RIZAL TECHNNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

College of Arts and Sciences

Department of Biology

Animal Physiology
REPORT
Organization of the Vertebrate Nervous System
Animal Behavior

Submitted by:
Alyza Mae L. Mayo
CAS-02-801E

Submitted to:
Prof. Angelita P. Medalla

January 2019
OVERVIEW OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system contains sensors, integrating centers, and output pathways.
Sensory receptors convert the energy from incoming stimuli of various kinds to changes in
the membrane potential. Afferent neurons conduct these signals in the form of action
potentials to integrating centers such as the brain or ganglia. Interneurons within the
integrating centers process the information and send out signals via efferent neurons to
effectors such as the muscles and internal organs, resulting in changes in behavior or
physiological processes.

Figure 1. Organization of Nervous System

Most nervous systems are organized into three functional divisions: the afferent
sensory division; integrating centers; and the efferent division. Only the cnidarians (a
phylum that includes jellyfish and sea anemones, among others) have nervous systems that
depart from this general plan. Cnidarians are radially symmetrical animals with nervous
systems that are interconnected into a large web (or nerve net) with neurons distributed
throughout the body. In general, cnidarian neurons are not specialized but can function as
sensory neurons, interneurons, or efferent neurons, and can communicate synaptically at
several points along their length. Cnidarian neurons often form en passant synapses,
allowing information to be passed in either direction across the synapse. In fact, many
cnidarian neurons are functionally bipolar in that a stimulus at any point on the organism
triggers an impulse that radiates out from the stimulus site in every direction. Despite
having a seemingly simple nervous organization and no obvious single integrating center,
cnidarians can perform some rather complex behaviors.
For example, the sea anemone Calliactis parasitica attaches its tentacles onto a mollusk
shell and somersaults onto the shell, a behavior that involves detecting a shell, using its
tentacles to grab onto the shell, detaching its foot from the substrate, making coordinated
movements of the whole body to somersault up onto the shell, and reattaching its foot onto
the shell
GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF THE VERTEBRATE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system of vertebrates has two main divisions:
Central Nervous System (CNS): consist of the brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): consist of all nerves that carry information to and
away towards CNS.
Humans includes 12 pairs of cranial nerves, 31 pairs of spinal nerves, and the autonomic,
or involuntary, nervous system.
Most animals are bilaterally symmetrical; they have an anterior and a posterior
end and a right and left side. In bilaterally symmetrical organisms, sense organs tend to be
concentrated at the anterior end of the body, close to the mouth, and the relatively
unstructured netlike organization of the cnidarian nervous system is replaced by more
complex groupings of neurons. For example, bilaterally symmetrical animals typically have
one or more ganglia, which are groupings of neuronal cell bodies interconnected by
synapses. Ganglia function as integrating centers for the nervous system.

Figure 2. Organization of the nervous system in representative animal groups-The cnidarians

