunnel is in the range of 1ms.
Fig 6. Shock Wind tunnel [7]
VIII. WIND TUNNEL COMPONENTS
A. Test Chamber
The working section is, as a rule, shaped as cylinder with the
circular or rectangular (sometimes, elliptic or polygonal) cross
section. The cross section shape of the working section
depends on the type of body to be investigated in a wind
tunnel as well as on the applications. For instance, oval, round,
and rectangular shapes are most fitting for aircraft, rockets,
and optical observations, respectively. The first step in the
design of a wind tunnel is to determine the size and shape of
the test section. This choice depends on the intended uses of
the facility and, as will be discussed, is intrinsically linked to
financial resources available to build the equipment. The test
chamber size must be defined according to the wind tunnel
main specifications, which also include the operating speed
and desired flow quality. Test chamber size and operating
speed determine the maximum size of the models and the
maximum achievable Reynolds number. In the case of civil or
industrial applications, in most of the cases, a square cross-
section is recommended. In this case, the test specimens are
usually bluff bodies and their equivalent frontal area should
not be higher than 10% of the test chamber cross-sectional
area in order to avoid the need of making non-linear blockage
corrections.[7]
From the point of view of the pressure loss calculation, the test
chamber will be considered as a constant section duct with
standard finishing surfaces. Nevertheless, in some cases, the
test chamber may have slightly divergent walls, in order to
compensate for the boundary layer growth. This modification
may avoid the need for tail flotation correction for aircraft
model tests, although it would be strictly valid only for the
design Reynolds number.
B. Wind tunnel contractions
The contraction or “nozzle” is the most critical part in the
design of a wind tunnel; it has the highest impact on the test
chamber flow quality. Wind tunnel contraction serves a few
purposes.
 Enables velocity to be low at the location of
placement of the screens.
 Reduces both mean and fluctuating velocity
variations to a smaller fraction of the average
velocity.
 Reduces spatial variations of velocity in the wind
tunnel cross section.
The most important parameter of the contraction is the
contraction ratio ‘n’. The contraction accelerates and aligns the
flow into the test section. In addition to these benefits, the
contraction section is responsible to stretch vortex filaments,
which reduces axial but intensifies lateral turbulent
fluctuations Figure 3 shows a typical wind tunnel contraction.
Figure 7. Schematic of a wind tunnel contraction [10]
Although, due to the flow quality improvement, the
contraction ratio, N, should be as large as possible, this
parameter strongly influences the overall wind tunnel
dimensions. Therefore, depending on the expected
applications, a compromise for this parameter should be
reached. The length of the contraction should be
sufficiently small to minimize boundary-layer growth and
production cost but, long enough, to prevent large adverse
pressure gradients along the wall, originated by streamline
curvature, this phenomenon can lead to flow separation
Although, due to the flow quality improvement, the
contraction ratio, N, should be as large as possible, this
parameter strongly influences the overall wind tunnel
dimensions. Therefore, depending on the expected
applications, a compromise for this parameter should be
reached.
Figure 8. Honeycomb of Wind tunnel [6]
In most tunnels, the flow-conditioning section contains a
honeycomb, screens, and a settling duct. An example
honeycomb section is shown in Figure. The honeycomb aligns
the flow with the axis of the tunnel and breaks up larger-scale
flow unsteadiness. The screens cascade large-scale turbulent
fluctuations into smaller scales. These decay in the settling
duct, which must be sufficiently long to allow for sufficient
decay while minimizing boundary-layer growth.
Honey combs are effective in removing swirl and lateral mean
fluctuations. Incidental effect is to reduce turbulence. In order Diffuser
to restrain the boundary layer thickness and transition in to
turbulent boundary layer the cell length is usually kept within
5 to 10 times the cell dimension [Cell diameter or cell width].
C. Settling chamber
Once the flow exits the fourth corner, the uniformization
process starts in the settling chamber. Despite the difficulties
imposed by the large size of the contraction, a set of
honeycombs and screens has been incorporated in the design
of the settling chamber. Honeycomb is very efficient at
reducing the lateral turbulence, as the flow pass through long
and narrow pipes. Nevertheless, it introduces axial turbulence
of the size equal to its diameter, which restrains the thickness
of the honeycomb. The length must be at least 6 times bigger
than the diameter.
