UNIT 11 THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Structure
11.1 Introduction
Objectives
11.2 The Solar System: A General Survey
11.3 The Sun, A Model Star
11.4 The Planets, Asteroids and Comets
Mercury-the Elusive Planet
Venus-the Clouded Planet
Mars-the Red Planet
.The Asteroid Belt-Rubble of the Solar System
jupitera Strange Ve~ledGiant
Saturn-the Ringed Planet
Planets Beyond the Reach of the Eye
A Cloud made of Comets
11.5 The Earth-The Most Familiar Planet
11.6 Formation of The Solar System
11.7 Some Myths and Misconceptions
11.8 Summary
11.9 Terminal Questions
11.10 Answers

11.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 10 we have described some modem astronomical methods of exploring the
universe. You also studied some theories about the origin of the universe and stellar
evolution,'which explain many observations and data gathered in these explorations.
While readdg Unit 10 you must have realised that our knowledge of the universe is
rather imperfect. In fact, every new answer opens up many new quegtions about the
universe. However, there is one tiny'~artof this vast and ancient universe that We know
a little better. This is the Solar System, of' which our planet Earth is a part.

In this unit you will read about the Solar System. We will describe the currently
available knowledge of the Solar Family, the special characteristics of its members and
the formation of the Solar System. Within the Solar System, we know more about the
Earth and its satellite Moon than its other members. Therefore, we will give a detailed
description of these two.

We now know a lot more than our ancestors did about the planetary motions. Yet,
people harbour many myths and misconceptions about the planets' influence on their
daily lives. We will Bnalyse, in brief, why it is so and try to show the irrationality of
such notions. With this unit we will end our discussion about the universe. in Unit 12
you will read about the origin and evolution of life, which makes an equally fascinating
story.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
describe the main @aracteristicsof the various members of tbe Solar System, i,e,
the Sun, planets, their satellites, asteroids and comets,
a explain how the formation of the Solar System may have taken place,
describe the origin and early history of our planet Earth,
a analyse the myths and misconceptions about the effect of planetary motion on
human lives.

11.2 THE SOLAR SYSTEM: A GENERAL SURVEY

At night you can see very many stars in the sky. But during the day, only one star is
.visible, and that is the Sun. This is not because there is anything extraordinary about it
 Universe and Life: but because it is the star closest to us. The light of the other, more distant stars is too
The Beginnings
feeble to be seen during the day time. The Sun's apparent magnificence had led ancient
civ~hsationsto think of it as the 'head' of the univeise. Actually, it is only the 'head' of
its own family, known as the Solar System. This family consists of :line planets,
including the Earth, their satellites, asteroids and comets. Arranged according to their
increasing distance from the Sun, the nine planets which go around the Sun are:
PLUTO
Mercury (Buddha), Venus (Shukra), Earth (Prith VI),Mars (Mangal), Jupiter
('Brihaspat~),Saturn (Sham), Uranus (Arun), Neptune ( Varun), and Pluto ( Yama),
NEPTUNE (Fig. 11.1). Except for Mercury and Venus, all the planets have big and small satellites
going around them. There are also countless asteroids and comets in orbit around the
Sun.

All the planets and zsteroids, and some comets, revolve around the Sun in elliptical
orbits (see Fig. 11.2). They all orbit the Sun in nearly the same plane. youcan inake a
fairly accurdte model of the Solar System from a single piece of cardboard on which
you can draw the planetary orbits.The only exception of this model is the orbit o f . -
Pluto, which is inclined at an approrimate angIe of-17'' to the general plane of the
Solar System. The North Pole of the Earth determines the 'north side' of the Solar
System. Seen from the "north side", all planets revolve around the Sun. Its gravitational
attraction keeps them tevolving in their orbits. If tbe Sun were to suddenly vanish, the
SATURN planets wouId all fly off in straight lines at a tangent to their orbits,

The Sun is the dominating member of the Solar System. With a mass calculated to be
approximately 2X g (grams), it contains almost 99.87% of the mass of the entire
JU Solar System. Of the nine planets, Jupiter and Saturn are the most massive, accounting
for 92% of the mass of all planets. The planets do no generate their own light, like the'
MARS Sun does. They shine by reflecting the Sun's light that falls on them. The percentage of
EARTH e sunlight reflected by any object is directly related to the amount and type of
VENUS Q atmosphere that it possesses. Planets or satellites with no atmosphere, such as Mercury
MERCURY , and Moon reflect less light.
Earth.

Q 9
MOON MERCURY

8
VENUS
0
SUN

cf 3r
MARS JUPITER

3 w
SATURN NEPTUNE

@ 6
EARTH URANUS

e
PLUTO

(b)
Figure. 11.1: (a) Solar System
\how~ngthe relatlve vzes of
planets, (b) symbols d e p ~ c t ~ n g
\omc member\ of the Solar
System Figure, 11.2: Planetary o r b ~ t so t (a) lnner pisnets sealed up; (b) outer planets.

All plaliets, except Venus and Uranus, rotate on their axes in the anticlockwise
direction. So, on all these, like on the Earth, the Sun rises in the eastand sets in the
west. Venus and Uranus rotate in a clockwise direction and as a result, on these two
planets the Sun rises in the west and sets in the east! All planets except Uranus have
their axes of rotations more or less perpendicular to the plane of orbits (see Fig. 11.3).
The axis of rotation of Uranus is in its orbital plane, as though Uranus had toppled
38 over.
 Uranus
Fig. 11.3: Inclination of the axes of rotation of some planets to the perpentlicular?

The four planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are known as the inher or terrestrial
(Ce., earth-like) planets. Jupiter, Saturn. Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto are the outer or
Jovian (i.e., Jupiter-like) planets. Tbere is a clear division in the properties of the inner
-4
and the outer planets. The inner planets consist mostly of metals and rocks and have an
average density of 4 or 5 g/cm3 (read as grams per cubic ccntimetre). The,asteroids.are
also like the inner planets in composition. The outer planets, on the other hand, are
mostly gas and ice with an average density of 1 or 2 g/cm3.
SAQ 1
What objects constitute the Solar System?

This is a general survey of the Solar System. Let us now look at each of the members in
some detail. We begin with the head of the fqmily, the Sun.

11.3 THE SUN, A MODEL STAR

The Sun is the most important star from our point of view. It is the only star close
enough to be studied in considerable detail. The grandeur of the Sun is partly because
of its size. Its diameter is almost 110 times that of the Earth. We can best visualise the
volume of the Sun if we realise that more than a million earths can be dropped into the
space it occupies. As we have said above, the mass of the Sun is about 2 X grams,
which makes it more than 300,000 times the mass of the Earth. The average density of
the Sun, i.e.. its mass per unit volume, is about 1.4 g/cm3. You m a y answer the
following questions to refresh your memory of what you've read about the Sun as a star
in Unit 10:
SAQ 2
Give short answers in the space provided.
I a) What is the Sun largely made up of? ..............................................................................
b) What is the source of the Sun's energy? ........................................................................
c) For how many years will the Sun keep 'burning' like this? .........................................
d) What stages of evolution will the Sun follow, once its source of energy gets
exhausted? ...........................................................................................................................

Although the Sun appears to be unchanging, it rotates about its axis once every 25
days. From time to time dark patches appear on the surface of the Sun, usually in pairs
or in groups. These dark patches are called sunspots. Their movement is an indication
of the Sun's rotation. This fact was recognised for the first tiine by Galileo. Actually, a
sunspatis a regiim cn the surface of the S& that consists of gases almkt 1000"~ ~ig.11.4: Sunspots on the
cooler than those surrounding the area (Fig. 11.4). The number of sunspots increases Sun's photosphere.
and decreases in a cyclc every 11 years. In the long term, there are periods of low
number of sunspots and High'number of sunspots.
Layers of the Sun
Tbe Sun's body is made up of several layem Tbe layer that forms the viable surface of
the Sun is called the photosphere-it is the surface that demarcates Lady oi the Sun
and its atmosphere. When we talk of the diameter of the Sun, we are referring-to the
diameter of the photosphere. The temperature of the photosphere is about 6000°C.
The innermost layer of the Sun is its core where its energy is produced through nuclear
reactions. There are other layers between the core and the photosphere which we will
not describe here. 39
I Unlversc md Life: Like the Sun's body, the solar atmosphere too has several layers. The outermost layer
The Beginnings of the Sun's atmosphere is called the corona. Normally, the corona cannot be s&n due
I
I
to the brilliance of the photosphere. However, if it is seen during a total solar eclipse, it
is visible in its full (Fig. 11.5). The corona extends all the way.upto the Earth's
orbit and even beyond.

Solar Wind and Solar Flare

Most of the Sun's family is continually bathed in an outflow of material from the Sun's
atmosphere. Streams of electrons and protons continuously flow out from the Sun's
atmosphere and travel across the Solar System. This rapidly moving stream of charged
particles is called the solar wind. About one million ton material is removed every
second from the Sun in the form of the solar wind. These charged particles react with
the atoms of the Earth's atmosphere to produce northern lights, 'aurora borealis' at the
North Pole and southern lights, 'aurora australis' at the South pole: This display of
lights in nature, is truly spectacular.

Fig. 11.5: Solar corona seen at the
time of total solar eclipse.
The solar flare represents the most dynamic activity associated with the Sun's surface
and atmosphere. It represents a tremendous release of energy in a very short time.
Usually it occurs in the neighbourhood of a sunspot. There is a sudden brightening
accompanied by a violent outflow of e'nergy in the form of light, radiowaves, X-rays
and solar material like electrons and protons.

The Sun is our nearest star and we have been able to examine it quite closely. We have
just presented2ome salient features of the Sun's structure and its activity. You may like
to try the following SAQ before studying about the other members of the Solar
System!
SAQ 3
a) What observation indicates that the Sun rotates?

b) Which phenomena indicate the activity of the Sun?

11.4 THE PLANETS, ASTEROIDS AND COMETS

In this section you will read abopt the planets and their satellites, asteroids and comets.
We will not consider~heEar@ and the Moon here as we plan to take a detailed look at
them in the next section. In Table 11.1, we&gsome of the space probes that have been.
sent to the planets. They havi revealed a lot of information about the surface features,
temperature, atmosphere etc. of the planets. If you want to know more details, you
may study the books listed at the end of this block.

Table 11.1
Planets Mercury Venus Mars
probed: Pluto, Saturn's satellite Titan

Space Mariner Venera, Mariner, Voyager, Pioneer

probes: series Mariner, Viking,
Pioneer Mars
Venus
Mission

r Observations made: Surface features of the planets, atmospheric conditions, chemical composition,
temperature

-11.4.1Mercury-the Elusive' Planet

I
Mercury, the planet nearest to the Sun, has long remained a mysterious body. Because
.of the Sun's glare, it is difficult to see it clearly all the mare so because it is very small.
 Solar System
Mercury appears for a brief time as a morning object in the eastern sky, rising just
before sunrise. Then it can be briefly seen as an evening object in the western sky,
setting just after sunset. Even through the largest telescopes in use today, Mercury
appears less distinct than the Moon does to the naked eye.

Photographs of the surface of Mercury show craters and wrinkles on it, separated by A planet is called a morning
substantially large smooth areas (Fig. 11.6). Mercury possesses no atmosphere. It has a ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ e ~ ~ l ' ; ; tb
l : ; ~ ~ ~
+
temperature of almost 427°C on the side facing the Sun to a low of almost-270°C ,,, ,t is ,,ii& an evening
on its dark side. It has no satefite. ob~oct.

Fig. 11.6: Mercury. Fig. 11.7: Venus.

11.4.2 Venus-the Clouded Planet

Venus, our nearest planetary neighbour, only 40 million km away, has its surface
hidden from view by a dense yellowish-white cloud, which extends to 80 km above the
surface (Fig 11.7). Venus appears to be the third brightest object in the sky after the
Sun and the Moon, because of its short distance from us and because the white cloud
reflects almost 76 per cent of the sunlight that falls on it. Venus appears so bright at
times that, under ideal atmospheric conditions, it may be seen with the unaided eye in
daytime. Venus can be best seen about three hours after sunset when it is a night object
or about three hours before sunrise when it is a morning obiect. As you have read in
Unit 9, Venus appears to go through phases, quite hke those oi the Moon. It requires
almost 20 months for an observer to see Venus in all its phases.

As revealed from the space probes, Venus has turned out to be a broiling hot planet.
The surface temperatures of Venus are around 480°C. The atmosphere of Venus is
made up of 96 per cent carbon dioxide gas and clouds of sulphuric acid withsmall
quantities of hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acid. There we small traces of water
vapour, nitrogen, argon, sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide gases. The atmospheric
pressure is 90 times the pressure we feel from the Earth's atmosphere. With its searing
heat, crushing pressures and poisonous gases, Venus seems less the goddess of love of
mythology and more an incarnation of hell! Life cannot survive on Venus.

The high surface temperat%e of Venus comes about through what is known as the
greenhouse effect. Sunlight passes through the clouds and atmosphere of Venus, and
reaches its surface. The suqace on being heated, gives out infrared radiations. The
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Venus does not let the infrared radiation escape.
Thus, the heat of the Sun is efficiently trapped with only very little being able to
escape. As a result, the surface temperature rises.

Now t h ~ human
t beings have unveiled the mysteries of the clonldedplanet, many imaginative
ideas have been put forward tosturn Venus into a habitable plane,. One idea is to
introduce small living organisms, which can consume carbon dioxide and give off
oxygen, into the planet's atmosphere. So, as time passes, the greenhouse effect will
ijniverse and Life: become less as carbon dioxide gas decreases in the atmosphere. This will'cool the
The Beginnings planet's surface, and water vapour will condense. As rain falls, the heat-retaining
clouds will begin to clear. This will create a planet with an oxygen-rich atmosphere and
a cool temperat&e to sustain a variety of life fonns. It may even become suitable for
human beings to live! This may seem like a fantasy today. But, there are plausible
elements in this idea and it might become a reality in the not so distant future!

11.4.3 Mars-tbe Red Planet

After Venus, Mars is our closest neighbour. It seems very earth-like. There are ice-caps
on its poles, drifting white clouds and raging dust storms in its atmosphere. Seasonally
changing patterns occur on its red surface. There are large dark areas on its surface
called maria (meaning 'seas'). It even has a twenty-four-hour day. Mars experiences
summer and winter seasons, each of which lasts for almost six earth m k t h s . However,
the planet's distance from the Sun causes these seasonal changes t o be more extreme.

It is tempting to think of Mars as an inhabited world. In 1877, the Italian astronomer,

Schiaparelli, observed an intricate network of single and double lines criss-crossing the
bright a r p s of the planet Mars. He gave them the name of canali. Canali in Italian
means channels or erooves. But it was promptly translated into English as 'canals'.
Slnce then,people have wondered who had ma& these canals
beings on the planets?
-
. . and how. Were there living

Many satellites have now been sent into orbit around Mars. Two automated laboratori,es
have been landed on its surface. The entire planet has been mapped. Martian surface
has craters of sizes, ranging from 5 km to 121 km in diameter, created by meteorite
impact (Fig. 11.8). It &o has enormous volcanoes. The largest volcano on Mars,
Olympus Mons or Mount Olympus is nearly three times as high as Mount Everest. It is
not active any more. The Martian surface has deep ridges and valleys. Pictures alsa
show islands made where water once flowed around the existing craters, and river beds,
dry for hundreds of millions of years. The surface features indicate that Mars may have
Fig 11.8: The surface of Mars.
had both atmospher~and ocean in the past. Viking space probes, send by U.S.A., did
find evidence that 'liquid water once flowed on the planet and the atmosphere was also
more dense than what it is now. Martian soil is mostly like the Earth's soil made up
mainly of silicates. However, about 16 per cent of the soil is made up of iron oxide,
giving it its red colour.

The atmospheric pressure on Mars is very low. It is comparable to what it is on the

Earth at a height of 32 km from sea level. Thus, Mars has a very thin atmosphere. It is
made up of 95 per cent carbon dioxide. The rest is nitrogen, argon and a small amount
of water vapour. Tiny amounts of hydrogen, oxygen and ozone have also been
detected. Though Martian atmosphere has clouds of frozen water, carbon dioxide and
of reddish dust, it does not contain enough gases to trap the Sun's heat. This makes
Mars a very cold planet. The surface temperature may rise to 21°C or 27°C near its
Silicates are compounds made up Equator, at noon. But, during the night, it becomes as low as-84°C. The present
of silicon, Oxygen and Some other conditions on Mars-cold, extreme dryness, intense ultraviolet light and little
me,tal, such as aluminium,
calcium etc. aoxygen-are hostile to the familiar forms of life. The Viking experiments on Mars
showed no signs of life.