have a nerve net, while all other groups (with the exception of the radially symmetrical
echinoderms) display some degree of cephalization.
The vertebrate central nervous system is enclosed in a protective covering
Vertebrates are among the most highly cephalized organisms, and are unique in
possessing a hollow dorsal nerve cord, rather than the solid ventral nerve cord seen in
invertebrates. How the vertebrate nervous system evolved from an invertebrate ancestor is
still a matter of considerable debate, although it has been suggested that protostome (e.g.,
worm, mollusc, and arthropod) and deuterostome (e.g., vertebrate and echinoderm)
nervous systems evolved independently, from a common ancestor with a nervous system
similar to that of flatworms. One of the unique characteristics of the vertebrate nervous
system is that a portion of the nervous system is encased within a cartilaginous or bony
covering. This portion of the nervous system is termed the central nervous system, and is
composed of the brain (located within the skull) and the spinal cord (located within the
spine). The remainder of the nervous system, which is found throughout the rest of the
body, is termed the peripheral nervous system.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting of
the brain and spinal cord. The central nervous system is so named because it integrates the
received information and coordinates and influences the activity of all parts of the bodies
of bilaterally symmetric animals—that is, all multicellular animals
except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish—and it contains the
majority of the nervous system. Many consider the retina and the optic nerve (cranial
nerve II) as well as the olfactory nerves(cranial nerve I) and olfactory epithelium as parts
of the CNS, synapsing directly on brain tissue without intermediate ganglia. As such,
the olfactory epithelium is the only central nervous tissue in direct contact with the
environment, which opens up for therapeutic treatments. The CNS is contained within
the dorsal body cavity, with the brain housed in the cranial cavity and the spinal cord in
the spinal canal. In vertebrates, the brain is protected by the skull, while the spinal cord is
protected by the vertebrae.[6] The brain and spinal cord are both enclosed in
the meninges.[6] In central nervous systems, the interneuronal space is filled with a large
amount of supporting non-nervous cells called neuroglial cells
STRUCTURE
The central nervous system consists of the two major structures: the brain and spinal
cord. The brain is encased in the skull, and protected by the cranium. The spinal cord is
continuous with the brain and lies caudally to the brain, and is protected by the vertebrae.
The spinal cord reaches from the base of the skull, continues through or starting
below the foramen magnum, and terminates roughly level with the first or second lumbar
vertebra occupying the upper sections of the vertebral canal.
EVOLUTION
Planaria
Planarians, members of the phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms), have the simplest, clearly
defined delineation of a nervous system into a central nervous system (CNS) and
a peripheral nervous system (PNS). Their primitive brains, consisting of two fused anterior
ganglia, and longitudinal nerve cords form the CNS; the laterally projecting nerves form the
PNS. A molecular study found that more than 95% of the 116 genes involved in the nervous
system of planarians, which includes genes related to the CNS, also exist in humans.[14]Like
planarians, vertebrates have a distinct CNS and PNS, though more complex than those of
planarians.
Chordata
The CNS of chordates differs from that of other animals in being placed dorsally in the
body, above the gut and notochord/spine.[15] The basic pattern of the CNS is highly
conserved throughout the different species of vertebrates and during evolution. The major
trend that can be observed is towards a progressive telencephalisation:
the telencephalon of reptiles is only an appendix to the large olfactory bulb, while in
mammals it makes up most of the volume of the CNS. In the human brain, the telencephalon
covers most of the diencephalon and the mesencephalon. Indeed, the allometric study of
brain size among different species shows a striking continuity from rats to whales, and
allows us to complete the knowledge about the evolution of the CNS obtained
through cranial endocasts.
Mammals
Mammals – which appear in the fossil record after the first fishes, amphibians, and reptiles
– are the only vertebrates to possess the evolutionarily recent, outermost part of
the cerebral cortex known as the neocortex. The neocortex of monotremes (the duck-
billed platypus and several species of spiny anteaters) and of marsupials (such
as kangaroos, koalas, opossums, wombats, and Tasmanian devils) lack the convolutions
– gyri and sulci – found in the neocortex of most placental
mammals (eutherians).[17] Within placental mammals, the size and complexity of the
neocortex increased over time. The area of the neocortex of mice is only about 1/100 that
of monkeys, and that of monkeys is only about 1/10 that of humans. In addition, rats lack
convolutions in their neocortex (possibly also because rats are small mammals), whereas
cats have a moderate degree of convolutions, and humans have quite extensive
convolutions. Extreme convolution of the neocortex is found in dolphins, possibly related
to their complex echolocation.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The peripheral nervous system(PNS) is one of two components that make up
the nervous systemof bilateral animals, with the other part being the central nervous
system (CNS). The PNS consists of the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord.
The main function of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the limbs and organs, essentially
serving as a relay between the brain and spinal cord and the rest of the body. Unlike the
CNS, the PNS is not protected by the vertebral column and skull, or by the blood–brain
barrier, which leaves it exposed to toxins and mechanical injuries. The peripheral nervous
system is divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. In
the somatic nervous system, the cranial nerves are part of the PNS with the exception of
the optic nerve (cranial nerve II), along with the retina. The second cranial nerve is not a
true peripheral nerve but a tract of the diencephalon.[3] Cranial nerve ganglia originated in
the CNS. However, the remaining ten cranial nerve axons extend beyond the brain and are
therefore considered part of the PNS. The autonomic nervous system is an involuntary
control of smooth muscle and glands. The connection between CNS and organs allows the
system to be in two different functional states: sympathetic and parasympathetic.
STRUCTURE
The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system, and
the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system is under voluntary control,
and transmits signals from the brain to end organs such as muscles. The sensory nervous
system is part of the somatic nervous system and transmits signals from senses such
as taste and touch (including fine touch and gross touch) to the spinal cord and brain. The
autonomic nervous system is a 'self-regulating' system which influences the function of
organs outside voluntary control, such as the heart rate, or the functions of the digestive
system.
ANIMAL BEHAVIOR
Animal behaviour, the concept, broadly considered, referring to
everything animals do, including movement and other activities and underlying mental
processes.
Behavior can also be defined as a change in the activity of an organism in response to
a stimulus, an external or internal cue or combo of cues.

