REPORT

ON

SUBMITTED TO:-
PROFESSOR SHREYA SARKAR
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING &
MANAGEMENT, KOLKATA

BY:
SAYANTAN DEY
CSE 2E-03
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING &
MANAGEMENT, KOLKATA

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Storage devices & its types--------------------3

2. CD-ROM its history & purpose--------------3
3. Structure & capacity of CDROM------------4
4. Physical attributes------------------------------5
5. Making OF CD-ROMS-------------------------5
6. Reading of CD-ROM---------------------------6
7. Writing (or recording) on CD-ROM---------6
8. CD-ROM XA extension------------------------7
9. CD-ROM drives & it’s working---------------8
10. Transfer rates-----------------------------------8
11. Copyright issues--------------------------------9
12. Advantages--------------------------------------9
13. Disadvantages----------------------------------9
14. Conclusion--------------------------------------13
15. References-------------------------------------13

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STORAGE DEVICES & ITS TYPES
A storage device is any computing hardware that is used for
storing, porting and extracting data files and objects. It can hold
and store information both temporarily and permanently, and can
be internal or external to a computer, server or any similar
computing device.
A storage device may also be known as a storage medium or
storage media.

I) TYPES OF STORAGE DEVICES

Optical storage, meanwhile, uses discs made of reflective material;
how each bit reflects light–or doesn't reflect it–determines
whether it's a 1 or a 0.
Optical storage devices use lasers to read the reflections in the
discs or "burn" the data pattern into the disks.
A CD-ROM is a pre-pressed optical compact disc which contains
data. The name is an acronym which stands for "Compact Disc
Read-Only Memory". Computers can read CD-ROMs, but cannot
write to CD-ROMs, which are not writable or erasable.
From the mid-1990s until the mid-2000s, CD-ROMs were
popularly used to distribute software for computers and video
game consoles. Some CDs, called enhanced CDs, hold both
computer data and audio with the latter capable of being played
on a CD player, while data (such as software or digital video) is
only usable on a computer.
_____________________________________________

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CD-ROM ITS HISTORY & PURPOSE
The CD-ROM format was developed by Japanese company Denon in
1982. It was an extension of Compact Disc Digital Audio, and
adapted the format to hold any form of digital data, with a
storage capacity of 553 MiB.CD-ROM was then introduced by
Denon and Sony at a Japanese computer show in 1984. The
Yellow Book is the technical standard that defines the format of
CD-ROMs. One of a set of color-bound books that contain the
technical specifications for all CD formats, the Yellow Book,
standardized by Sony and Philips in 1983.

STRUCTURE AND CAPACITY OF CD-ROM

I) STRUCTURE OF CD-ROM
A CD is flat, round, portable metal dish, which is coated with a
thin metal or plastic or other material that is highly reflective. It
is usually 0.75 inches in diameter and less than one twentieth of
an inch thick. It can hold up to 74 minutes (about 680 MB)of
data, uncompressed. This is roughly equivalent to 300,000
typewritten pages. Along with data, error detection and correction
codes are also recorded on the disc. This accounts for the
incredibility low error rate when reading CD-ROMs.

II) TRACKS AND SECTORS OF CD-ROM

For burning , first process is to format a blank cd rom.CD-ROM
drive creates a set of concentric rings, called tracks on each side of
CD. Tracks are divided into short segments called sectors. Sectors
are where data is stored physically.
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 III) STORAGE OF CD-ROM
The CD can store large quantity of data as series of tiny
indentations known as "pits", encoded in a spiral track molded into
the top of the polycarbonate layer. The areas between pits are
known as “lands". Each pit is approximately 100 nm deep by 500
nm wide, and varies from 850 nm to 3.5 µm inch. CD-ROM
capacities are normally expressed with binary prefixes, subtracting
the space used for error correction data. A standard 120 mm,
700 MB CD-ROM can actually hold about 737M. Scanning velocity
of the CD is 1.2–1.4 m/s (constant linear velocity) – equivalent
to approximately 500 rpm at the inside of the disc, and
approximately 200 rpm at the outside edge. (A disc played from
beginning to end slows down during playback.)

IV) PHYSICAL SPECIFICATIONS

According to industry legend, at least the original CD-ROM was
released in a booklet with YELLOW cover. Although each of the
specification have formal titles, they are generally referred to as
different colors of books. Specifications are classified by book
colors.

PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES
The base of a CD is a clear, hard plastic known as polycarbonate.
The CD is molded from a master that forms the pits and lands.
The top of the plastic disc is coated with a reflective material,
such as aluminum that reflects the light of the reading laser. The
entire disc is coated with a protective lacquer and a label is
printed on the top of the disc.
________________________________________________________________

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MAKING OF CD-ROMS
A compact disc is a deceptively simple looking device considering
the technology required to make it. CDs consist of three layers of
materials:
• A base layer made of a polycarbonate plastic.
• A thin layer of aluminum coating over the polycarbonate
plastic.
• A clear protective acrylic coating over the aluminum layer.
Some manufacturers use a silver or even gold layer instead of the
aluminum layer in the manufacture of their compact discs.

Since CD-ROMs are replicated in large quantities, the process

requires producing a “master” disc. To produce the glass master,
the encoder’s high power laser beam burns the pits onto a glass
disc that has been coated with photoresist.
• Once “burned”, the glass disc is then coated with an
ultrathin metal coating(usually a nickel alloy). Finally, it is
used to produce the metal stampers that are fitted into the
CD-ROM replication machines to press the final CD-ROMs.
After stamping the CD-ROMs, they are coated with the
reflective layer(usually aluminum), the protective lacquer, and
finally the label is printed on it.

The surface of a CD is reflective because the disc is coated with a

thin layer of aluminum or sometimes gold. The shiny metal layer
reflects the laser that is used to read or write to the device. A
layer may be screen-printed or offset-printed onto the lacquer.
Data is encoded by forming pits in the spiral track of the
polycarbonate(though the pits appear as ridges from the
perspective of the laser). A space between pits is called a land. A

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change from a pit to a land or a land to a pit is a “1” in binary
data, while no-change is a “0”.

READING OF CD-ROM
Data is read from the CD-ROM with the help of CD-ROM drive.
While reading a CD-ROM, a low power laser beam is focused on
the rotating CD- ROM and its reflection is viewed by the read
head. When the beam reflects back from the CD- ROM, it's
intensity changes as it moves from "land" to "pits". These
variations in the laser beam are decoded as data by the CD-ROM
drive. It should be noted, that unlike hard discs which rotate at
a constant angular velocity (CAV), CD- ROMs rotate at a
constant linear velocity (CLV) of about one meter per second.
This requires that the drives servo mechanism makes the CD-ROM
turn slower as the read head moves to the outer edge of the
disc.
PITS AND LANDS
All Optical media (CD, DVD, Blu-Ray etc.) have pits and
lands. These are microscopic and represent the binary
information of the data stored on the disc. A land is
reflective and reflects the laser into a sensor to register it
as a I, but when the light hits a pit, it shatters and no
reflection is received, thus a O is registered
To write 1’ & 0’s on CD, a laser beam is used. To write 1,
the laser beam is turned on, which turns a pit up to the
reflecting layer. To write 0, the laser beam is not turned on
& hence, no pit is burned. The surface when there is no pit
is called land.
Reading speed is measured in kB/s.

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Reading speed determines the transfer of data in one second.
1xor 1-speed which gives a data transfer rate of 150 kB/s in the
most common data format.
Maximum speed available today is 52x.
WRITING OF CD-ROM
• Step 1) Place a blank disk into the CD/DVD drive. An
options window should open similar to the one below.
• Step 2) Click the folder option labeled "Open writable CD
folder using Windows Explorer". With the folder open you
can now drag and drop files that you want written to the
disk into it. Windows will make a temporary copy of these
files and place them in a "staging area" until it is time to
burn the disk. At this point you can still change your mind
about any of the files if you decide you don't want them
burned onto the disk.
• Step 3) When you are ready to burn the disk click File and
choose "Write these files to CD".
• Step 4) The CD writing wizard should now open and
prompt you to label the disk. Click "Next" and the wizard
displays a progress bar indicating the status.
• Step 5) Click "Finish" if you only want one copy or check the
box labeled "Yes, write these files to another CD" if you
want to make another copy. Your CD should now be ready.
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CD-ROM XA EXTENSION
Compact Disc - read-only-memory,
extended architecture
CD-ROM XA was introduced in 1991 jointly by Philips, Sony
and Microsoft .

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Its Purpose
CD-ROM XA is a extension of the Yellow book standard for CD-
ROMs that defines two new types of sectors that enable it to
read and display data, graphics, video, and audio at the same
time.

I) INTERLEAVING OF DATA
Disks that use CD-ROM XA can mix standard data CD mode 1 and
mode 2 tracks, allowing the mixing of standard data along with
other types of data. The mode 2 tracks are further divided into
two types: Form 1 and Form 2. Between all these different
formats and modes, CD-ROM XA disks can store data, audio,
compressed audio, video, compressed video, graphics and others.
The mixing together of these different types of information is
called INTERLEAVING.
Using CD-ROM XA disks usually requires a drive specifically
certified to be capable of reading the CD-ROM XA format. In
many cases these disks include compressed audio or video and
often, drives capable of reading them will include hardware
decoders to allow on-the-fly decompression of the data. The drive
must also know how to handle the different data formats on the
disk, of course.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CD-ROMS DRIVES AND ITS WORKING
• CD-ROM discs are read using CD-ROM drives. A CD-ROM
drive may be connected to the computer via an IDE, SCSI,
SATA, FireWire, or USB interface or a proprietary interface,
such as the Panasonic CD interface, LMSI/Philips, Sony and
Mitsumi standards, . Virtually all modern CD-ROM drives can
also play audio CDs (as well as Video CDs and other data
standards) when used with the right software.