Mars possesses two natural satellites. They are called Phobos (F&) and Deimos
(Terror). Phobos, about 27 km in diameter, is about 9,300 km away from Mars. Deimos
is even smaller, about 14 km in diameter. The latter is 24,000 km from the surface of
Mars. More information about Mars and its satellites is expected in the near future
from the Soviet Union's space missions to the planet.

11.4.4 The Asteroid Belt-Rubble of the Solar System

There is a gap of 547 million kilometers, between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. In this
gap are thousands of bodies made of rock and metal, ranging in size from mere specks
of dust to hundreds of kilometers. These are called asteroids, and are believed to
represent original solar material which failed to bind together to form a planet. The
first asteroid was discovered in 1801 by Giuseppi Piazzi, who named it Ceres. It is 960
km across. The number of asteroids known now runs into thousands.

Most asteroids are irregular in shape. They reflect varying amounts of light as they
travel through space. Their shapes suggest that they may be the product of a collision
or an explosion. Thousands of fragments of asteroids enter the Earth's atmosphere Solar System
every year, producing a streak of light across the sky. This streak of light shooting
across the sky is called a meteor. Of the objects that enter the Earth's atmosphere,
mgny are of the size of a grain of sand or a pebble and they are destroyed in flight. The
objects that are large enough to survive the flight and hit the Earth's surface are called
meteorites. A meteorite is like a piece of the Solar System right in our laboratory. The
chemical analysls of meteorites provides us vital information about the Solar System.

Thus h r , we have described some characteristics of terrestrial planets, except the Earth
and its satellite Moon. You will now study some features of the Jovian planets and the
comets. But how about trying the following SAQ first.

SAQ 4
Give short answers in the space prdvided.
a) Why does Venus reflect so much more light than Mercury or Mars?
.................................................................................................................................................
b) What features of Mars make it similar to the Earth?
.................................................................................................................................................
c) Why have we called the asteroids as thc rubble of the Solar System?

d) What is the difference between a meteor and a meteorite?

............................................................................................................................................
.-
- . .
11.4.5 Jupiter-A Strange Veiled Giant
Jupiter is the largest planet of the Solar System. If Earth were placed on the face of
Jupiter, it would look like a 50 paise coin on a dinner plate. It weighs more than twice
as much as all the other eight planets put together. It has sixteen known satellites.
Jupiter is not only the biggest planet bur also the liveliest. It is full of mysteries and
surprises. Its highest clouds are mainly crystals of frozen ammonia gas at a temperature
of about - 1 4 0 " ~ .It is veiled in a turbulent, gaseous atmosphere made up of hydrogen
and helium with significant amounts of ammonia and methane. The atmosphere.
reaches thousands of kilometers deep to the surface. It gradually thickens into a
churning liqu~ddue to the immense pressures scientists assume that it finally turns into
a liquid metallic core. At its centre, Jupiter has a small rocky core where temperatures
probably reach 20,000"C, about three times the temperature of the Sun's surface. There
may also be iron, silicon and other heavy elements in the rocky core. Jupittr seems to
be more like the Sun in its composition than the other planets.

(a)
Fig. 11.9: (a) Jup~tcr;( h ) thc Circat Kcd Spot of Jupitcr.

The most outstancling feature on t h surface

~ of Jupiter is the Great Ked Spot shown in
Fig. 11.9 (b). It is a long oval area which is so huge that two earths. side by side, could be
l'niverse and Life: dropped through it. Sometimes it becomes pale plnk in colour and at other times a
The Beginnings
fiery orange red. For long, the Great Red Spot puzzled the astronomers. The Pioneer
and Voyager missions to Jupiter revealed that the Red Spot is a huge cyclonic
disturbance in the atmosphere.

Jupiter is mainly a quick-spinning ball of gas and liquid with no solid surface. It also
emits radio waves. Its composition, size and the number of moons gave rise to the idea
that Jupiter is not a planet but rather a star with a "sdar system" of its own, that did1
not start 'burning'. It is estimated that if Jupiter,were just ten times heavier, it could
have started to produce its own energy like the Sun.

Jupiter's four largest satellites, 10, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto are called the
Galilean satellites after Galileo, their discoverer. They are fascinating worlds in
themselves. Io,,of d i a m w 3240 km,is almost like a fireball'with frequent-volcanic
eruptions. Beyond 10 are Europa, diameter 3120 Km,Ganymede, diameter 4900 km
and Callisto, diameter 4U0 lan.Europa is thought to'& made-up of frozen ice. -
Ganymede and Callisto have a thick icy covering on them. The remaining satellites of
Jupiter have not been so well studied.

With ammonia clouds, intense emission of radio waves, enormous storms and satellites
of fire and ice, Jupiter seems to be a most unlikely place to find life. Yet, in some ways,
conditions on the present day Jupiter are not very different from those that did
produce life on Earth about four billion years ago. Water, ammonia and methane,
considered essential to the formation of life, are all present in the atmosphere of
Jupiter. Moreover, lightning bolts continuously flash through Jupiter's clouds. Even if
only a few organic compounds aie found to exist on Jupiter, it will strengthen the idea
that life is a normal phenomenon throughout the universe.

11.4.6 Saturn-the Ringed Planet

Saturn, the sixth planet, is the last one visible to the naked eye. Its rings, visible only
through a telescope, make it the most striking and beautiful sight in the Solar System
(Fig. 11.10). On seeing Saturn through his telescope, Galileo described the planet as
having ears! These were actually three rings that girdle Saturn's equator. It is the
second largest planet, exceeded in size and mass only by Jupiter. Saturais colder than
Jupiter. The temperature at the top of its clouds is - 1 8 0 " ~ .Like Jupiter, Saturn
consists mainly of hydrogen and helium, with traces of ammonia, methane and other
compounds. Its average density is less than that of water. Thus, if we could put Saturn
in a large enough ocean, it would float!

Fig. 11.10: (a) Saturn; (b) the rings of Saturn.

The rings of Saturn are its most distinctive feature, giving it a matchless grace. The
rings are in fact a thousand tightly packed individual ringlets, like the grooves on a
gramophone record. Even the supposed gaps in the rings have been found to contain
small particles. Most astounding of all, a new outermost ring contains two strands
twisted around each other like the threads of rope. The rings are made up of large chunks
of solid matter-probably ice coated rocks.
I
Saturn, too, has at least 16 satellites orbiting it at the edge of the rings. The close-ups Solar System
of the known satellites reveal that they are icy and heavily cratered by the impact of
meteorites. Saturn's main satellite is Titan, 5800 km in diameter. It is large enough to
have been a planet by itself. It is the only satellite in our Solar System which has an
atmosphere nearly as dense as our .own. Its atmosphere is made up of 90 per cent
nitrogen gas and organic compounds such as hydrogen cyanide. But it is a very cold
world, with a surface temperature of - 184°C. It is far too cold for any life as we know
it, apart from having the highly poisonous hydrogen cyanide.

'11.4.7 Planets Beyond the Reach of the Eye

The remaining three planets Uranus, Neptune and Pluto, invisible to the unaided eye,
were discovered later.

Uranus
Uranus (Fig. 11.11) appears as a green disc with vague markings, even through the
largest telescopes. Its colour is produced by the large amounts of methane and
ammonia clouds in its outer atmosphere. The temperature of the ammonia clouds is
about -217°C. Uranus is made up of gases such as hydrogen, helium and methane just
like,Jupiter and Saturn. Uranus is unique in the Solar System because its axis of
rotation is tilted at an angle of 980 to the perpendicular and lies almost in the plane of
its orbit around the Sun, with one pole sometimes pointing directly towards the Sun. It Fig. 11.11:Uranus.
would seem that the planet has toppled over its side, rolling along the orbit like a
wheel. Thus, the Sun shines directly on its poles. Uranus has fifteen satellites. In 1977,
.-nine faint rings of rocky debris were also discovered around Uranus.
Neptune
The eigth planet, Neptune, was discoveted in 1846 by astronomer Johann Gottfried
Galle. We have already told you the story of its discovery in Sec. 8.3.4. It is so far away
that, seen from Neptune, the Sun must appear just as a bright point. Neptune's
atmosphere has methane hut no detectable ammonia. Its cloud temperature is about
-237°C. Neptune is orbited by Triton, one of the biggest satellites in the Solar System.
It orbits Neptune in a clockwise drrection, i.e. opposite to the planet's own rotation. It
has an atmosphere of nitrogen and methane. It may even have an ocean of liquid
nitrogen. 'lhton is acmmpanied by a smaller satellite, ere id. In 1989, Voyager 2 -
passed within 35,000 km of Neptune and within 40,000 km of Triton resulting in
a significant increase in our knowIedge about Neptune and its satellites.

Pluto
Pluto's existence was also proposed to account for deviations in the orbit of Uranus. W.H. Pickering was a
Even after the influence of Neptune~hadbeen accounted for, an American astronomer Profeshor of Physics at
Percival Lowell, detected that the orbit of Uranus was still disturbed. Neptune's orbit Harvard University, U.S.A.
too showed a similar disturbances. Lowell and Pickering did some calculations to
predict the mass and radius of the orbit of Planet X which was supposed to cause these
disturbances. In 1916, Pluto was discovered in about the right place in the sky.
However, its mass turned out to be much smaller, about that of our Moon. Small, cold
and dark, Pluto is about one-fifth of the size of the Earth. Its surface is coated with
,frozen methane. In 1938, a satellite of Pluto was discovered and named Charon. Not
much is really known about Pluto.
Pluto's orbit crosses that of Neptune's. No other planetary orbits cross in this way, and
it is possible that Pluto is an escaped satellite of Neptune. Pluto's discovery had led
astronomers to believe that it was the Planet X. But now calculations show that ,the mass
of Pluto is too low to cause irregularities in. Uranus' orbit. Thus, the search for the
elusive Planet X goes on.

11.4.8 A Cloud Made of Comets

The cold outer areas beyond Pluto are the regions of comets, those visitors that dash,
around the Sun, seldom to be seen again. Comets are of grei3tinterest because they
are the relics of the early history of the Solar System. When solar matter was churning
and the Sun had just been ignited, its heat drove ,the lighter elements into the outer
reaches of the Solar Syst.em. Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon collected into
something like snowy cotton balls and they still float as a "cloud", at a disiance of
100.000 times the distance of the Earth from the sun! This thin cloud of comets
I:niverse and Life: reaches out t o a distance halfway to the nearest star, i.e. almost a few billion
The Beginnings
kilometers.

Comets are made mainly of 'ices', that is ordinary water ice mixed with frozen gases
such as methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia. The ices are mixed with specks of dust
that makes them look like dirty snowballs. Billions of comets stay in their great cloud,
moving slowly in enormous orbits around the Sun. While still in this cloud, comets d o
not shine. Once in a while the gravity of a passing star disccrbs this cloud. A few
comets then move into interstellar space and are lost to the Solar System. Others move
towards the Sun.

Seen from the Earth, the comets shinc more brightly than anything in the sky, except
the Sun and the Moon. You may wonder how dirty looking snowballs turn into bright
long-tailed comets. As a comet moves towards the Sun, its surface is warmed by the
strengthening sunlight. Some of its frozen material turns into gas, forming a rapidly
growing cloud called its head or coma, around its centre. O n getting nearer t o the Sun,
more gas evaporates and its head becomes bigger and brighter. Also, a brilliant tail,
made of dust and gas, is pushed out of the head by the pressure of the sunlight and the
solar wind. This tail extends in a direction away from the Sun.

If comets pass very close to the Sun, they acquire enormous speeds, more than a
million kilometers per hour, and move off into space with their tails pointing ahead.
Most comets depart on long elliptical orbits, billions of kilometres into deep space, ana
remain there for thousands of years. But a few d o not escape from the Sun so easily. If
they happen to pass near a large planet, particularly Jupiter, its gravitation pushes them
into short-period orbits around the Sun. One of the most famous comets is Halley's
comet which returns once every 74 to 79 years (Fig. 11.12). It was last seen in 1986.
Sometimes fragments from the comets fall on the Earth producing meteors. Comets
returning repeatedly lose their gases each time. When all their ices melt, comets
disintegrate, leaving a stream of small particles that spreads out thinly and loses its
identity.

Fig. 11.12: Comet Halley.

SAQ 5
Give short answers in the space provided.
a) What properties of Jupiter make scientists think that it is more like a star which is '

not burning'?

b) What feature makes Saturn appear distinct among the Jovian planets? What
property of Saturn Is demonstrated by the fact it would float in water?
 c) What observations led to the discovery of Neptune and Pluto? Why is the search Solar System
for Planet X still on?
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
d) What are the head and tail of a comet made of?
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
In this section we have tried to give you a bird's eyeview of the Sun's family, except the
Earthtand the Moon. Let's now e k e a closer look at our planet and its satellite, the
: Moon.

11.5 THE EARTH-THE MOST FAMILIAR PLANET--

How do we describe the 'big ball' on which we live? Seen from space, it appears as a
bluish-white sphere. Its wealth of plant and animal life, snow covered peaks, blue
oceans and white clouds make the Earth a beautiful planet. Human beings have
explored it extensively. Yet, the first hand knowledge of the Earth is limited to a thin
shell of rock and water extending to a few kilometres below the surface, and to the
atmosphere above. However, using indirect methods, such as the study of waves
generated during earthquakes, scientists have been able to picture the Earth's interior.
without ever seeing or sampling it. We will now briefly describe the current scientific
knowledge about the Earth. I I Z O ~ ~ -

Stratosphere ,-
(b)
0 .

Fig. 11.13: (a) A cm\\-section of tlic t..orth \howin@ its

structure; (b) Earth'\ atmosphcrc: (c) thc Eartli'scr~lstis
not uniform.
Universe and Life: Study Fig. 11.13 a ~ answer
d the following questions.
The Beginnings
SAQ 6
a) List the layers of the Earth's body and atmosphere in a sequence starting from its . .
inner core.

b) What is the layer of air that we breathe and the part of the Earth we live on,
called?

c) Is the crust of the Earth uniform?

The Earth's atmosphere has been studied extensively with the help of ground based
experiments, aircraft, rockets and balloons. Though it is not divided into distinct layers,
it-is helpful to think of the atmosphere in this way. The troposphere, nearest to the
surface, is made up of 78 per cent nitrogen and 21 per cent oxygen, with water vapour,
carbon dioxide, neon and argon making up most of the remaining one per cent. It has
an average temperature of about 16°C at sea level and- 16OC near its top. The
stratosphere, coming next contains ozone and has a temperature ranging from - 16OC
to -4OC. This ozone layer absorbs the harmful UV radiations fron, the Sun,thus
protecting us from them. The carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere traps heat and
makes it warmer through the greenhouse effect (recall Sec. 11.4.2). Were it not for
this, the Earth's surface temperature would be much lower and it would always be
covered with ice.

We will now describe, in brief, the Earth's own structure and composition. Its crust is
about 10 km thick under the oceans and about 65 km thick under the continents. If you
imagined the Earth to be apple sized, its crust would be as thick as the apple's skin, The
main elements in the crust are oxygen (47.3 per cent) and silicon (27.7 per cent).
Elements such as aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium make
up about 23 per cent, with less than 2 per cent being made up of all other elements. -

Fig. 11.14: (a) The change of seasons on the Earth results from the tilt of its axis of rotation. For half a
year, the north pole leans towards the Sun causing the Sun's rays to strike the northern hemisphere (shaded,
area) more directly. For the rest of the year the South pole leans towards the Sun and the Southern
hemisphere receives stronger sunlight. There would be no seasons on Earth if its axis of rotation were
perpendicular to the plane of its orbit; (b) tides on Earth due to Moon's presence; (c) solar eclipse. An
observer within the circle of totality will see a total eclipse, while an observer in the circle of partiality will
see only a partial eclipse; (d) lunar eclipse.
Crust is thectopmost part of a layer called lithosphere, the Earth's outer layer. The Solar System
lithosphere has lumps which we see as mountains, and wrinkles in the form of trenches
in the ocean. Beneath the crust, the bulk of the Earth's interior is hot and partially
molten.