 Some behaviors are innate, or genetically hardwired, while others are learned, or
developed through experience. In many cases, behaviors have both an innate
component and a learned component.
 Behavior is shaped by natural selection. Many behaviors directly increase an
organism's fitness, that is, they help it survive and reproduce.
INSTINCT
A largely inheritable and unalterable tendency of an organism to make a complex and
specific response to environmental stimuli without involving reason.
Fixed action patterns
An important development, associated with the name of Konrad Lorenz though probably
due more to his teacher, Oskar Heinroth, was the identification of fixed action patterns.
Lorenz popularized these as instinctive responses that would occur reliably in the presence
of identifiable stimuli called sign stimuli or "releasing stimuli". Fixed action patterns are
now considered to be instinctive behavioural sequences that are relatively invariant within
the species and that almost inevitably run to completion
One example of a releaser is the beak movements of many bird species performed by newly
hatched chicks, which stimulates the mother to regurgitate food for her offspring. Other
examples are the classic studies by Tinbergen on the egg-retrieval behaviour and the
effects of a "supernormal stimulus" on the behaviour of graylag geese
LEARNING
Habituation
Habituation is a simple form of learning and occurs in many animal taxa. It is the process
whereby an animal ceases responding to a stimulus. Often, the response is an innate
behaviour. Essentially, the animal learns not to respond to irrelevant stimuli. For
example, prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) give alarm calls when predators approach,
causing all individuals in the group to quickly scramble down burrows. When prairie dog
towns are located near trails used by humans, giving alarm calls every time a person walks
by is expensive in terms of time and energy. Habituation to humans is therefore an
important adaptation in this context
Associative learning
Associative learning in animal behaviour is any learning process in which a new response
becomes associated with a particular stimulus.[24] The first studies of associative learning
were made by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who observed that dogs trained to associate
food with the ringing of a bell would salivate on hearing the bell.
1.1.1 Imprinting
Imprinting enables the young to discriminate the members of their own species, vital for
reproductive success. This important type of learning only takes place in a very limited
period of time. Lorenz observed that the young of birds such as geese and chickensfollowed
their mothers spontaneously from almost the first day after they were hatched, and he
discovered that this response could be imitated by an arbitrary stimulus if the eggs were
incubated artificially and the stimulus were presented during a critical period that
continued for a few days after hatching
Imitation
Imitation is an advanced behaviour whereby an animal observes and exactly replicates the
behaviour of another. The National Institutes of Health reported that capuchin monkeys
preferred the company of researchers who imitated them to that of researchers who did
not. The monkeys not only spent more time with their imitators but also preferred to
engage in a simple task with them even when provided with the option of performing the
same task with a non-imitator.[27] Imitation has been observed in recent research on
chimpanzees; not only did these chimps copy the actions of another individual, when given
a choice, the chimps preferred to imitate the actions of the higher-ranking elder
chimpanzee as opposed to the lower-ranking young chimpanzee
1.1.1.1 Stimulus and local enhancement
There are various ways animals can learn using observational learning but without the
process of imitation. One of these is stimulus enhancement in which individuals become
interested in an object as the result of observing others interacting with the
object.[29] Increased interest in an object can result in object manipulation which allows for
new object-related behaviours by trial-and-error learning. Haggerty (1909) devised an
experiment in which a monkey climbed up the side of a cage, placed its arm into a wooden
chute, and pulled a rope in the chute to release food. Another monkey was provided an
opportunity to obtain the food after watching a monkey go through this process on four
separate occasions. The monkey performed a different method and finally succeeded after
trial-and-error.[30] Another example familiar to some cat and dog owners is the ability of