Although screens do not significantly influence the lateral
turbulence, they are very efficient at reducing the longitudinal
turbulence. In this case, the problem is that in the contraction
chamber the lateral turbulence is less attenuated than the Fig 9. Wind tunnel diffuser [6]
longitudinal one. If a better flow quality is desired, a E. Corners
combination of honeycomb and screens is the most Closed circuit wind tunnels require having four corners, which
recommended. are responsible for more than 50% of the total pressure loss.
D. Diffusers The most critical contribution comes from the corner 1
The diffuser in the wind tunnel serves the purpose of salvaging because it introduces about 34% of the total pressure loss. To
the kinetic energy of flow in the test section as pressure reduce the pressure loss and to improve the flow quality at the
energy. A well designed diffuser does this efficiently. In exit, corner vanes must be added. Figure 6 shows a typical
subsonic wind tunnels, the diffusers are diverging passages wind tunnel corner, including the geometrical parameters and
with a semi divergence angle of about 7.5 to 8.0 degrees. From the positioning of corner vanes. The corner radius is another
Bernoulli’s equation it can be said that a decrease of kinetic design parameter and it is normally proportional to the width
energy per unit mass, there is a corresponding increase in at the corner entrance. The radius will be identical for the
pressure energy. The pressure gradient in a subsonic diverging corner vanes.
passage is adverse. It is difficult to avoid boundary layer
thickening and flow separation. Hence, the conversion of
kinetic energy into pressure energy is never fully efficient.
The main function of diffusers is to recover static pressure in
order to increase the wind tunnel efficiency and, of course, to Corners
close the circuit. For that reason, and some other discussed
later, it is important to maintain the flow attachment for
pressure recovery efficiency. Figure 5 shows the layout of a
rectangular section diffuser.
Diffuser pays an important role in the test chamber flow
quality. In case of flow detachment, the pressure pulsation is
transmitted upstream into the test chamber, resulting in
pressure and velocity non-uniformities. In addition, diffuser 1
acts as a buffer in the transmission of the pressure disturbances
generated in the corner 1. It has been proved that in order to Figure 10. Scheme of a wind tunnel corner, including vanes,
avoid flow detachment, the maximum semi-opening angle in flaps and nomenclature.
the diffuser has to be smaller than 3.5°. On the other hand, it is
important to reduce as much as possible the dynamic pressure The corner vanes spacing is another important design
at the entrance of the corner 1, in order to minimize the parameter. When the number of vanes increases, the loss due
possible pressure loss. Consequently, it is strongly to pressure decreases, but the friction increases. Equal spacing
recommended not to exceed the semi-opening angle limit and is easier to define and sufficient for all corners apart from
to design the diffuser to be as long as possible. corner 1. In this case, in order to minimise pressure loss, the
spacing should be gradually increased from the inner vanes to
the outer ones. The vanes can be defined as simple curved
plates, but they can also be designed as cascade airfoils, which
would lead to further pressure loss reduction. In the case of
low speed wind tunnels the curved plates give reasonably good
results.
F. Load cells
Load cells are used to measure aerodynamic forces and
moments from the wind tunnel. There are three load cells
which are termed as ‘Fore’, ‘Aft’ and ‘Drag’. The load cell
named as ‘Drag’ is used to measure or calculate Drag of the
body. The other two load cells are used to measure Lift. The
pitching moment is determined by multiplying the difference
of these two lifts by the arm length. Thus all the aerodynamic
forces and moments are determined.