Let us briefly discuss our day-to-day experiences on the Earth, for example, the Earth's
rotation on its axis, once every 24 hours, gives it a 24 hours day and night. The reeu1ar
seasons on the Earth result from tl~efact, that the Earth's axis of rotation is tilted at an
angle to the normal. If it were almost along the normal, like the axes of rotation of
some other planets, there would be no seasonal changes on the Earth (Fig. 11.14a).
The Earth's rotatim on its ax& a i d revolution around the Sun ' M e s ii appcar as if the
Sun, stars and planets were moving in the sky Then there are phenomena like tides in
the sea or ocean, and solar and lunar eclipses (Figs. ll.l4b,c,d). These are caused by
the presence of me Moon, a satelliteof the Earth. k t ' s find our-more about the Moon.

The Moon, the Earth's Companion

What do you norrqally observe about the Moon? Itshinesbrightest, whenever present
in the night sky. It seems to go through phases and it seems to present the same side
toward the Earth always. Let's first explain these observations. The Moon appears to
be the brightest night object, because it is the nearest to the Earth. Its phases occur
because of its revolution around the Earth (see Fig. 11.15a). It revolves in an elliptical
orbit round the Earth, once in 27.33 days. In the same time, it rotates once on its axis.
Thus, we always see the same face of the Moon from the Earth.
The Moon is the only other heavenly body on which human beings have landed. They
have spent only a shdrt period, though, a total of only 13 days. They brought back
samples of lunar rock and soil and much more information about the Moon which we'll

waxing ' 1st Quarter Waxinn

C--

Sunlight

rn
3rd Quarter

Fig. 11.15: (a) Phases of Moon; (b) far siide of the

briefly describe. The Moon's surface has flat dark expanses called maria (seas), big and
small aat$as,,mountabis and-qalleys. It also hasrilles, i.e., channels such as theones
made on.the Earth by the cutting action of water in a river bed. There are also
dome-like structures made of concentric mountain rings.

The Moon rocks and soil are almost similar to the earth rocks and soil. However, they
are older and contain much higher levels of some elements like titanium and lack
elements like sodium and potassium. The lunar soil has the texture of fine damp sand.
Unlike its face, the far side of the Moon has no seas, mountains or valleys (Fig.
11.15b). It has only uniformly distributed craters. The temperature of the Moon
ranges from 130°C in areas directly under the Sun, to - 170°C on its night side. It has
neither water nor any atmosphere. About three billion years ago the Moon's interior
'cooled. Since then, it has changed very little and has settled down to a quiet existence.
Universe and Life: Though the Moon is a dead world, it is of interest to us. Its mysteries are not fully
The Beginnings understood yet. It awaits further exploration.

SAQ 7
a) The Moon has a period of revolution of 27.33 days and presents almost the same
'face' toward the Earth at all times.
Therefore, which of the following is true:
1) its period of rotation is 29.5 days.
ii) its period of rotation is 27.33 days.
iii) it does not rotate.
b) Why is the Moon a dead world'!

Having learnt so much about the Solar System, don't you wonder how it wes formed,
how it came to be what it is? We will now describe the theory that seems to explain
best the observations about the Solar System.

11.6 FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

This theory is based on the assvmption that the Sun and all the planets were formed
- .
from a huge rotating cloud df interstellar gas and dukusee Fig. 11.16).For some
reasons, the cloud started contracting. The contraction was hastened by its gravitational
I

(el (f)

Fig. 11.16: Sketch showing a theory about the formation of Solar System.
pull. Tlle cloud continued to contract (Fig. L1.16a). It also started rotating faster and Solar System
became disc shaped (Fig. 11.16b). More and more'matter contracted towards the
centre of the disc, forming the star to be-the new Sun. The temperature of this star
rose due to contraction until it started generating its own energy (Fig. 11.16~).
Revolving around the Sun was a disc of gas and dust from which the planets condensed
(Fig. 11.16d). In this revolving disc, the lighter elements were thrown towards the
periphery and heavier elements concentrated inwards. A s the Sun's energy increased,
the gas shells around the inner planets were driven off and only cores of heavier
elements in the cloud remained (Fig. 11.16e). The outer planets were less affected.
Finally, the bright star's radiation removed the last of the system's free gases and a
mixed array of planets remained (Fig. 11.169. The smaller, solid ones were near the
star and the much larger gaseous ones farther away. The Earth was the third planet.
The Early History of the Earth
The Earth has been evolving and changing ever since its origin, about 4.5 billion years
ago. In the first tens of millions of years of the Earth's evolution, the impact of small
bodies, gravitation, squeezing together of matter and some other factors heated it. This
caused some of its constituents to melt. Iron melted before most of the silicates. Since it
was heavier it tended to sink toward the centre, torcing up the Lighter sil~catestowards
the surface, just as hot air rises over a stove. As the iron descended, the Earthls surface
heaved and huge bubbles formed, with volcanoes exploding through it and lava flowing
over large parts of it. There were violent storms too. At last most of the iron reached
the centre, where it accumulated as the core. Slowly, the Earth cooled and quietened
down. Then, a thin shell of solid rock was formed on its surface. The rock shell
accumulated as the initial continents at the top of [he lithosphere, like huge rafts. These
initial continents drifted about for billions of years. Scientists believe that they formed a
supercontinent, which, about 200 million years ago began to drift apart to become the
present continents (Fig. 11.17).

PRESENT

('
-- --
In M I L L I O N Y E A R S
F R O M NOW

Fig. 11.17: Drift of continents.

 Universe and Life:
The Beginnings
An ordinary oxygen molecule has
two oxygen atoms in it.
The Sun's radiation had removed the gases from the Earth's surface, so the early Earth
had no atmosphere. Water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane and ammonia were --
released from the molten mass and volcanic eruption and they formed the initial
atmosphere. The UV rays from the Sun broke up water into its constituents, hydrogen
and oxygen. Being a light gas, hydrogen escaped from the Earth. Oxygen combined
with ammonia and methane to form water, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and other
compounds. Higher up three atoms of oxygen combined to form ozone molecules and
so the ozone layer was formed at the same time. As the Earth cooled further, water
vapour in the atmosphere became condensed, and it fell as rain to fill the huge craters
on the Earth.
About four billion years ago, a much more remarkable process began on the Earth.
This was the first feeble start of life. Paradoxically, the same U V rays that would kill
most modern creatures today, helped the beginnings of life. You will read more about
this in Unit 12.
The Earth has a special relationship with the Sun. Life on Earth would not have
survived, but for the Sun It is a steadv source of energy tor all basic processes that
sustain life. Also the Earth's distance from the Sun is such as to produce a climate that
was and still is quite mild, conducive to our kind of life. You will understand this
relationship better, once you read Units 12 and 14.
So far we have discussed various features of the Sun, the planets and their satellites,
asteroids and comets, andthe formation of the Solar System. It is appropriate that we
now analyse some myths and mirjconceptions associated with their influence on our
lives.
11.7 SOME MYTHS AND MISCONCEPTIONS
Recall from Units 2 and 9, how our ancestors watched the Sun and the stars, and from
their movements predicted the changes in season and the timing of floods. They could
also relate the ocean tides to the Moon's apparent changes of shape. There were
planets too in the sky. Only five of them could be seen-Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter
and Saturn. If the Sun'could bring summer and winter, and the Moon move the oceans,
why would the planets not have power over earthly affairs?
Out of this wrong, but natural conviction grew astrology. The idea started developing
that a person's future was determined by which constellations the planets were in at the
moment of his or her birth. The motion of the planets was believed to determine the
fates of kings, dynasties and empires. Astrologers studied the motion of planets
accurately. They would know what had happened, the last time that, say, Mars was
rising in the Constellation of the Lion. Perhaps a similar thing would happen again.
And, thus, they would tell kings when to attack a neighbouring state. If the position of
thc 'war gods' Saturn and Mars were 'unfavourable', they might advise the king to
postpone his campaign. A good way to overthrow a regime was to predict its downfall!
And if planets could determine the fate of nations, they could also influence the events
in a person's life. Thus, astrology grew into a strange combination of observations and
mathematics, with illogical thinking. Nevertheless, with time, astrologers came to be
patronised by the State. This led to an increase in the influence of 'astrology, which
continues to this day all over the world. But a precise cause and effect relationship
between the movements of planets and human beings has never been scientifically
established. I n fact a critical analysis of astrological beliefs would show you that they
re totally unscientific; they can be disproved in the light of the day to day events.
 Activity
Compare a few clippings from different newspapers of the same day, which have
columns predicting events in the lives of persons belonging to various zodiacal signs.

You will notice that each one says a different thing, in an equally vague manner. You
will also find that none of the events occurring in your life in the following week were
I

I predicted by any of them with any certainty! Similarly, in our society, many wild beliefs
1 and superstitions are associated with the occurrence of solar eclipses, the appearance of
comets, etc. Now that you have some idea about our Solar System, we hope you realise
that these notions have no rational basis.

11.8 SUMMARY
In this unit we'have briefly described some of the major characteristics of the Solar
Syslem, i.e., the Sun. theplarrets and their satrllites, tl~easteroids and cornets.
The formation of the Solar System and the early history of the Earth have also
been discussed.
We have tried to analyse how, many of the myths and misconceptions about the
s hr~manlives arose and show that Uxre is no rational basis
influcncc o f ~ l h e t on
of such ideas.

11.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) ,List two properties that distinguish the terrestrial planets from the Jovian planets.
.................................................................................................................................................
2) The maximum surface temperature of Venus is greater than that of Mercury even
thotlg11 it is farther away from the Sun. IIow docs.ihis 1!appcna?

3) Why d o some comets return frequently near the Sun?

Put the various steps in the formation of Solar System listed below in their proper
sequence by numbering them from 1 to 4.
i) As matter contracted towards the disc's centre, the Sun was born ............. ;..........
ii) Gases in the inner planets were driven away leaving them as solid; the outer
planets remained gaseous ........................................................................................
iii) A huge rotating interstellar gas cloud started contracting and after a while
became disc shaped ...................... .. .......................................................................
iv) The planets condensed from the cloud of gas and dust surrounding the Sun .....
5) List three teatures which distinguish the carly Earth from the present day Earth.

11.18 ANSWERS - --
Self Assessmerit Questions
1 ) The Sun. thc nine planets and thcir hatellitch, asteroids and comcth.
2) a) Hvdropcn, helium
~ d v & mnd Life: The hydrogen nuclei fuse together to form helium nuclei giving off energy.
The Beginnings About 5 billion years.
It will become a white dwarf and eventually a black dwarf.
The movement of sunspots on the Sun's photosphere.
Increase and decrease of sunspots, solar wind, solar flare.
Because of the clouds on Venus.
Its 24-hour day, changing seasons, ice caps on its poles; white clouds and dust
storms in its atmosphere.
Because they are believed to be chunks of solar material which could not form
into a planet, like the rubble of a collapsed building.
A meteorite is a heavenly object that strikes the Earth's surface; a meteor is a
streak of light produced in the atmosphere when a particle of cosmic dust or
any other object from space enters it.
The size, composition, density and the large number of satellites of Jupiter.
Saturn's rings; its average density is l ?ss than water.
The path of Uranus showed deviations. Because the deviations in the paths of
Uranus and Neptune cannot be explained with Pluto's presence alone.
Head- water ice mixed with frozen methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia;
tail: dust and gas.
inner core; outercore; mantle, crust; troposphere, stratosphere, upper
atmosphere.
troposphere, crust
No, it has mountains and trenches tilled with oceans.
ii b) It has neither atmosphere nor water to sustain life.

Tenninal Questions
1) Composition, density
2) Greenhouse effect. You can explain it.
3) They acquire short period orbits if they pass near a big planet, like Jupiter or
Saturn, because of its gravitational pull.
4) i) 2 ii) 4 iii) 1 iv) 3
5) Much higher temperatures and violent conditions, no atmosphere, no life.
UNIT 12 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF
LIFE
Structure
12.1 Introduction
Objectives
12.2 Origin of Life on the Earth
Special Creation
Spontaneous Generation
Chemical Evolution
Miller's Experiment
12.3 Biological Evolution
12.4 Systems View of Life
Life cycle
Aging
12.5 Extra-terrestrial Life
12.6 Summary
12.7 Terminal Questions
12.8 Answers

12.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already studied how and when our planet Earth was born. This unit proposes
to take you back to a distant past when there was no life on our planet and helps you
to imagine how life originated and how plants and animals came into existence.
Naturally, in discussing things which must have happened billions of years ago, there is
a certain amount of guess work and uncertainty. But the guess or conjecture has to
conform to a good deal of available evidence as well as to basic laws of physical
sciences. This creates a certain amount of confidence in the suggested theory of the
origin of life on our planet. Thus, there is general agreement today that life originated
about 4 billion years ago, from spontaneous chemical reactions whose ingredients were
molecules of non-living substances. This theory is supported by the remarkable fact
that all living organisms on the Earth have a similar composition and basic molecular
structure.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to:
describe the various theories regarding the origin of life, and Pasteur's contribution
in this context,
explain the theory of chemical evolution and its scientific basis,
discuss the theory of biological evolution and the diversity of life forms,
describe systems view of life, the mechanism of feedback, information and control,
discuss the concept of life cycles and aging,
analyse the possibility of life beyond the Earth.

12.2 ORIGIN OF LIFE ON THE EARTH

Man has always wondered how he came into existence, who created him, and why he
was created. Curiosity in this connection has been so strong that every ancient thinker,
philosopher or "prophet", has tried to give some answer to this question and suggest
some mechanism for the creation of life.

According to an ancient Greek idea, life was transferred from "cosmozoa" (life of
outer space) to different planets in small units called "spores". These spores had a thick
impenetrable covering which prevented loss of water and other necessary components.
It was assumed that under favourable conditions of temperature and moisture, thesc
spores gave birth to the initial living organisms on the, as yet uninhabited, plancts. This
idea presumes a universal and eternal store house of spores of life, and thus indeed
avoids answering the question as to how life anywhere originated in the first place. The
Greeks, or anyone else at that time, of course, did not know that the travelling spores
would encounter destructive radiations like the ultraviolet and gamma rays in space.

In addition to this, various other theories have been put forward from time to time
about the origin of life. Some of them were mere speculations, whereas others have
some scientific basis. Let us see briefly what some of these theories are.

12.2.1 Special Creation

One belief, common among people of all cultures, is that all the different forms of I l k .
including human beings were suddenly created by a divine order about 10,000 years
ago. These innumerable forms of life have always been the same and will last witho~t
change from generation to generation until the end of the world. As we shall see later
in this Unit, such a theory of 'special creation' is'unsound, because fossils of plants and
animals which must have lived a hundred thousand or more years ago have been
discovered. In fact, researches show that life existed on the Earth even 3.5 billion years
ago. It seems that simple forms of life came into being from non-liv~ngmatter, and that
these forms grew more complex over a period of time.

12.2.2 Spontaneous Generation

If we look around at our everyday environment, we observe that straw, soil, mud, dirt,
indeed any sort of refuse or rotting matter is infested with a wriggling, moving
multitude of living organisms. Such ~bservationsled people to believe that life
originated spontaneously from non-living matter. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), known as
the father of biology, maintained that not only worms and insects, but also fish, frogs
and mice couli spring from suitable breeding materials like filth and moist soil. Even
man might have had a similar origin! This theory of spontaneous generation was
disproved by the experiments of the French microbiologist Louis Pasteur aslate as
1862. It was not easy to dislodge Aristotelian ideas. It took all the ingenuity and
experimental skill of Louis Pasteur to disprove the theory of spontaneous generation.
Pasteur performed his experiment before a gathering of well-known biologists of the
time, who were commissioned by the Academy of Sciences of France to test his
hypothesis, that only "life begets life".