their animals to open doors. The action of humans operating the handle to open the door
results in the animals becoming interested in the handle and then by trial-and-error, they
learn to operate the handle and open the door.
In local enhancement, a demonstrator attracts an observer's attention to a particular
location. Local enhancement has been observed to transmit foraging information among
birds, rats and pigs. The stingless bee (Trigona corvina) uses local enhancement to locate
other members of their colony and food resources
1.1.1.2 Social transmission
A well-documented example of social transmission of a behaviour occurred in a group
of macaques on Hachijojima Island, Japan. The macaques lived in the inland forest until the
1960s, when a group of researchers started giving them potatoes on the beach: soon, they
started venturing onto the beach, picking the potatoes from the sand, and cleaning and
eating them.[13] About one year later, an individual was observed bringing a potato to the
sea, putting it into the water with one hand, and cleaning it with the other. This behaviour
was soon expressed by the individuals living in contact with her; when they gave birth, this
behaviour was also expressed by their young - a form of social transmission
1.1.2 Teaching
Teaching is a highly specialized aspect of learning in which the "teacher" (demonstrator)
adjusts their behaviour to increase the probability of the "pupil" (observer) achieving the
desired end-result of the behaviour. For example, killer whales are known to intentionally
beach themselves to catch pinniped prey.[35]Mother killer whales teach their young to catch
pinnipeds by pushing them onto the shore and encouraging them to attack the prey.
Because the mother killer whale is altering her behaviour to help her offspring learn to
catch prey, this is evidence of teaching.[35] Teaching is not limited to mammals. Many
insects, for example, have been observed demonstrating various forms of teaching to
obtain food. Ants, for example, will guide each other to food sources through a process
called "tandem running," in which an ant will guide a companion ant to a source of
food.[36] It has been suggested that the pupil ant is able to learn this route to obtain food in
the future or teach the route to other ants.This behaviour of teaching is also exemplified by
crows, specifically New Caledonian crows. The adults (whether individual or in families)
teach their young adolescent offspring how to construct and utilize tools. For
example, Pandanus branches are used to extract insects and other larvae from holes within
trees
Mating and the fight for supremacy
Individual reproduction is the most important phase in the proliferation of individuals or
genes within a species: for this reason, there exist complex mating rituals, which can be
very complex even if they are often regarded as fixed action patterns. The stickleback's
complex mating ritual, studied by Tinbergen, is regarded as a notable example.
Often in social life, animals fight for the right to reproduce, as well as social supremacy. A
common example of fighting for social and sexual supremacy is the so-called pecking
order among poultry. Every time a group of poultry cohabitate for a certain time length,
they establish a pecking order. In these groups, one chicken dominates the others and can
peck without being pecked. A second chicken can peck all the others except the first, and so
on. Higher level chickens are easily distinguished by their well-cured aspect, as opposed to
lower level chickens. While the pecking order is establishing, frequent and violent fights
can happen, but once established, it is broken only when other individuals enter the group,
in which case the pecking order re-establishes from scratch
Living in Groups
Several animal species, including humans, tend to live in groups. Group size is a major
aspect of their social environment. Social life is probably a complex and effective survival
strategy. It may be regarded as a sort of symbiosis among individuals of the same species:
a society is composed of a group of individuals belonging to the same species living within
well-defined rules on foodmanagement, role assignments and reciprocal dependence.
When biologists interested in evolution theory first started examining social behaviour,
some apparently unanswerable questions arose, such as how the birth of sterile castes, like
in bees, could be explained through an evolving mechanism that emphasizes the
reproductive success of as many individuals as possible, or why, amongst animals living in
small groups like squirrels, an individual would risk its own life to save the rest of the
group.