G. Drive system
The drive system determines how the working fluid is moved
through the test section, being its selection dependent on the
medium and the operational regime for the wind tunnel. Fans
tend to work best with low-speed facilities and are rated by the
volume flow rate and the static pressure drop they can
overcome. This component generates a volume flow rate and
compensates the remaining pressure losses. For the blades
design, the Blade Element Theory can be applied with the
following parameters considered: number of blades, motor
speed, propeller diameter, spinner diameter, maximum
operational speed at pumping chamber, maximum available
power supplied by the electrical motor; and atmospheric
parameters: air density, ρ kinematic viscosity,ν and speed of
sound, a. [8]
Figure 11. Layout of Motor Driven system [11]
H. Gas Heater
In addition to the basic components, wind tunnels may have a
number of more specific components. Among them is a gas
heater arranged before the prechamber and various
straightener vanes and lattices regulating gas flow before the
inlet to the nozzle (a honeycomb or deturbulizing screen)
breaking down large vortices, reducing stream turbulence, and
eliminating skewness of velocity fields. The return duct in
closed-circuit wind tunnels makes it possible to save a
considerable portion of kinetic energy in gas stream behind the
diffuser. Gas storage vessels (bottles) can provide a high-
pressure gas supply both directly to the prechamber or
alternatively to multistage ejectors at the outlet of the diffuser
behind the working section. [4]
I. Exhauster
An exhauster is a fan creating vacuum. It can diminish
pressure at the outlet by nearly two orders of magnitude in
relation to that at the inlet with the flow rate of hundreds of
cubic meters per second.
IX. ENERGY RATIO
Energy ratio (ER) for closed return wind tunnel ≈ 6 to 10.
ER for open return circuit wind tunnel ≈ 1 to 2
Energy required (KW) = (13.3/ER) (V/100)3 (A ρ)
A = cross sectional area of tested object
ρ = density of fluid.
V= velocity of fluid.
From this ER equation, we know that it needs less energy to
run a closed return wind tunnel than an open return wind
tunnel. However, it will be more expensive to build a closed
return wind tunnel than an open return wind tunnel.
X. LOSSES IN THE WIND TUNNEL CIRCUIT
Losses are due to:
 Inefficiency of drive unit
 Skin friction, separation etc
 Loss of kinetic energy at the diffuser exit
 Shocks in the case of supersonic wind –tunnels
 Chocking [1]
XI. CONCLUSION
The main objective of constructing wind tunnels is to carry out
experiments on different types of bodies (specifically airfoils)
in the laboratory. If needed, wind tunnels can also be made to
include other parameters like flow visualization over test
specimens of different materials through smoke, installing six
force sensors for measurement of yaw, pitch and roll &
automation of tunnel for data Acquisition etc. It indicates that
wind tunnels are really of vital importance in fluid flow
engineering and its importance can in no way be denied when
practical implementation is needed.
XII. REFERENCES
[1] http://nptel.ac.in/courses/101106040/chapter%201
[2] http://www.thermopedia.com/content/1263/
[3] https://www.scribd.com/document/180440845/Bipin-Varghese-
112898003-Caliberation-of-Wind-Tunnel-and-Flow-Quality-Analysis-
docx
[4] https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/421b/184744529697c547d2f7e40a4463f
7fff870
[5] I.S. Jacobs and C.P. Bean, “Fine particles, thin films and exchange
anisotropy,” in Magnetism, vol. III, G.T. Rado and H. Suhl, Eds. New
York: Academic, 1963, pp. 271-350.
[6] http://www.thermopedia.com/content/1263/
[7] http://www.anu.edu.au/aldir/Canberra_Hypersonics/t3-hypersonic-wind-
tunnel
[8] https://www.google.com/search?q=shock+wind+tunnel%27&source=ln
ms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwja1dqst8DaAhUJro8KHVmIDigQ
_AUICygC&biw=1366&bih=662#imgrc=RMpAGzlggLC8AM
[9] Nathan Tatman, “Wind Tunnel Design and Operation”, a thesis paper
submitted for undergraduate degree, 2008.
[10] R. Nicole, “Title of paper with only first word capitalized,” J. Name
Stand. Abbrev., in press.
[11] Bell J. H., Metha R. D., “Contraction Design for Small Low-Speed Wind
Tunnels”, NASACR- 182747, April 1988.Harold Sherwood Boudreau
III, “Design, construction, and testing of an open atmospheric boundary
layer wind tunnel”, a dissertation presented to the undergraduate school
of the university of Florida, 2009
[12] https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-contraction-ratio-of-a-windtunnel