For his experiment, Pasteur took two flasks, half filled them with yeast infusion
containing a little bit of sugar and heated them so as to kill any living organisms. He
sealed the mouth of one of the flasks and left the other open to the air. After a few
days, he invited His friends to observe what had happened. T o their surprise, they
found that the closed flask was still free of any living organism while the open one was
infested with living organisms. In fact one of these sealed flask is still kept at the
Academy of Sciences in Paris. Even after more than a hundred years, there are no
living organisms in it. However, to further remove any doubt that organisms did not
grow in the sealed flask due to lack of oxygen, Pasteur repeated the experiment with
s+an necked flasks which were left open (Fig. 12.1). The gooswan-neck would enable the
air to get in, but would prevent any living organisms from getting into the infusion.
Again no organisms grew in these flasks.

No growth Growth
FIE. 12.1: Pastcur boiled broth in flasks with long "swan necks" that admitted a ~ out
r not dust part~clcsor
m~cro-organisms.Whcn cooled, his broth remained clcar until the necks were broken off. Pasteur argued
that these cxperimcnts disproved the existence of a vital substance in the air.
 Origln and Evolution
Pasteur had, thus, shown by these simple experiments that living orpanisms do not arise of M e
spontaneously.

Pasteur's studies helped to solve many problems related to brewing of wines. Wine
making was an important industry in France at the time and 'souring of wine' or wine
going bad was threatening this industry at that time. Pasteur showed that if certain
harmful organisms could be kept out during the brewing process, wine would not sour.
These studies had a profound effect in another area also, namely that of surgery.
Surgical wounds and injuries used to get infected invariably. So much so, that if one did
not die of injury, one would certainly die of infections caught from surgical instruments,
bandages etc. Taking Pasteur's work as the basis, it was postulated that if the wounds
could be kept 'clean', i.e. if disease producing germs could be prevented from getting
into a wound, it would not get infected and would heal better.

12.2.3 Chemical Evolution

The question of how life came into being in the first place still remained unanswered.
T o find an answer to this question means looking back billions of years in time and
trying to imagine what the conditions on the earth could have been like, when life first
appeared. Soviet biochemist, Oparin, and the British biologist, Haldane, tried to do just
that. They proposed that "life could have arisen from non-living organic molecules".

In other words, to understand the problem of origin of life, one must have a
knowledge of the origin of 'organic molecules' on the earth. In the early stages of its
development, with the hot gases condensing and molten matter which was solidifying to
form what are rocks, today, the Earth acted as the huge factory, producing many kinds
of compounds. The sources of energy available for the formation of numerous type of
molecules were cosmic rays, ultraviolet radiations, electrical discharges such as
lightning, radioactivity, and heat from volcanoes and hot springs. Molecules of all sorts
were being continuously created and destroyed due to their state of agitation. The
lighter gases of the atmosphere such as hydrogen, helium, oxygen, nitrogen, etc..
escaped into space unless they could combine with other elements to form liquids or
solids. In such cases they remained on the earth. In particular, oxygen could not remain
as free oxygen. It combined with other elements to form compounds. For example,
hydrogen and oxygen combined to form water vapour, and remained in the Earth's
atmosphere. Similarly, oxygen combined with calcium and carbon to form calcium
carbonate, i.e. limestone. Again, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen combined together to
form ammonium nitrate. Compounds of carbon and hydrogen were also formed
sometimes along with nitrogen or oxygen. These compounds are, today, called "organic
compounds".

The Earth had at the same time started cooling down. As the Earth cooled sufficiently,
torrential and prolonged rains were caused due to condensation of steam. The rains
began to accumulate in the depressions on the earth and so the oceans were formed.
These hot bodies of water contained abundant and varied organic compounds washed
down from the atmosphere. Continued interaction among these compounds in the
warm waters resulted in the formation of yet more compounds. The waters of this stage
of the Earth's development have been referred to as "hot dilute soup", which amongst
other things also contained "amino acids" having a composition of carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen and oxygen. The molecules of amino acids combined together to form large
cuinplex molecules, the "proteins" which are the building blocks of life. Self replicating molecule, i.e.,
they could make from
chemical substances around
It is from this accumulation of complex organic molecules that the first extremely them, other systems like
simple self-replicating molecular systems accidentally originated. Because of the themselves.
property of self-replication, they are called living organisms. The Sun's deadly ultraviolet (U
radiations would have killed any exposed living molecules unless they were under the
protective cover of water. Such primitive life also had a very limited food supply, since
it depended on the slow sinking of organic materials synthesised by radiation in the
upper layers of water. Thus, for millions of years, life must have existed under these
special conditions. Again, random combinations may have led to the formation of
chlorophyll containing organisms which could produce their own food by a process
called photosynthesis. Such organisms had a better chance of survival. During the
process of photosynthesis, light from the Sun helps to synthesise carbohydrates like
sugar and starch out of carbon dioxide and water. Oxygen is given off in the process.
As such organisms grew and photosynthesis proceeded, the atmosphere grew richer in
Universe and Life:
The Beginnings
The primitive earth's
atmosphere was devoid of
free oxygen and contained
mostly carbon dioxide,
methane, an~rnonia,water
vapxJr etc. It was only the
photosynthetic process
initiated by cyanobacteria
ahout 2 n~illionyears ago,
that led to release of free
oxygen in the universe.
free oxygen. As we shall see, this had a profound effect on the course of subsequent
events.
Oxygen when acted upon by ultraviolet radiation, forms ozone, a gas through which
ultraviolet radiation cannot pass. This happens at a height of about 25 km above the
surface of the earth, giving a protective 'ozone layer'. We have, therefore, the happy
chain of events-more photosynthesis, more oxygen produced. And in its turn, more
ozone produced out of oxygen in the atmosphere. screens the earth from the ultraviolet
radiation of the Sun. This allowed living organisms to come to the surface of water and
to survive even on land, if they got thrown out of the swirling and splashing water. The
oxygenation of Earth's atmosphere was very significant from biological point of view,
as organisms of greater complexity and even intel!igence could eventually arise.
12.2.4 Miller's Experiment
The above theory could be tested by recreating in the laboratory on a small scale, the
conditions which must have existed when life originated on the earth.
Fig. 12.2: Stanley Millcr shown with hls apparatus which demonstrates amino acid synthesis in a
condition that prevailed on the earth before life came into being.
Miller, an American biologist (Fig. 12.2) subjected a gaseous mixture of methane,
ammonia, water vapour and hydrogen in a closed flask at 80°C to electric sparking, for
a week. This mixture, with its temperature, and electric discharge through it,
represented a situation that might have prevailed on the earth before life came into
existence. When the contents of the flask (Fig. 12.3) were examined a week later, they
were found to have amino acids which are essential for the formation of proteins. As
we have said before, proteins are the essential building blocks for living organisms.
With the making, in the laboratory, of molecules related to life, the credibility of the
Oparin-Haldane theory of chemical evolution greatly increased. Many amino acids
have been obtained, since by this method. So also some sugars and nitrogenous bases
which are otherwise found in the nucleus of a cell, which is a unit of living organisms.
Similar experiments have led to the production of various compounds which form
many kinds of fats and important natural pigments. Miller's experiment thus forms a
turning point in our approach to the problem of the origin of life.
The evidence, we get from Miller's experiment, is supported by evidence of similar
chemical reactions occurring in space even today. Chemical analysis of a meteorite
which fell near Murchi Murchison in Australia, in 1969, shqwed the presence of organic
molecules. The types and relative proportions of these molecules were very similar to
the products formed in Miller's experiment. The presence of organic molecules like
methane, ethane, formaldehyde, acetyle'ne etc. has been shown in interstellar space by
radioastronomy also.
I
Heat
Fig. 12.3: A typical experiment simulating conditions on the primitive earth. Water is heated in a closed
apparatus contaii:ing methane, ammonia and hydrogen and an electric discharge is passed through the
,
I vaporized mixturc Organic compounds accumulate in the U-tube trap.

SAQ 1
i) In the table given below, we list some of the theories related to the origin of life
and some features of the 3 theories. Match the features with the corresponding
theory.

Theories Features
-.
a) Theory of spontaneous 1 Cosmozoa or Spores were ttansfened to
generation many planets from outer space.
b) Theory of special creation 2 Oparin and Haldane gave independently
the idea that life on the earth may have
originated from preformed organic
molecules.
c) Theory of chemical evolution 3 Innumerable forms of life were
created hy the Divine Act.
d) Ancient Greek idea 4 Living organism are produced from
rotting food and other organic matter.

ii) Some incomplete statements regarding evolution of life on the earth are given
below. Complete them by choosing the right word from the parenthesis.
a) A theory related to the origin of life such as the .................theory of chemical
evolution could be verified experimentally.
b) Miller subjected a gaseous mixture of methane, ammonia, water vapour and
hydrogen in a ...........................flask at 80°C.
c) When the contents of the flask were examined, they were found to have
........................... which are essential for making of proteins.
d) Similar experiments in the laboratory led to the production of various
.....................which form many kinds of fats and natural pigments.
(compounds, closed, amino acids, Oparin-Haldane)

12.3 BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

In the previous section you have seen how life could have originated on the Earth. You
have also seen how, as the conditions on the Earth changed, more and more complex
life forms evolved. We can presume that biological evolution began with the formation
C niverse and l i f e : of the first true cells. These must have been forms that did not require free oxygen and
The Betinnings
lived at the expense of organic molecules available in the waters that surrounded them.
Eventually, as nutrients were depleted, tht: first cells capable of using carbon dioxide
and energy from light, to make their own food through photosynthesis must have
arisen. Today, the diversity of plant and animal forms we have, ranges from simple
single celled organisms to many kinds of plants on one side and animals including man
on the other. Today, we have millions of 'species' of living forms on our planet. There
is evidence, that all the life forms are inter-related and also that the higher forms have
evolved from the lower ones. We will study more about this in the next unit-Evolution
of Man. The study of these millions of species, individually would be a cumbersome
task. Therefore, it is necessary to classify them in groups according to their
evolutionary relationships and similarities in form and function.

Millions of
years before

accumulates
. in atmosphere
.. ..
.'. ,.,.
.
. .
I
..
! 4

Oxygen from
i photosynthesis
prohucefi

t I
Unicellylar forms
Organic Evolution

I ~hemcial'holution atmAPhere
Oxyg n-free
f
5.m [ Formation of Earth) 1
Fig. 12.4: Diagrammatic representation of major events in history of life on earth.

Today, most biologists recognise five categories or kingdoms of living organisms shown
in Fig. 12.5. The first category, Monera, consists of the most primitive single celled
organisms. These alone were present in the beginning for about 2 billion years. These
cells do not have a nucleus and are represented today by the bacteria and cynobacteria
(formerly known as blue green algae). The second, Protista evolved about 1.5 billion
years ago and consists of single celled organisms containing a nucleus. Algae,
protozoans and slime moulds belong to this kingdom.

You must have seen mushrooms sprouting under the trees during the rainy season.
These, and the unicellular yeast are members of the Kingdom Fungi. They are placed
in a separate kingdom because they are one of the most complex organisms that feed
on decaying organic matter. Some fungi are also parasitic causing serious diseases in
plants, animals and human beings while some fungi have given us the most useful
group of medicines-antibiotics. You must have heard about penicillin, streptomycin
etc., these are produced by fungi. The next two kingdoms, Plants and Animals, evolved
later as a result of adaptations to the changing environment of the earth. Plants began
to evolve about 400 million years ago and most of these organisms possess a green
pigment, chlorophyll, which helps them in manufacturing their own food by the process
of photosynthesis. They first appeared in the seas as unicellular algae. The green algae
are believed to be ancestral Links to the land plants like gymnosperms, i.e. nonflowering
plants sand angiosperms or flowering plants. Today, these plants have diversified and
increased in numbers tremendously.
 O ~ i g i nand Evolution
ANIMALS of Life

Fig. 12.5: Five categories or kingdoms of living organisms.

W i l e plants are multicellular organisms which synthesise their food through

photosynthesis, animals are multicellular organisms that survive on food by
the plants. The animals are divided into invertebrates or animals without a backbone
and vertebrates, i.e. animals with a backbone. It is possible to arrange the various
animal groups so that one can see an increase in their complexity. The insects and
worms are invertebrates, while the fishes, frogs, toads, snakes, birds, and mammals like
cows,deer, horses, elephants, and even man, all belong to the group-vertebrates.

Thus, we see that organic evolution proceeds slowly and over these billions of years,
various species have evolved and have adapted themselves to their environment.

SAQ 2
I Some questions regarding the origin and evolution of plant and animal life are given
below. Write your answer in the space provided.
i) What was lacking in the first cell?

ii) List the names of some non-flowering plants found in your region or locality.
.................................................................................................................................................
iii) Name the pigment that plants possess for the manufacture of fdod.
...........a. .....,..4...1.).....................................,...,...,.,....,.,,.,.
i'mivcrw and I.ik: iv) What are the animals possessing a backbone called?
'l'hc Bcginninp
.................................................................................................................................................

12.4 SYSTEMS VIEW OF LIFE

You have seen above, that evolution has given rise to various types of life forms
from single celled bacteria to organisms as complex as a human being. It may
interest you to know, that even the simplest of these organisms is able to carry out
various life processes like, taking in food, excreting waste material, reacting to
stimuli and reproducing offsprings. It is able to survive in varied environments. Let
us see how an organism is able t o d o this.

The characteristics, which we recognize as life, are in fact an expression of the

coordinated working of various parts in the organism. Various parts in an
organism, whether plant or animal are not haphazardly put together but are
organised into systems.

A system is a set of some specific inter-related parts which are organized as one
unit for some purpose. The parts work together and the entire combination forms
one unit. A car producing company, which is organized to produce transport
vehicles can be viewed as a system too. For the effective functioning of the
company, all of its parts, such as the department that purchases raw materials, the
factory, the management and the sales department must work in unison. An
animal or a plant is also made up of numerous parts which represent a well defined
system. For example, in an animal body, the parts concerned with the in-take of
food and digesting it, the bones arranged as a skeleton to support the body, the
heart circulating blood to different parts of the body through the arteries and veins
and the brain receiving signals and giving orders of various kinds together compose
the system.

The assemblage of all plants and animals in an environment provided by each

other as well as by the land, air and water works collectively. The way these diverse
forms of life depend on each other makes one imagine this planet itself as a huge
system. Looking at it in another way, the life and environment of the earth are a
well ccwrdinatcd system, within which there are sub-systems like individual
organisms. And within each of these sub-systems, a single plant or animal, one
would find a complex multicellular system. Similarly, industrial, agricultural c r
educational systems can be visualised as the sub-systems in the society.

Organic systems maintain themselves in a given composite form and function. For
example, a cat remains a cat, it prowls for food, it may lay kittens, but its internal
system functions on the basis of physical principles with stability. How is this stability
maintained by a system? Let us take a specific example; how does a man or woman
maintain this internal stability while the environment around them changes. For
instance, how d o they maintain a fixed temperature of 37"C, or the composition of
their blood or the blood pressure? It has been found that all organisms possess a kind
of information and control network which directs them to adjust to various situations
for survival, e.g., if you touch a snail, it withdraws into its shell. This is a kind of
information and control device for protecting its life. If you sit in the Sun and you feel
hot, a signal which is internally generated causes perspiration and produces cooling by
evaporation of the sweat. This is another example of information and control for
maintaining a fixed body temperature.
You will find that all organisms possess a network of information and control which
may be very simple or at times quite complicated. Without it, neither the survival of an
organism nor its existence in a stable physical condition is possible.

A whole science of "cybernetics" has developed to study information and control in a

generai way. This is because, even machines have to be .so designed as to work with
stability. You must be familiar with a device called a voltage regulator which is used
with a television set or a refrigerator. If at any time the voltage becomes higher than a
 fixed'value the voltage regulator brings it back to that value. Thus, the voltage supplied Ori(lin snd Evolrtiun
to the TV or refrigerator remains stable. of Life

Another example is prevention of fire in buildings particularly offices, hotels, etc. Here
a technique is used to measure the temperiiture of the rooms and in case of a sudden
rise in temperature in a particular room a \ ~ l v opens
e to sprinkle water from the
ceiling. This is automatic protection against fire:

If we just think about it, the basis of information and control is that any deviation or
"difference" from some "normal" value is detected and this generates a signal to correct
the difference. Thus. difference, deviation or error being used to correct the error, is at
the heart of all stable systems. One can also call it a "feedback" arrangement. which
means, feeding the error back into a control so as to reduce or correct the error.

Living organisms have remarkable capacity to regulate their own lives according to the
changes around them. They maintain a normal external and internal structure and
environment in spite of the change in the outside surroundings. This state of constancy
which is vital for life is known as 'homeostasis'.