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 • CD-ROM drives employ a near-infrared 780 nm laser diode.
The laser beam is directed onto the disc via an opto-
electronic tracking module, which then detects whether the
beam has been reflected or scattered.

TRANSFER RATES
CD-ROM drives are rated with a speed factor relative to
music CDs. If a CD-ROM is read at the same rotational
speed as an audio CD, the data transfer rate is 150 KiB/s,
commonly called "1ד. In compact disc ( CD ) and digital
versatile disc ( DVD ) technology, X is a base multiplier that
expresses the speed with which data could be read (the read
access time) from the compact disc in its original version,
which was 150 kilobytes (KB) per second. As successively
faster CDs arrived, manufacturers adopted the convention of
indicating the read time in terms of the original speed. Thus,
a 2X CD had a read access time of 300 KB per second and
so forth. Our table relates each common drive speed to its
read access time. It also shows the range of revolutions per
minute (RPM) used to make the read access time possible.
There are only minor increases in read access time as one moves
from the 24X, 32X, and 40X drives. Higher rotation speeds are
(somewhat) prone to noise and vibrations and may cause
performance to vary from drive to drive.
It seems unlikely, because of these vibrations and performance
variations, that read access times will increase much above
present levels. Even though a hard drive can reach much
faster speeds of rotation, its enclosure stabilizes the entire
mechanism and therefore avoids much of the noise and
vibration inherent in the open CD-ROM drive.

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COPYRIGHT ISSUES
Software distributors, and in particular distributors of
computer games, often make use of various copy protection
schemes to prevent software running from any media besides
the original CD-ROMs. This differs somewhat from audio CD
protection in that it is usually implemented in both the
media and the software itself. The CD-ROM itself may
contain “weak” sectors to make copying the disc more
difficult, and additional data that may be difficult or
impossible to copy to a CD-R or disc image, but which the
software checks for each time it is run to ensure an original
disc and not an unauthorized copy is present in the
computer’s CD-ROM drive.
________________________________________________________________
ADVANTAGES
 Large storage capacity
• Up to 650 MB of data fit on a single 5-inch disc. (Smaller
than the original 5.25-inch floppy disk, a CD holds almost
2000 times as much information.)
• Portability
• The CD is a portable medium.
• Data cannot be changed
• A CD is read-only, which prevents accidental erasure of
programs or files.
• Sturdiness
• More durable than the standard 5.25-inch or 3.5-inch disks,
CDs are not magnetic media and thus are not subject to the
same dangers posed by proximity to electrical sources or
magnets.
• Special capabilities

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 • CD-ROMs are audio-capable, allowing special compression of
audio, image, and video data. They can be used to play
standard audio CDs and have the capacity to store and
record video data.
• Compact and light
__________________________________________________________________________________

DISADVANTAGES

• Impossible to spread one backup job over several disks. You

must make several backup jobs to solve this problem.
• The full 100% of a backup disk won't be used. At least take
into account a loss of some percents.
• not easily re-writable
Writing to CDs/DVDs requires the right CD-software like
DirectCD, not included in this program.
• If source items are selected which are system, hidden, or
read-only files or directories, then they will all become
normal, viewable and writable work files in the backup. If you
restore such files you must restore manually these attributes
if you feel it is necessary.
• There are limitations to the unregistered version. Up to
about 5 items and a total of about 50MB selected size per
normal project are allowed. Synchronized projects contain only
1 item in both unregistered and registered version; the
unregistered version has a limit of about 20MB for these
synchronizations. To get rid of this limitations go to the
registration section. Registered version allows more than
1000 items and more than 1 billion GB for each project.
• - Some external programs can possibly avoid read access to
some work files. If so, then close file and/or the program.

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 • Consumes a lot of data
• Data error is frequent
• It is large
• Can be broken if dropped
• slow writing
• Cost concern
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CONCLUSION
Compared to other storage discs or diskettes, a CD-ROM is
very rugged, long-lasting, secure medium for storing large
amounts of read-only information. CD-ROM is the most cost
efficient way to produce & distribute large quantities of
data.
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REFERENCES
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-ROM
• COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE 2nd EDITION-T.K GHOSH
• www.encarta.com
• http://whatis.techtarget.com

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