TINBERGEN'S FOUR QUESTIONS FOR ETHOLOGISTS

Nikolaas (Niko) Tinbergen was a Dutch ornithologist, or bird biologist, who studied
behavior and is now considered one of the founders of the field of ethology. Based on his
own research, Tinbergen proposed four basic questions helpful in understanding any
animal behavior.

1. Causation—What causes the behavior? What triggers the behavior, and what
body parts, functions, and molecules are involved in carrying it out?

Example: Singing is triggered in zebra finches by social cues, such as the proximity
of a potential mate, as well as the appropriate hormonal state. The ability to produce
 songs is influenced by male hormones and occurs mainly in male birds. Songs are
produced when air flows from air sacs in the bronchii through an organ called the
syrinx. Certain parts of the brain control song production and are well-developed in
male zebra finches.

2. Development—How does the behavior develop? Is the behavior present early in

life? Does it change over the course of the organism's lifetime? What experiences are
necessary for its development?

Example: Young male zebra finches first listen to the songs of nearby males of their
species, particularly their fathers. Then, they start to practice singing. By adulthood,
male zebra finches have learned to produce their own songs, which are unique but
often have similarities to those of their fathers. Once a finch has perfected its song,
the song remains fixed for life.

3. Function/adaptive value—How does the behavior affect fitness? How does the
behavior affect an organism's chances of survival and reproduction?
Example: Singing helps male zebra finches attract mates, increasing the chances that
they will reproduce. Singing is part of an elaborate courtship ritual that entices the
female to choose the male.
 4. Phylogeny—How did the behavior evolve? How does the behavior compare to
those of related species? Why might it have evolved as it did?
Example: Almost all species of birds can make vocal sounds, but only those in the
suborder Passeri are songbirds. Relative to the zebra finch, other songbird species
differ in the timing of their listening and practicing phases, the plasticity of song
over their lifetimes, the extent to which the song is similar among individuals of the
species, and the way that singing is used—for example, for defense of territory vs.
courtship of mates.

Cues that trigger behavior

an animal behavior is a response to an internal or external cue. Through behavior, animals

can act on the information they receive in ways that will, hopefully, favor their survival and
reproductive success.

What kinds of cues can trigger behavior? In some cases, the cue is largely external:

 In hibernation, an animal goes into a den or burrow, reduces its metabolic rate, and
enters a state of inactivity during the winter, conserving resources while conditions are
harsh and food is scarce. Environmental cues often trigger hibernation behavior. For
instance, brown bears enter their den and hibernate when temperature drops to 0 and
snowfall begins.
 Estivation is similar to hibernation, but it occurs during the summer months. Some
desert animals estivate in response to dry conditions. This shift helps them survive the
harshest months of the year. The snails in the photo below climb to the tops of fence
posts to estivate.
 Migration is a behavior in which animals move from one location to another in a
seasonal pattern. For instance, monarch butterflies living in the northern and
central United States migrate to Mexico in the autumn, where they spend the winter.
Environmental cues that trigger the autumn migration include air temperature, day
length, and food availability

In other cases, the cue for a behavior may be internal. For instance, some behaviors
occur with a circadian rhythm, meaning that they are triggered by the animal's
internal body clock. You, for example, tend to wake up and become active at roughly
the same time each day. As you may have discovered if you've ever taken a long
flight, your body's alarm clock will still "go off" at the same time even if the external
cues change, which is what causes jet lag!
It's also common for behaviors to be triggered by a combination of internal and
external cues interacting. For instance, mating behaviors may be triggered in an
animal only when it's in the right hormonal state, an internal cue, and when it sees a
member of the opposite sex, an external cue.
INNATE VS. LEARNED BEHAVIORS

When we are trying to understand how a behavior develops and how it arose
evolutionarily, one important question is whether the behavior is genetically
preprogrammed or acquired through experience. Let's consider some vocab:

 Innate behaviors are genetically hardwired and are inherited by an organism from
its parents.
 Learned behaviors are not inherited. They develop during an organism's lifetime as
the result of experience and environmental influence.
 References

Solomon D. Erulkar, Thomas L. Lentz. “The Vertebrate System”. Encyclopedia Britannica.

Accessed January 13, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-
system/The-vertebrate-system
Duane E. Haines, Charles R. Noback. “ Human Nervous System” Encyclopedia Britannica.
Accessed January 13, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/science/human-nervous-
system/The-peripheral-nervous-system
Paul W. Sherman, Thomas D. Seeley. “Animal Behaviour” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed
January 13, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/science/animal-behavior
Griffiths, Paul. "The Distinction Between Innate and Acquired Characteristics." Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Accessed January 13,
2019. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/innate-acquired/.
William K. Purves, David E. Sadava, Gordon H. Orians, and H. Craig Heller, "Animal
Behavior," in Life: The Science of Biology, 7th ed. (Sunderland: Sinauer Associates,
2003), 1007.