I---------
I
- - -- - ------ 1
I
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I
I I
I

i
No release Release
I

Loss of Water
Of ADH of ADH water reabsorption
I A 4
1 I
I I
I I
I 1
I Kidney
I I
I I
I t
I
I I
L -- -- - - - - - - --------------A
I

+Ureter

+Urinary bladder

Fig. 12.6: Feedback mechanism which checks the loss of water from the kidncys.

We will give you just one example of the feedback system in the human body which
maintains the right amount of water in the blood (Fig. 12.6). Kidneys are able to
control or check the loss of water from our body. For this, water is reabsorbed by the
collecting tubes in the kidneys so as to prevent its undue loss in the form of urine. This
absorpdon of water is'lmndm the control~d:ad~ernical called iinLin(i-.diuielir:hormonc -
(ADH), which is produced by specialized nerve cells in one of the parts of the fore
brain. If more water begins to be lost by the body due to greater evaporation during
summer, a decrease of water in the blood will take place, changing its internal
environment for which our body is very sensitive. At the time of need a positive signal
to the brain causes the production of this particular chemical (ADH) which increases
the absorption of water in the kidneys and reduces excretion of urine. The absorbed
water gets back into the blood to maintain the normal concentration of the fluid.

SAQ 3
Statements given below speak about life systems. Fill in the blanks by using words
given in the parenthesis.
i) The various parts in an ..................... whether plant or animal. are not put together
haphazardly but are organized into .....:................
l'niver5e and lire:
The Beginni~~gs
ii) All the organisms possess a kind of ........................and ........................ network.
iii) Cybernetics is a study of information and control in a general ........................
iv) Kidneys are able to control or check the .......................... of water from our body.
V) They send a signal to the brain to cause the production of the particular chemical
......................which increases absorption of water in the .................... and reduces
the flow of urine.
(ADH, organism, way, loss, information, control, kidneys, systems)

12.4.1 Life Cycle

The idea that an organism is a system, consisting of various parts, that function to
maintain its internal environment throughout its life time is an important concept in
biology. But how is this system formed?

In its life time an organism passes through certain recognizable stages like birth, growth,
reproduction and death. We see around us plants sprouting from seeds, growing,
bearing fruit and ultimately drying up. Children are born, grow to adulthood, marry,
have children of their own, grow old and die. The series o f events which occur from the
time an organism is born to the time it dies, constitute a life cycle.

The parents die and disappear but the progenies continue to repeat the life cycle,
generation after generation. This continuity of generations is made possible by
reproduction. Primitive organisms like bacteria, algae, protozoa, etc. reproduce by
simple division of the unicellular parent into smaller cells of approximately equal size,
each of which then grows to the size of the parent. Some organisms develop a small
outgrowth or 'bud' which gets separated from the parent body and develops into an
individual. In some lower animals, the body of the parent breaks into several parts and
each part develops into a complete organism.

The common feature of all the processes described above is that only a single parent is
involved and as such all the offsprings produced are alike. This method of reproduction
is called 'asexual reproduction'. Interestingly, asexual reproduction prevails only in the
lower animals and in some plant groups. Man has used this to his advantage in plant
breeding or horticulture. For instance, one can get a new rose plant by simply cutting a
branch and growing it separately. This method is extensively used in growing some
economically important plants, like several varieties of citrus fruits, lemons, oranges
etc. It has been found, that' plants produced in this way mature faster and bear fruit
earlier than those grown from seeds.

Evolution, as we now know, is dependent upon individual variations due to interaction

of heredity with environment. These variations are inherited by the process of sexual
reproduction which involves two parents. Most animals and plants reproduce by this
method. The male parent produces a highly specialized cell called 'sperm' and the
female produces 'ovum' or 'egg'. These cells also called 'gametes' are different from
other body cells in having half tl vlmber of 'chromosomes'. Chromosomes are the
chemical structures which carry infol...ition for all the life processes. These two cells,
sperm and ovum, unite t dal process called fertilization, to form a new cell called
'zygote'. The general pattern of development from zygote to many-celled organism is
basically the sahe for every animal and plant. In the first stage of development the
single-celled zygote divides, and the subsequent cells continue to divide repeatedly
while adhering to one another. These cells finally become specialized for the formation
of various organs. For example during the course of development, a few cells become
specialized for the formation of liver. These cells begin to multiply and give birth to
millions of cells so as to form a liver. Likewise, differentiated brain cells give birth to
complicated structure of brain in an organism. Other organs are also formed in a
similar way and become different parts of the organism. After the organism obtains
maturity, aging starts with the passing of time.

12.4.2 Aging
Aging simply means the process of growing old or the process of progresswe
deterioration in the structure and function of the cells and organs of the body.
 Aging is an integral part ol the life cycle of an organism. Even if an individual meets no Origin and EIohtion
of Life
fatal accident, or is not eaten up by other organisms or does not suffer a killing disease,
death still comes as the natural final result of old age. We are all familiar with the
symptoms of aging in man, some of which are dry and wrinkled skin, brittle bones,
reduced blood circulation and thin shrivelled body. These outward signs of aging are
the rewlt of changes taking place within the cells and the loss of ability of cells to divide.

During a life time, millions of cells are destroyed and replaced rapidly by the process of
ccll division. Whelk more cells are destroyed than are replaced, aging takes place. The
ability of cells to divide is fixed and is always characteristic of an organism. This
explains why some animals age more rapidly than others and have shorter life span
I
than others.

The division rate of different body cells is also specific. In human beings, the cells
, forming the skin are continually destroyed and rebuilt, while the cells constituting the
I
brain undergo no division at all from a time about 5-6 years after birth. Thus, the
different cell types within the same individual age at different rates.
i
In recent years, much attention has been paid to study the process of aging, and how to
slow it down. If this could be done and we could remain active physically and mentally
for longer periods of life span, it would be wonderful. Wouldn't it? Physical exercises
which counter sluggish blood circulation and other body processes are known to be of
some help. Some drugs, which can slow down aging, are also being experimented with.

SAQ 4
Tick mark the right answer in the space provided.
i) Asexual reproduction is carried out by participation of
a) both the parents
b) single parent
ii) In sexual reproduction gametes are formed by
a) doubling the number of chromosomes
b) reducing the number of chromosomes to half
c) no change in the number of chromosomes
iii) Aging is caused by
a) retardation of growth of brain cells
b) wrinkling of skin
c) defects in function of the cells
d) deterioration in structure and functions of the cells and
organs of the body on the whole

12.5 EXTRA-TERRESTRIAL LIFE

Just as we have been curious about how life originated on the Earth, we have also tried
to explore whether there is life on any other planet in the Solar System or elsewhere in
the universe.

Explorations of outer space carried out by spacecraft and ground based observatories,
in recent years, have led us to the conclusion that in the entire Solar System, the planet
Earth is, perhaps, the only place where there is life. The other planets are at such a
distance from the Sun that they are either too hot or too cold for life toexist. The one
close possibility is the planet Mars. Space probe Viking collected and analysed samples
of rock and soil from Mars (Fig. 12.7) to detect the presence of life. But so far no
conclusive evidence of any life, present or past, has been found on this planet.
Man is also looking for life beyond the Solar System. Two approaches are currently
available to him; either to send a man or an instrument to a particular star in the
Universe and examine local surface for life or to listen to the signals from outer space
which may come in the form of radio waves. With our present technology, the first
approach does not take us beyond the Solar System. The second approach is based on
the assumption that there may be civilisations technically as advanced or even more
advanced than our own. So we can exchange radio messages with them. We have
Lniverse and Life:
The Beginnings

Fig. 12.7:' A Viking Lander which analysed rock and soil samples from the planct Mars.

drawn a blank so far on this front. But it is quite possible that our galaxy, the entire
system of dust, gases, and stars within which the Sun moves, is already filled with
chatter between the far older and more advanced civilisations! These signals may havc
been transmitted b) a technique still undiscovered on Earth, so we may be nlissi!?g
them altogether! Recently it has been reported that astronomers have found sornc
other stars, like our Sun, which have planets. If this is provcd to be true, there may bc
millions of planetary systems in the Universe, increasing the likelihood of lifc cxisting
on some of them.

12.6 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt:
about various theories which have been put forward to explain the origin of life on
the Earth, and how Pasteur, through a well designed expcrirrient showed that living
organisms alone can produce other living organisms,
the Oparin-Haldane theory of chemical evolution and the support it got from
Miller's experiments,
how biological evolution started with the formation of the first cells and the role
photosynthesis played in the release of frec oxygen and formation of ozonc layer in
the atmosphere. With this change in the earth's atmosphere tremendous
diversification of life forms, both plants and animals became possible.
the systems view of life and the ability o f living orpi~nismsto maintain thci~.fornl
and function in changing environments.
the life cycle or the various phases through which an organism passes from the time
it is born to its death and the phenomenon of aging.
---- -- -

12.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

- - - -- .. . - - -- -

1) In what way the concept of spontaneous gcncl'ltlon r!t lltc &a\ drsc,lrdcd b l ~ h c .
works of Louis Pasteur.

2) Explain briefly the impacts of Miller's experiment on the classical thcories of origin
of life.
3) Can the deviatiun in normal state of living being be corrected? Describe your Origin asd Elolution
of Lift*
answer in short.

4) .Are there any devices known to obtain the information about extra-terrestrial life?
What are they?

12.8 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1) i) a) 4 b) 3 c) 2 d ) 1
ii) a) Oparin-Haldane b) closed c) amino acids d ) compounds
2) i) nucleus ii) cycas and pine trees iii) chlorophyll iv) vertebrates
3) i) organism, system ii) information, control iii) way iv) loss, ADH, kidney
4) i) a ii) b iii) d

lerminal Questions

1) Pasteur demonstrated by setting experiments that it is not the rotting food and
other organic matter that produces living organisms but rather that the rotting and
fermentation are caused by micro-organism.
2) Miller took a gaseous mixture of methane, ammonia, water vapour and hydrogen
in a closed flask at 80°C subjecting the flask to electric discharge for a week. This
represented the early atmosphere ~f the earth. Analysis of product formed thus
revealed the formation of organic compounds known to occur in living organisms.
This experiment supported the theory of chemical evolution given by
Oparin-Haldane.
3 , Living organisms are provided with mechanisms which conceive of changes from
rhc. normal state and once the change is detected, it is corrected through a
in~chanismsof feedback.
3 1 hc other planets are so far away from the Sun and from one another that
currently only two ways are available for man either to land a manned or
unmanned space craft or to obtain signals from the outer space with the help of
spccial instruments devised for this purpose.
UNIT 13 EVOLUTION OF MAN

13.1 Introduction
Objectives
13.2 Theories of Evolution
Darwin and Natural Selection
Human Evolution
Primate Heritage
13.3 Evidences of Evolution
Palaeontological Evidencc
Archaeological Evidence
Anthropological Evidence
Biochemical Evidence
Dating the Past
13.4 Summary
13.5 Terminal Questions
13.6 Answers

13.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we discussed how the first primitive organisms arose within a few
hundred million years of the planet becoming cool enough to support life. In the
present unit, we would discuss the theory of evolution. We would particularly lay
emphasis on the evolution of man; many of whose characteristics, such as very high
degree of intelligence, upright walking and marked sociability, distinguish him from
other mammals like monkeys and apes.

Here, we have tried to reconstruct the origin of man by putting together the traditional
study of fossils, the study of mankind, especially of its societies, customs and structure
or what we call anthropology and the evolution of man as an animal through studies of
cellular and biological macro-molecules.

Objectives
.. .
After you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
describe Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection,
list various stages of human evolution,
'
state evidences from different sources for the processes of human evolution like
palaeontology, archaeology, anthropology and biochemistry,
explain how the age of fossils of plants and animals etc. is determined.

13.2 THEORIES OF EVOLUTION

Towards the beginning of the nineteenth century, scientists had already started
Fig. 13.1: Larnarck was a
doubting the theory of special creation and various attempts were made to explain how French naturalist and
different life forms could have evolved. Lamarck, a French naturalist (Fig. 13.1), for predecessor ( 1744- 1829) of
instance, believed that all living things adapted to their environment, by using and Darwin. Lamarck belicved
in evolutionary change, but
developing their organs and characteristics that suit their environment best. If thought that such changes
environment changed, their organs too changed accordingly to suit the needs and these were brought on as an
changes were passed on from one generation to another. animal strugglcd to adapt to
its environment, and then
these changes were passed
Accordingly, as the giraffe lived in an environment of high trees and had to stretch its on by inhcritance.
neck to eat the leaves, its neck became long and this trait was inherited by its
descendants. This theory has won little support with the scientists. As we can see, there
is no evidence that a dog trained to d o certain things would pass on the ability to the
next generation, or a scientist's skill is passed on to his children.
Universe and I.ife:
The Beginnings
13.2.1 Darwin and Natural Selection
The English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882, Fig. 13.2) explained how biological
evolution took place, in his remarkable "The Origin of Species" in 1859. Darwin
began his observations at the age of 22, as a naturalist on H.M.S. Beagle, which was a
sail ship (Fig. 13.3) going round the world. He spent five advent~irousyears on the
voyagc. During this period, he visited may islands of the Atlantic Ocean, some parts of
the coasts of South America, and some islands of the South Pacific, of which the
Galapagos is the most important. This journey gave Darwin a prolonged exposure to an
area of the world, radically different in its plant and animal life from his native place.
He collected and preserved a lot of material and took extensive notes throughout the
voyage.

Fig. 13.2: Charles Darwin:

his active pursuit of varied
scientific interests brought
him famein 1859 as the
author of the "Origin of
Species".

Fig. 13.3: Route of H.M.S. Beagle surveying trip around the world (1831-1836). Dashed lines indicate the
return journey of Charles Darwin.

Once back in England, he spent nearly 22 years examining his collection and
pondering over the question of how evolution of species could have taken place. He
drew the evidence from three important areas: the record of the rocks, in which he
discovered fossils and imprints of creatures of the past ages; the distribution of animals
and plants in the world; and finally from the study of the breeding experiments that
were going on in the nineteenth century to improve life stock or to breed dogs and
pigeons.

Darwin's great innovative step was to introduce the theory of 'natural selection' as the
mechanism for evolution. Though the credit for giving this theory*is generally given to
Darwin, another English naturalist-Alfred Russel Wallace had conceived the theory of
evolution independently at'the same time. The work of the two scientists was presented
'jointly at the meeting of the Linnean Society in London in 1858. The theory began
with two observations. First. more organisms are born than can survive t o reproduce:
themselves, because the environment has limited means of subsistence. This
overproduction results in a struggle for existence and ultimate survival o f the fittest.
Plant and animal species compete within and among themselves for food, water, air,
light-everything that enables organisms to survive and reproduce. The second
observation is that offsprings, i.e, children differ slightly from their parents and from
each other in characteristics which they inherit. This we now call genetic variation.
Darwin held the view that these variations are a source of evolutionary change.
According to him in any group, individuals with characteristics which enable them t o
adapt best to their environment survive and reproduce, while those who lack these
characteristics have a poor chance of survival. Thus, Nature selects and preserves the
useful variations in a changing environment, Darwin called this natural selection.

Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection is a scientific theory. Darwin

developed it taking into account his own observations as well as the other existing
information. Through his analysis, he not only postulated the theory of evolution, but
was able to give us a mechanism for evolutionary change. However, like all scientific
theories, Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection has been enriched and
extended as more facts have been discovered about living beings.
In his own time, Darwin's Theory of biological evolution was unacceptable to most Evolution of Man
people, especially the Church; as it spoke against special creation. In fact, Darwin was
very severely criticised for his views. However, he got support from scientific circles.
The debate went on for quite a few years, and continues even today between the men
of science and those of religion.

13.2.2 Human Evolution

Charles Darwin in the 'Origin of Species' gave a lilechanism for the evolution of plants
and animals in general, even though he had speculated about the origin of man. Four
years later, he published the "Descent of Man", in which he speculated that like other
animals, man too had evolved form pre-existing living forms.

Darwin was greatly impressed by the similarities in the bodily structure of man and the
great African apes, the Chimpanzee and the Gorilla. From this, he speculated on the
location of man's origins. In his own words, "In each great region of the world, the
living mammals are closely related to the extinct species of the same region. It is,
therefore, probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by extinct apes, closely allied to
the gorilla and chimpanzee; and as these two species are now man's nearest allies, it is
somewhat more than probable, that our early ancestors lived on the African continent
than elsewhere".

Darwin had noted that embryos, i.e. early unborn young ones, of different organisms
pass through very similar stages (Fig. 13.4). However, small alterations in the timings
of events in early development might produce a substantial change in the mature
organism; for example in many ways adult humans are like juvenile apes, their small
faces and globular cranium bones enclosing the brain are indicative of this. A crucial
step in human evolution, enlargement of the brain, can be seen as a result of the
slowing down of development in the embryo of an ape-like ancestor. Instead of
stopping at birth, brain growth continues well into childhood, eventually producing a
much larger and more complicated piece of mental machinery.

13.2.3 Primate Heritage

Man belongs to a group of animals called mammals which are different from other
animal groups in possessing hair, and milk producing mammary glands, among other
things. Mammals can be further divided into smaller groups or 'orders' on the basis of
4fferences within the group. 'Primates', the order to which man belongs, alongwith
apes and monkeys, were active during the night, that is, they were nocturnal in the
beginning of their evolution. These animals were insect-eaters and lived on trees (Fig.
13.5). This combination of feeding on insects, while being suspended on branches and

Fig, 13.4: Similarities

between monkeys and man
during embryonic
development

Fig. 13.5: A tree shrew (a) and some representatives of modern pr~mateslemur (b) tarsier (c) macaque
monkey (d) gibbon (e) chimpanzee (f) Gorilla (g)
L:niverse and 1.ife: twigs, led the primates to develop some important adaptations. The hand, underwent
T h e Beginnings several changes. The thumb became opposable, that is, it closes to meet the finger tips
which aided in holding the prey. Sensitive fingers developed, having nails rather than
claws. Eye sockets were shifted to the front of the head, providing the primates a better
vision and keen ability for judging distance.

These striking adaptations in the primates gave rise to large sized forms, which adopted
a diurnal life style, i.e. they were active during the day. Their diet included plant food
like leaves and fruits. The origin of monkeys and apes took these adaptations to even
higher levels. Possession of sensitive finger tips became of even greater importance, as
the ripeness of fruits could be judged better by touch than by sight.

Apes move beneath the branches, suspended by long agile arms rather than walking
along them (Fig. 13.5 (e)). This involves a relatively upright posture, and their hips
became a part of this kind of movement. Even when they move on the ground, apes
ockasionally walk as bipeds, i.e., on two feet. It may be an awkward walk with short
steps and swaying motion, but it is two footed. nonetheless. Changes in the skull and
back~bonehelp in the upright posture (Fig. 13.6). And the way the heart, lungs and
other body organs are suspended in the abdomen differs from that of conventionally
four footed animals.

Gorilla

Fig, 13.6: Comparison of skull, back bone and hip bone of man and gorilla.

SAQ 1
a) Indicate whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).
i) Lamarck noted that embryos of different organisms pass through very similar
stages and as such seem to indicate that like other life forms, man too could
have descended from the animals like monkeys and apes.
ii) The need for a keen ability for judging distance, produced'relocation of the
( >
eye sockets in early primates to the front of the head. ( )
bj Give very brief answers to the following questions in the space provided.
.
i) What sort of informations were collected by Darwin during his voyage oh
H.M.S.Beagle?
 ii) How can mammals be distinguished from other animals? Evolution of Man

..........................................................................................................................................
iii) Which animals were insect eaters?

iv) Name the mammals that move beneath the branches of trees.
..........................................................................................................................................

13.3 EVIDENCES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION

4
We have described above, the various adaptations associated with bipedal locomotion
in the early primates. Many more changes were yet to take place before the first human
forms were to emerge. You may like to know, what were these various changes, what
evidences we have in support of the evolution of modern man-'Homo sepiens'. You
would appreciate that, whenever a theory is postulated, we look for evidences which
support that line of thinking. This is true for the general theory of evolution and also I
for the evolution of our own species. Let us try to reconstruct this theory from the
evidences that are provided from different sources, such as the fossil records of animals
which lived in the past, similarities found in the developing embryos of primates and of
other animals about which we have talked above, the archaeological remains of the past
and their dating and more recently from biochemical studies. Cave paintings and other
artefacts left by the early human beings speak of their social and cultural life.
9
',

13.3.1 Palaeontological Evidence

Palaeontology is a branch of earth sciences, which is essentially a study of plant and
animal life in the past geological periods, millions of years ago. It deals with the
successive plants and animals which have inhabited the earth since the earliest times,
Evidence of their existence is left in the form of skeletons and bones buried in the
rocks. These are known as fossils. Crucial evidence of human evolution is provided by
the study of these fossils.

Sometimes, the buried body and the skeleton of an animal disintegrate entirely. If the
surrounding material is sufficiently firm, a cavity may remain, having the exact outlines
of the structures that disappeared. Such a cavity is called mold, Similar to molds are
the impressions. These are left by extinct objects or parts of the body upon the
~urroundingmaterial. The impression is made while the surrounding material is soft,
like footprints in clay or lava. Footprints of extinct animals are also impressions
affording valuable information about the animals that made them.

It is important to mention here, that early human fossils that have been found are
generally fragmentary and incomplete. This is because only during the last 50,000 years
or so, man started burying his dead. These later fossils are better preserved and,
therefore, give us more information. For the earlier period, parts of bones are often the
basis of imagining the re-construction of the whole skeleton. The finding of fossils
deposits is both a matter of chance and of deliberate excavation in certain regions of
the earth.

The First Hominids: The First Human Fossil

The earliest human like or hominid (Fig. 13.7) remains come from two separate East
African sites. Ethiopia has yielded several hundred fossil fragments of individuals that
lived and died between 3.0 and 3.6 million years ago. The second site is in Tanzania
where three hominids left a 20m trail of footprints some 3.75 million years ago. It is
concluded that these earliest h o e i d s were built with an ape's head on top of a
man-like body. They show hominid characteristics to place them firmly within human
ancestry. There is evidence that they walked on two feet. However, enough primitive
features still remained, so as to put them close to an ape-like ancestor with tree
climbing habits.
I'niverse and 1,ile:
The Beginnings

Evolution of Man

Fumkrms \ t r r k l o n ~ c , ~
and Krorndraa,

Fig. 13.7: (a) Map of early

honiinld sites in East and
South Afnca (b) the partla1
skeleton of a 20 years old
hom~nidwho lived more
than thrcc mlll~onyears
ago was found by Dr.
Donald Johanson in
Ethiopia. The fossil
remains, are .known as
'Lucy'.
 Evolution of Man
Australopithecus-The Transitional Human Forms
By about two million years ago, there were several well established hominid ancestors
in Africa. One of the earliest of these is Australopithecus (Fig. 13.8). Fossils of
Australopithecus, which have been recovered from South and East Africa, show that
their brains were relatively small, the bones enclosing the brain, therefore, were rather
ape like, but the face was shorter than in apes. The enamel of the teeth indicated that
Australopithecus ate essentially fruits. The evidence for two-footed posture in
Australopithecus is strong as the back bone shows the typical hominid curvature. Also
the hip bone, which is the skeletal frame to which the legs are attached is shorter than
in apes, although it is not as short as in modem humans.

'Homo Habilis-The First Tool Makers

One of the most important developments in human evolution was the dramatic
expansion in brain size which, according to the fossil data available so far, began about
two million years ago. Certain specimens recovered from deposits in East Africa
apparently have brain capacities in excess of 650 cm" and close to 800 cm3. These
specimens were taken to represent the first appearance of our o m kind and were
termed Homo habilis. The species name Homo habilis, means, literally, handy man.
Homo habilis walked upright. The bones of the hand, while displaying many
characteristics of modern humans, are somewhat curved in places and more robust
b
than in modern man, i.e. Homo sapiens. The leg and foot bones have characteristics
that are both ape-like and human-like, but overall, they are much closer to those of
,nodern humans than to apes. The leg and foot were those of a habitual two-footed
animal. The simultaneous occurrence of Homo habilis fossils and crude flakes and
stone tools indicate that they used tools. There is no evidence that this early form of
, homonids ate meat. habil
HO~IO 5

Homo ereclur
Neanderthal Man

Fig. 13.8: Artist's reconstruction of the appearance of the Early Man.

Homo Erectus
Homo erectus or the erect man first arose at least 1.6 million years ago and continued
to five for more than a million years before the transition to Homo sapiens occured.
Homo erectus had a large brain (Fig. 13.9) measuring 800 to 900 cm" Fossils of
Homo erectus have been discovered throughout Africa, Europe and Asia. Signs that
Homo erectus hunted animals and ate meat, are available from the stone tools he used
and the marks which these tools left on the bones of animals which have been
recovered near their own dwelling areas.
 fniverse and Life: There is evidence, that the life of Homo erectus must have been fairly complex;
The Beginnings
placing great demands on these individuals as intelligent, socially interacting beings.
One can even imagine that a relatively complex spoken language may have evolved.
The prehistoric record is, of course, silent on this point.

The Neanderthals
These were the first human like fossils found. The Neanderthals existed throughout
western Europe and across into the near east and central Asia from about 100,000
years ago LO 40,000 or 35,000 years ago, depending on the precise locality. There are,
striking structural distinctions between Neanderthals and modern humans. Although,
the posture, range of movements and manipulation skills were the same in
Neanderthals as in modem humans, the skeleton was substantially more robust.
Neanderthal's brain (Fig. 13.9) was on average slightly larger than normal for modern
humans, measuring about 1400 cm3. The large brain size could be corrasponding to the
more robust musculature. Neanderthals (Fig. 13.8) were proficient hunters, skilled tool
makers and they used hides for protecting their bodies. For the first time in human
history, ritual burial became common.

Homo erectus

Neanderthal man

Homo sapiens -
Fig. 13.9: Comparison of Neanderthal man with H o m o erectus a n d H o m o sapiens shows it t o have some
features of both. T h e very large brain of the Neanderthals, which slightly exceeds that of Homo sapiens is
seen as a modem feature.

Homo Sapiens-Modern Human Beings

Discoveries of number of fossils of Homo sapiens suggest that modern humans (Figs.
13.8, 13.9) arose in Africa and migrated to the rest of the old world via the Middle
East. It should be noted that these modern humans of the early upper stone age,
40,000 years ago, were distinctly more robust or sturdy as compared with the
population today.

13.3.2 Archaeological Evidence

The study of human antiquities, especially of prehistoric period is known as
archaeology. The biological and cultural evolution of man proceeded side by side and
the two influenced each other. Like the physical remains of man, his cultural remains
also lie buried in the ancient deposits. Often, the two categories of evidence are found
together in the same layers of the rock. With the passage of time, and the increasing
capacity of his brain and development in other bodily organs, man's culture became
more and more varied and complex. He learnt the use of new materials for making
tools and developed new techniques for improving them. The use of tools had a
 tremendous impact on increased access to food and therefore on cooperative living in Evolution of Man
colonies. In many areas, archaeological remains show reindeer to be the principal
source of meat they ate.

13.3.3 Anthropological Evidence

Modern humans arose at a time when the Earth was going through a very cold and icy
period called the Ice Age, which began about 75,000 years ago and ended about
10,000 years ago. The Ice Age was at its most severe about 18,000 years ago, a point
which coincides with the development of prehistoric art, represented by colourful
h images painted on cave walls and rock shelters, Many thousands of carved and
engraved pieces of bone and ivory have been discovered from the same period. A great
majority of images are, indeed, of animals we can recognize, especially images of
reindeer and bisons are plentiful; while paintings of people are strangely absent.

The general view about agriculture is that, at the end of the last Ice Age, i.e. about
10,000 years ago, there was a dramatic global shift in the human pattern of living from
nomadic hunting and food gathering to settlements producing food. The discovery that
sprinkling of grain could lead to crops and hence to lot of food, must have had a big
impact on social living. Settled living probably led to increase of population, as also to
I
b
development of music and dance to occupy the leisure. Language and communication
must have developed, as also a capacity to wonder and to reflect about nature.

13.3.4 Biochemical Evidence

t

As we had said earlier in section 13.2, Darwin had recognized that humans and the
great apes shared many physical characteristics. This led him to conclude, that humans
and apes descended from a common stock. Darwin's conclusions were based on the
study of fossils and the physical similarities that he had observed. Now, a century later
biochemical studies of proteins and the genetic material-DNA show how good his
guess was,

Biochemical studies show us that, as evolution proceeds and the species get
differentiated, they accumulate changes in the structure of their proteins and DNA.
Longer the separation time, greater the changes. These changes are expressed in terms
of percent genetic distance which indicates the proportional difference between the
DNA of the two species. Comparative studies of the proteins of the African apes and
humans showed that chimpanzees, gorillas and humans are closely related to one
another, while the Asian apes, i.e. the gibbon and orangutan were the more distant
cousins of this trio .(Fig. 13.10).

/ PCrcCni FWilc distance 1.2 percent geneuc dlrtancc\

2.2 Pcrceni r k i c distance

Fig. 13.10: A chart to show hereditary distancc between humans anxthe apes.
I'niverse and I.ife: Once the Asian and African apes were considered to be closely related and it was
The Beginnings thought that the hominids developed from apes prior to 15 million years ago.
Biochemical evidence, however, indicates that the ape-human divergence may have
been much closer to five million years and that thc gorilla split off first, leaving the
chimpanzees and the human-like creatures to share a common ancestor briefly before
separating. Ramapithecus (Fig. 13.8)-a fossil specimen found in Asia, Europe and
Africa was at one time thought to be closely related to the species of modem man.
However, on the basis of biochemical evidence, it has now been shown that it cannot
be considered a homonid, because it lived before the Asian apes diverged from
hominids. Same is true for Sivapithecus indicus, a fine fossil specimen of which was
discovered in 1980 from the foothills of the western Himalayas in Pakistan.

SAQ 2
Match the type df evidence given in favour of evolution in column 1 with the statement
given in column 2.

1 2
-- -----
Biochemical i) With the passage of time and the increasing capacity
of man's brain and development in other bodily
organs, his culture became more and more varied and
complex.
Palaeontological ii) The earlier assumption rcgal-ding human evolution is
supported by chemical studies on the nature of
proteins and DNA, which show chimpanzees, gorillas
and humans to be closely related to eachothcr.
Anthropological iii) 'Lucy', a partial fossil skcleton, recovered from a site
in Ethiopia showcd that bipedal locomotion had
already dcvrloped to an advanced stage, cvcn
though the brain size was modest.
Archaeological iv) Thousands of carved and engraved pieces of bone
and ivory have been discovered from thc prehistoric
period.

13.3.5 Dating the Past

You would be wondering how we can tell, today, that a particular rock is a million
ycars old, or a fossil is 5 0 thousand ycars old. For instance, how do we estimate the
duration of various geological periods on a time scale of billions of years? Initially, such
estimates were based on the rate at which geological processes such as depositions of
stones and rocks occur. Many layers of rock originated as deposits in the sca~andat the
mouths of rivers. Therefore. one way to get an idea of the length of time required to
produce a deposit of a given thickness, is to measure the rate at which rivers arc
depositing sediments in thc sca today.

With the dcvcloping knowlcdgc of radioactivity. more accurate dating o f fossils and
certain types of rocks has become possible. Radioactive substances can be easily
detected using certain instruments. They have built-in "clocks" in the form of
'radioactive isotopes' that change or decay at a constant rate into non-radioactive form.
If this rate is known, the length of time since the fossil or the rock was formed can be
estimated by measuring the quantities in the rock, of the radioactive isotopes arid the
non-radioactive ones into which they have changed. For example, Uranium is
transformed into certain isotopes of lead which are not radioactive. So, the age of
uranium-containing rocks can be determined by comparison of the proportions of
undecayed Uranium and that of the corresponding lead isotopes present in the rock.
see Fig. 13.11.

The method most commonly used, now, for estimating the age of fossils is radio-carbon
dating. Radioactive isotope of carbon is commonly known as carbon- 14. Since
carbon- 14 is chemically the same as ordinary carbon, both arc absorbed by plant and
animal tissues in the same proportion as they arc present in the atmosphere as carbor.
dioxide. Plants use this carbon dioxide in making their food. Animals eat the plants.
Hence, the proportion of carbon- 14 in the tissues o f plants and animals is the same as
in the atmosphere, as long as the plant or the animal is living. But as soon as it dies, no
 Evolution of Man

--+--
A number of stages, in.wh~ch small
parucles are given off, and energy is evolve

Uranium

Fig. 13.11: Radioactive atoms have unstable atomic nuclei. When these nuclei break down or decay,
they emit characteristic particles o r rays. The end result of this radioactive decay is that another kind of
atom is formed.

more carbon can enter its body as photosynthesis or food intake stops. Following
death, the carbon-14, already present in the body, decays steadily into ordinary carbon.
So the smaller the number of carbon-14 atoms remaining, the older is the fossil. Thus,
if we take a piece of ancient wood or bone and measure the amount of carbon-14
present in it, we can estimate the age of the material. This technique has been applied
to materials of known age, and thus its accuracy was tested giving confidence in the age
determinations of unknown samples.

The carbon-14 method is applicable only to organic materials which still contain
carbon. It cannot be used for fossils in which all organic matter has decayed. In that
case the age of the fossil can be estimated by determining the presence of other
radioactive elements like flourine, or phosphorus.

SAQ 3
Complete the following statements.
i) Accurate dating of fossils and certain types of rock is possible with the
development of the knowledge of ...........................
ii) The rate of decay of radioactive isotopes into non-radioactive forms helps in
estimating the age of ...........................
iii) Radio-carbon dating is used for organic materials that still possess ..........................
iv) Age of the fossil in which all organic matter has decayed is estimated with the help
of radioactive isotopes of ...........................

'13.4 SUMMARY
In the present unit you have studied:
a That Darwin's theory of natural selection postulates the survival of the best adapted
1 forms with the inheritance of the distinctive characters in which their fitness lies.
a The evidences from palaeontology, archaeology, anthropology as well as the study
of proteins and genetic material of present day apes and human beings indicate a
common ancestry till about five million years ago.
a That the age of rocks, fossils and archaeological remains is estimated by measuring
the quantities of radioactive and non-radioactive isotopes of different elements.

13.5 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1 What does Darwin's theory speak about?

2 State the difference between palaeontology and archaeology.

I
................................................................................................................................................
llniverse and I.iIe: .................................................................................................................................................
The Beginnings
3 How is the age of a fossil determined?

4 How is the age of the remains of ancient plants, animals, men, and their belongings
known?

5 Study the diagrams in part (a) and (b) of Fig. 13.12 showing two theories about
evolution and give short answers to the following questions.

Early giraffes probably had short necks Early giraffes probably had necks of
which they stretched to reach food. various lengths.

Their offspring had longer necks which ~ o n i ~ c t i t i oand

n natural selection led to
they stretched to reach food. survival of the longer-necked giraffes and
their offspring.

Eventually the continued stretching of the Eventually only long necked giraffes
neck resulted in today's giraffe. survived the competition.

i) Name the two scientists who proposed these two theories.

ii) Which of two theories is.supported by the current data and evidence about
evolution?
 Evolution of Man
13.6 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1) a ) i ) Falsc ii) True
b) i) During his voyage Darwin collected and preserved a variety of plants and
animals and took extensive notes on them.
ii) Mammals have mammary glands and hair on the body while other animals
do not possess these characters.
iii) early primates
iv) apes
2) i) Archaeological ii) Biochemical iii) Palaeontological iv) Anthropological
3) i) radioactivity ii) fossil iii) carbon iv) flourine or phosphorus

Terminal Questions
1) The survival of the forms best adapted to environment with the inheritance of
those distinctive characteristics in which theii' fitness lies.
2) Palaeontology deals with the fossil remains of prehistoric anirnzls or plants whereas
archaeology is the study of human antiquities especially of prehistoric period.
3) The carbon- 14 method is applicable KOorganic materials still containing carbon, it
can not be used for fossils in which all organic matter has decayed. Therefore, in
case of these fossils, the'rate at which flourine becomes incorporated into bones
during fossilization is utilized for estimating the age.
4) Age of ancient wood, bone antiques etc. can be determined by using carbon-14.
5) i) a) Lamarck
b) Darwin
ii) Only Darwin's theory of natural selection is supported by existing data.

GLOSSARY
asteroid: a small body orbiting the Sun; a minor planet
astrology: a study of the supposed influence of the positions of the Sun, Moon,
planets and stars upon human affairs
astronomy: the science which describes objects in space according to their location,
motion, size, composition, and appearance
astrophysics: the branch of astronomy that applies the methods and tools of
physics to the study of heavenly objects
atom: the smallest particle of an element, which retains its properties
aurora: the display of lights in nature, usually in the polar regions
binary star: a double-star system in which the two stars revolve around each other
biochemistry: chemistry of living organisms
biomolecule: molecules of substances like sugar, fats & proteins present in living
organisms.
biped: twb-footed animal e.g. man or a bird.
black dwarf. thought to be the final stage in the evolution of a white dwarf
black hole: thought to be the final stage in the evolution of a massive star
cell: microscopic unit of living matter enclosing s e ~ f - ~ r o d d cgenes
in~
compound: 3 substance made up of two or more elements
constellation: a definite region of the sky defined by a group of stars
core: the central portion of a planet or any heavenly body
cosmology: the study of the organisation and structure of the universe and its
evolution
cranium: bony part of the head enclosing the brain
crater: a depression in the surface of the Earth, Moon, or other such bodies
crescent: that phase of the Moon, which shows it less than half full
crust: the outer layer of the Earth, Moon, or other such bodies
cybernetics: the science of communication and control in machines and animals
density: the mass of an object divided by its volume
deoxyribo nucleic acid (DNA): complex biomolecules responsible for storing and
transfer of genetic material
Universe and Life: electromagnetic radiation: a special kind of energy that can propagate through
The Beginnings vacuum, like light
electromagnetic spectrum: the full range of electromagnetic radiation
element: simplest substance like oxygen, carbon etc. which cannot be broken down
into simpler forms by chemical processes
environment: collective term for the conditions in which an organism lives e.g.
temperature, light, water, other organisms
evolution: development of more complicated forms of life (plants and animals)
from earlier and simpler forms
focus: the point at which the converging rays of light meet after passing through a
lens or a mirror
fossils: recognisable part, trace, or imprint of a prehistoric animal or plant once buried
in earth, now hardened like rock
galaxy: a collection of millions to hundreds of billions of stars, and clouds of gas and
dust
genetic: the ways in which characteristics are passed on from parents to offspring
gibbous: that phase of the Moon or a planet during which it appears more than half
full but less than full
hormone: internal secretion that passes into the blood and stimulates the body organs
or endocrine glands
intergalactic: space between the galaxies
interstellar: space between the stars
isotope: atom of an element e.g. heavy hydrogen, having a nuclear mass different from
that of other atoms of the same element, although chemically identical
light year: the distance light travels in one year
mass: a measure of the amount of material in an object
molecule: a combination of two or more atoms
nebulae: a cloud of dust in space
nova: a star that suddenly brightens and then fades again
nucleus (of an atom): the central part of the atom, containing protons and neutrons
nucleus (of a cell): body containing the chromosomes present in nearly all cells of
plants and animals. It is essential for continued life of most cells
nucleic acids: two complex compounds (DNA, RNA) which occur in all living cells
orbit: a closed path along which a body moves as it revolves around a point in space
organic molecules: molecules which have carbon and hydrogen atoms as their
constituents or molecules derived from these.
parallax (stellar): the apparent shift of a star against the background of more distant
stars due to the motion of the Earth around the Sun
period (of rotation or revolution): the time taken to complete one rotation or one
revolution, respectively
phase (of the Moon or a planet): changes in the portion of their illuminated 'face'
is visible from the Earth
photosynthesis: process in which energy of sunlight is used by green plants to build up
complex substances, like carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water
primate: one of the highest order of mammals including men, apes, monkeys and
lemurs
primordial: existing at or from the beginning
prism: a solid of glass or other transparent material shaped like a wedge and used to
disperse light into its spectrum of seven colours
proteins: body building substances essential to good health, prcscnt in such food as
milk, egg, meat etc.
protostar: the mass of material in the process of forming a star
pulsar: an object that emits brief pulses of radiowaves; possibly a very rapidly spinning
neutron star
quasar: a star-like object at a great distance; it emits huge amounts of energy
radiation: the sending out of energy, heat etc. as waves
radio active substance: atoms of some elements such as radium and uranium break up
spontaneously with the emission of radiations or electrically charged particles c q a b l e
of penetrating even opaque bodies and producing electrical effects
.red giant: a very large, cool star
red shift: the shifting of spectral lines to4ards the rt '1 cnd of the spectrum due to the
source moving away from the observer
spores: germ, single celled or many celled body by which plants specially moss, ferns,
fungi etc. reproduce themselves
stellar evolution: the life cycle of a star Evolution of Man
terrestrial: living on the earth or land
UV-rays (ultra-violet rays): invisible rays having wave lengths shorter than that of
violet colour (in sun light, light from mercury vapour lamp, etc.)
wavelength: the distance between two successive crests or two successive troughs r)f a
wave
white dwarf: a very hot, dense, small star
zodiac: a band in the sky containing the twelve constellations usually associated with
astrology

FURTHER READING .

1 Cosmos, Carl Sagan, Ballantine Books, New York, 1985.

2 Physics, Part I & II, A text book for class X, NCERT, 1985, Chapter 1.
3 Essays about the Universe, Boris A. Vorontsov-Vel'yaminov, Mir Publishers,
Moscow, 1985.
4 Basic Biology, Part II, A Text book for class X(ed.) by R.N. Kapil, NCERT,
1986.
5 The Ascent o f Man, J . Bronowski, BBC, London, 1976.
6 New Guide to Science, Isaac Asimov, Penguin, 1987.
 COURSE CONTENTS
Block 1 : History of Science
Unit 1 Science as a Human Endeavour
Unit 2 Science in the Ancient World
Unit 3 Iron Age
Unit 4 The Golden Age of Science in India
Block 2 : Emergence of Modern Science
Unit 5 Science in the Medieval Times
Unit 6 Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution and After
Unit 7 Science in Colonial and Modem India
Unit 8 The Method of Science and the Nature of Scientific Knowledge
Block 3 : Universe and Life -The Beginning
Unit 9 Universe as a System
Unit 10 Exploring the Universe
Unit 11 Solar System
Unit 12 Origin and Evolution of Life
Unit 13 Evolution of Man
Block 4 : Environment and Resources
Unit 14 Ecosystem
Unit 15 Components of Environment
Unit 16 The Changing Environment
Unit 17 Natural Resources
Unit 18 Resource Utilisation, Planning and Management
Block 5 : Agriculture, Nutrition and Health
Unit 19 Food and Agriculture
Unit 20 Scientific Possibilities and Social Realities
Unit 2 1 Food and Nutrition
Unit 22 Health and Disease
Block 6 : Information, Knowledge, Insight
Unit 23 Mind and Body
Unit 24 Psychological Aspect of Behaviour
Unit 25 Information and Communication
Unit 26 Modes of Communication
Block 7 : Science, Technology and Development
Unit 27 Science and Technology in Industry
 Unit 28 Technology and Economic Bevelopment
Unit 29 Modem Development In Science and Technology - I
Unit 30 Modem Development in Science and Technology - 11
Block 8 : New Perspectives
Unit 3 1 Perceptions and Aspirations
Unit 32 Science -The Road to Development
AudioNideo Programmes
Audio : 1) Science and Society (Block 1)
2 ) Astronomical Bevelopment in India (Block 3)
3) Measuring Astronomical Distances (Block 3)
4) Evolution of Man (Block 3)
5) The Forest Ecosystem (Block 4)
6) Population Pressure (Block 4)
7) Common Misconceptions about Health (Block 5)
8) Human Factors in Engineering (Block 6)
9) New Information Order (Block 6)
10) Technology and Self-Reliance (Block 7) .
, 11) Nuclear Disarmament (Block 7)
Video : 1) Method of Science (Block 2)
2 ) A Window to the Universe (Block 3.)
3) The Story of a River (Block 4)
4) Green Revolution (Block 5)
5) lnfectious Diseases (Block 5)
6) Jean Piaget Development Stages of a Child (Block 6)
7) INSAT (Block 6)
UNIT 14 ECOSYSTEM
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Ecology and Environment
Ecosystem
Individuals in an Ecosystem and their Ecological Role
Food Chain
Food Web
Energy Flow in the Ecosystem
Cycling of Materials in the Ecosystem
The Nitrogen Cycle
The Carbon Cycle
The Water Cycle
Interaction.in the Earth Ecosystem
Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

14.1 INTRODUCTION
-- --- - -

As far as we know, our earth is the only planet where life exists, though scientists su
constantly searching for signs of life on other heavenly bodies. You have already learlt: i i
the previous block, how life came into existence on this planet. You have also studied, that
several hundred million years ago, living conditions on the earth were quite different from
what they are today and so were the earlier living organisms. The present variety of animals
and plants has evolved out of the old ones just as the present living conditions on the earth
have evolved over a period of rhillions of years. In addition to sunlight, air, soil, water, the
eanh has got the right pressure and temperature that enables life to exist, evolve, and
diversify. A~tuallythere exists a very delicate balance in nature between the earth's
environment and the living organisms. If this balance is disturbed then the life that exists
( d a y is likely to be affected or even destroyed. Flash floods.andsoi1erasion are same of
the adverse effects of this imbalance. Therefore, we must understand that how living and
non-living things exist in harmony with nature and what aie the processes that maintain this
balance. In this unit you will learn how life system is sustained on this planet.

Objectives
After studying this unit you would be able to:
describe how all forms of life are dependent directly or indirectly, on their environment,
as well as on one another,
explain how essential needs for the existence of life, such as energy, nutrition and water
are continuously made available by certain processes going on in nature,
discuss the interdependence of life, and how its sustaining processes are delicately
balanced in nature.

14.2 ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Today, we hear people from different walks of life, using the terms ecology and
environment. Politicians, leaders. town planners, students and architects speak of
'environmental issues' and 'ecological concerns'. Of course, these phrases are very
common, but are they really understood by the speaker and the listener alike? Often these
are interpreted in many different ways. So we need to establish some common
understanding of these terms.
Ecology is a branch of biology which deals with the relationships betweeii organisms and
their 'environment'. Everything that affects an organism from outside, during its life, is
Environment and Resources collectively known as its Environment. These environmental influences can be divided into
two categories. The living things that affect an organism are called biotic factors, and those
that are not alive are called abiotic factors. Let us understand this with the help of an
example. Consider a fish in a stream, we can identify many different environmental factors
that are important in its life. The temperature of the water is an important abiotic factor but, it
may be influenced by the presence of trees, a biotic factor, along the bank of the stream that
shade the stream and prevent the sun from heating it. The kind and number of organisms that
serve as food for the fish, are important biotic faitors as well. The type of materials that
make the bottom of tHe stream, and the amout'of oxygen dissolved in the water are two
other abiotic factors, which are related to the. speed of flow of water. In brief, the
environment of an organism is complex, and its various factors are interrelated.

SAQ 1
Fill in the blanks choosing appropriate words from the list given below.
a) . . . . . . . . . . is the study of the int&action of organisms with their. . . . . . . . . .
b) The word. ......... very broadly means as anything that affects a n . ........
during its lifetime.
C) The environment consists o f . . . . . . . . . . and. ......... components.
(environment, biotic, organism, abiotic, environment, ecology)
--
14.3 ECOSYSTEM -

The example of a fish in a stream makes it quite clear that if we want to understand the
living things and their place in nature properly, we must not consider them alone, but rather
as a part of an interacting system. Such an interacting system, e.g., a stream, is called
ecosystem.
You must have seen a lake, a pond; a grassland or a forest at one time or another. All these
are some more examples of ecosystem. Let us consider a pond as our model ecosystem (see
Fig. 14.1) and examine it more closely.

Fig. 14.1: The pond ecosystem showing biotic and abiotic components.
-
 As already mentioned earlier, it is made up of basically two types of components: living and Ecosystem
nun-living.The living components include various types of plants, frogs, birds, fish, turtle,
insects and numerous kinds of microscopic life forms called microbes. The water, the
dissolved gases such as oxygen, and carbon dioxide, the minerals, soil, and stones constitute
the non-living components. The various components of the pond interact with each other. In
lac(, d ~ pond
c is a small world in itself I-Ierr, living kings are born, they live, breathe,
feed, excrete, move, grow, mate, reproduce, kcomc hod for each other and die withi? the
pon'ct itself: I r i s rightly said'that the p ~ n dhas a dynamic cxisten'ce. It is not the same tndiy,
as it was yeslerday, Mow let us look more -closely at Ihe biotic components in an ecosystem,
arid their rolc.

14.3.1 Individuals in an Ecosystem, and their Ecological Role

Within an ecosystem, the organisms can be classified under three broad categories, namely,
producers, consumers and decomposers. Let us see what is their position in the ecosystem.

Sun is the ultimate source of energy for nearly all life on the earth. Solar energy enters life
mainly through green plants, and also through some kinds of bacteria and algae which are
called producers. During photosynthesis, green plants use the energy of sunlight to convert
two simple, low energy substances, carbon dioxide and water, into more complex
substances, such as carbohydrates which we may call food. Photosynthesis produces oxygen
as a by-product. To cany on photosynthesis and make food, green plants need not only
sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide, but also small amounts of some minerals such as
cAcium, potassium and~nagnesium,dissohed in tlie water around &he floaling plants. or in
the soil water around plant roots.

Photosynthesis:
Carbon dioxide + water + solar energy + minerals + food + oxygen In the adjacent equation where
you see arrow read it as
Food made during photosynthesis may later be used for energy by the plant itself, or by an 'produces'.
organism that consumes the plant. In an organism food is used up, with the release of its
stored energy, by the process of respiration. Respiration requires oxygen, a& releases three
products: energy (part of it is used for doing work, and the rest is not used and is given out
as heat energy), carbon dioxide, and water - the starting products of photosynthesis!

Respiration:
Food + oxygen + carbon dioxide + water + energy 'he arrow in the adjacent
equation means produces.
Food is not only a source of energy, but also the nutrients used to build up the organisms'
bodies. So we see that nutrients and energy are combined into one entity, food, during
photosynthesis. This food may be taken by the other organisms from green plants.

So far we have seen that, green plants are called producers because they produce their own
food. Plants live and die, they may be eaten up by animals who also eventually die. There
are organisms - the decomposers which act on dead plants and animals and for their
existence they decompose the substances which form these dead bodies. In other words, the
decomposers, such as bacteria, fungi and worms, convert the material of the plants and
animals back to their elementary forms.

Besides the producers and decomposers, there is another category of organisms - the
consumers. These organisms cannot make their own food, and they depend directly or
indirectly on producers, for energy and nutrients.

Consumers include herbivores, animals that eat plants; carnivores, animals that eat other
animals; and omnivores, animals that eat both plants and animals. Deer, duck, goat, and
cow are examples of herbivores. Some human beings who are vegetarian by choice, could
also be considered as herbivores. Wolf, tiger, cat, dragonfly, and eagles are all carnivores;
rats and most human beings are examples of omnivores.

SAQ 2
Fill the empty boxes in the crossword puzzle given below. After you have completed the
crossword, classify the organisms as producers, decomposers, herbivores, carnivores, and
omnivores.
Environment and Resources
Clues

Left to Right Top to Bottom

1 Bird (5) 2 Animal (5)
2 Crop (5) 4 Weed (5)
3 Animal (6) 10 Animal (3)
4 Animal (7) 1 1 Plant (6)
5 Insect (1 1) 12 Bird (3)
6 Bird (4) 13 Insect (6)
7 Animal (4) 14 Vegetable (3)
8 Worm (9) 15 Bird (6)
9 Animal (3) 16 Animal (4)
r"

* The numbers in bracket denote the letters in the word.

14.3.2 Food Chain
As you know from the discussion of the previous subsection (14.3.1), one of the ways in
which the organisms are related is through food, that is, one organism becomes food for the
other. A sequence of organisms that feed on one another constitutes a food chain
(see Fig. 14.2).

Fig. 14.2: Food Chdn

The mows in the figure show the direction of passage of nutrients and energy from the
producer, a plant, to caterpillar, to the sparrow and finally to the eagle. The number of links
or steps in a food &.in are usually limited to four or five. You may wonder why it is so.
You would find the answer to this later.
Coming back to the links or steps in a food chain, each of the link is also referred to as a
trophic level. The trophic leve! to which an organism belongs, indicates how far it is away
from plants in the food chain. Green plants or producers make up the first trophic level. The
second trophic level contains the plant eating animals, the herbivores, and higher trophic
levels are made up of carnivores. Another point, that we wish to make here is, that an
organism cannot always be assigned to one specific trophic level. Take the example of man
who is an omnivore, i.e., he is both a herbivore and a carnivore, so he may belong to the
second and/or the third trophic level.

14.3.3 Food Web

Within an ecosystem, there are many different food chains. Some organisms may be
involved in several of the food chains at the same time (see Fig. 14.3). So a number of food
chains become interwoven into a food web, that may be very complex. The term food web is
often used to describe more accurately, the actual feeding relationship within a given
ecosystem. In a forest, if deer become rare or get wiped out by a disease or any natural .
calamity, the predator, such as lion, can feed on other animals such as fox, wolf. crane etc.
rill the usuai prey arlimsls are availublt again (see Fig. 14.3). 11i brief', w e can say that rr!zr~y
irtterlocking fuucl chains make it possible for rhr living beings to survive rninor or major
setbacks and changes in their surroundings. Thus, interlocking food chains provide stability
to the ecosystem.

Fig. 11.3: A fvvd web showing the main fwd links. Note that the starting point for each chain is a plant, and
several fwd chains are interconnected to form a food web.

14.3.4 Energy Flow in the Ecosystem

The principal source o f energy for any ecosystem is sunlight. In the earlier sub-section
(14.3.1) you have studied that solar energy is converted by plants into food materials, and is
stored within the body of the plant. All food materials that we or other animals consume are
manufactured directly or indirectly by plants. Think of your breakfast, bread is made of a
cereal that is produced from plant material, egg from hen which has fed on plant products;
and milk from cow which has consumed grass or fodder derived from plants. In a nutshell,
the energy that we obtain from plants either by burning wood or by eating them, represents
the solar energy trapped by the plants. We are dependent on the stored resources of solar
energy. When we eat meat, we obtain energy that had been stored by plants several years
before and then taken up by an animal like a goat through grazing. When we cut firewood
for fuel, we obtain energy accumulated and stored by trees for perhaps a century or more.
When we bum coal or petroleum, we obtain solar energy stored by plant life, millions of
years ago.
Now let us trace the energy flow through an ecosystem. This is represented diagramatically
in Fig. 14.4.

ENERGY GIVEN OUT AS HEAT

I
----
DECOMPOSER
7

Ftg. 14.4: Energy flow in an ecosystem.

Environment and Resources Notice that the energy from the producer to the last level has decreased considerably. The
energy passed on to the next trophic level is represented by letter E of three different sizes,
each by its size indicates the comparative amount of energy. The arrows in the upper half of
the diagram indicate the loss of energy in the form of heat given out by different organisms.
The arrows in the lower half show the energy loss via the wastes secreted and energy
trapped in dead bodies of the organisms. Decomposers use these wastes and dead bodies as
sources of food and derive energy from them. They also give out some unused heat energy.
Energy flowing through an ecosystem is thus first captured by the producers. From the
producers the energy passes to various consumers, via food. At the end of the chain we find
that very little energy is left for the last trophic level, because some energy is always lost in
going from one level to the next. This loss of energy limits the number of trophic levelsin
the ecosystem, and so they are seldom more than five. This also clearly shows that why the
steps in a food chain are limited to four or five.
SAQ 3
Place the missing links in the following food chains, from the list given below. -

a) Plant + .......... +Fish + Man

b) Grass + worm + sparrow + .......... + Owl
c) .......... + rat + snake + Hawk
d) Bug + Spider + frog + ..........
e) Grass + grasshopper + .......... + eagle .
(rat, snake, insect, rat, wheat.)

SAQ 4
Construct a food web using the items listed below.
deer herbivorous insect
rabbit spider
plant sparrow
wolf hawk
snake
Hint: Keep the producers at the base, herbivores at the middle level, and carnivores on the
top; and connect them with arrows, depending on who eats whom.

14.4 CYCLING OF MATERIALS IN ECOSYSTEM

Living organisms require four nutrients in relatively large amounts, these are carbon.
oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen. They also require phosphorus and sulphur. These elements
are present in our environment in a fixed quantity, therefore they must be recycled in order
to sustain life. Also these'elements must move efficiently, from the living to nonliving
components and vice versa. Let us understand this with the help of an example. Plants take
in carbon as carbon dioxide to produce food. As the herbivores eat plants, carbon is
on to them, which in turn is passed on to carnivores, and so on. Carbon is eventually
returned to the nonliving pool in the ecosystem, through the excretory processes of the
producers, the herbivores. the carnivores, and also through the activity of the decomposers.
Through such cyclic processe~thesenutrients are used over and over again by the
organisms.
This aspect of the ecosystem function is called the cycling of materials. In contrast to
energy flow which Is a one way process, mineral nutrients move more or less in a cyclic
way.
In the following sub-sections, you would study the cycles of nitrogen, carbon and water.
This would give you an idea of the complex involvement of the various living and nonliving
components.

14.4.1 he Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is vital part of many essential organic compounds especially nucleic acids and
proteins. It also forms a major part (79 per cent) of the atmosphere. In fact, the atmosphere
is the chief reservoir of nitrogen, where it is present in the gaseous form, which
unfortunately, cannot be directly used by plants and animals.
Plants actually obtain their nitrogen from nitrates and ammonium salts in the soil to build up
proteins, from which animals derive some of their proteins. The amount of nitrates and
ammonium salts in the soil, is limited, at a given time, and their supply would quickly
exhaust, if it were not for the renewal of supply of nitrogen which goes on continuously.
What are these processes which enable the cycling of nitrogen? Now, we shall discuss them
briefly.
You are advised to first look at the nine basic steps of nitrogen cycle as shown in Fig. 14.5.
When you see number 1 in the figure, for its explanation look up step 1 of the nitrogen
cycle, described below.

Nitrogenous Compounds
Fig. 14.5: Ihe Nitrogen Cyde

1) During thunderstorms, some of the oxygen and nitrogen in the air are converted into
oxides of nitrogen by the high temperature of lightning. The oxides of nitrogen dissolve
in rain water, reach the soil and get converted into nitrates. These nitrates are taken up
by plants.
DUL
2) Certain bacteria can utilise atmospheric nitrogen and build up nitrates from it. They are
called the nitrogen-fixingbacteria. Some of these bacteria live freely in soil, others live
in small knots or nodules on the roots (see Fig. 14.6) of certain plants. Surely, you must
be familiar with plants such as beans, peas, peanuts, clover and alfa alfa etc., which have
these bacteria canying nodules on their roots. Farmers make use of some of these plants,
to make fodder, and then plough the rest of the plant into the soil, to increase the nitrates
Fig. 1A6. Root nodules
in the soil.
3) Nitrogen fixation by bacteria, i.e., the process of putting nitrogen in a form that plants
can absorb, is rather slow, compared with the rate at which plants need nitrogen. In such
a situation the demand for nitrogen is fulfilled by adding nitrogen containing fertilisers
to the soil.
4) Nitrogen in the form of nitrates is taken up by plants, and is converted into amino acids,
which are the building blocks of proteins.
5) Nitrogen enters the food web through plants and passes on to animals which feed on
them.
6) Nitrogen eventually returns to soil in the following ways: (i) During excretion,
nitrogenous wastes in the form of various ammonium compounds are returned to the soil
or water. (ii, iii) Nitrogen trapped in plants and animals returns to soil by death and
subsequent decay of their bodies by the action of bacteria and fungi.
7) In soil, the nitrogen-containing matter are acted upon by bacteria and are converted to
ammonium compounds, then eventually to nitrates.
8) Some soils, particularly the ones in bogs. estuaries, lakes and parts of the sea floor
contain denitrifying bacteria which produce the opposite effect of nitrogen fixation.
Environment and Resources They act on nitrates and release nitrogen to the atmosphere.
9) Volcanoes are one of the important sources of nitrogen. They have been emitting small
quantities of nitrogen for centuries and contribute significantly to the nitrogen reservoir
of the atmosphere.
Intrusion into the Nitrogen Cycle
Human intervention can disturb the nitrogen cycle. Let us see how. When we grow and
harvest crops. there is loss of nitrogen from the soil, as it is utilised in the building up of
plant body. Similarly, harvesting of timber results in heavy outflow of niirogen from our
forest ecosystem. You may say that we can compensate for the loss of nitrogen by adding
commercial fertilisers to our fields or by large scale cultivation of nitrogen-fixing plants.
Yes. you'are right. so long as the right type of fertilisers are applied in proper quantities.
Heavy addition (4commercial fertilisers cause excessive build up of nitrogen in the soil and
groundwater, and nutriept enrichment of rivers, lakes etc. Automobile and industrial
exhausts add nitrogen oxides, especially nitrogen dioxide, at an alarming rate to the
atmosphere. Nitrogen dioxide reactg with moisture in the atmosphere to form weak nitric
acid, which is carried to the soil dyring rainfall, and ultimately to the water table. The results
of nutrient enrichment of rivers, lakes etc; presence of excessive nitrogen oxides in the
atmosphere; and the excessive formation and addition of nitric acid to the soil. would be
studied in Unit 16 of this block.

SAQ 5
Fill in the blanks.
Nitrogen, an element required in most molecules of life, occurs as . . . . . . . . . . in
atmospheric reservoir. Plants can only take up nitrogen in the form o f . . . . . . . . . .Nitrogen
gas is fixed into useful compounds by . . . . . . . . . . These are found in the root nodules of
plants like ..........and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bacteria produce the opposite effect of
fixation. The nitrogen in the soil is replenished by the addition of wastes and ..........
that are subsequently acted upon by the. .........

14.4.2 The Carbon Cycle

We have seen that carbon is one of the essential elements of all organic substances and it
enters the ecosystem through the process of photosynthesis. Carbon is present as carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide forms 0.03 to 0.04% of the atmosphere. The
oceans also have carbon dioxide dissolved in their water. For understanding the cyclic
processes related to carbon, you are advised to go through the 12 basic steps of the cycle, as
indicated in Fig. 14.7. Please note numbers 1 to 12 in the figure. Each of these numbers
denotes a component process of the cycle. When you see number 1 in the figure, observe
what it shows and read its explanation under point 1 of the carbon cycle.
1) You have already studied that carbon dioxide enters food webs through plants
(Subsection 14.3.1) by the process of photosynthesis.
2) In the same sub-section (14.3.1) you have also studied that some of the carbon dioxide
captured by the plants and converted into organic molecules, is returned to the
atmosphere via respiration.

CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Fig. 14.7: The Carbon Cycle

3? And; lome portion of the carbon is incorporated into the plant body, which is later
passed on to the herbivores, etc.
4) The living beings release carbon dioxide into air during breathing.
5) (i, ii) carbon dioxide is also returned to the atmospheric reservoir by the death and
subsequent decay of the dead bodies and wastes of animals and plants.
6) Formation of fossil fuels, like coal. oil. gas, is a part of the carbon cycle. wherein carbon
is trapped for millions of years. Fossil fuels are the remains of ancient plants and
animals that were subjected to high temperature and pressure over millions of years.
Man has been using wood, peat, coal and petroleum as sources of energy, for running
transport. such as motorcars. aeroplanec etc.: for industries. for cooking food and
var~ousother purposes. While considering fossi :uels as energy packed substances. you
must not forget that it is the energy of sunlight from prehistoric times that remains
stored in them in chemical form.
7) Since air is in direct contact with the sea, the carbon dioxide from the air dissolves in
the upper layers of water resulting in the formation of carbonates.
8) The plants that grow in sea water, do not get atmospheric carbon dioxide. Therefore,
they utilise carbonates present in water as a source of carbon dioxide during
photosynthesis.
9) Food produced by water plants passes through the aquatic food chain. For example,
when fish feed on the water plants, carbon passes on from plants to the fish, and
ultimately to the other organisms that feed on fish.
10) Some of the carbon dioxide by marine plants and'animals during breathing
gets dissolved in sea water and can be re-utilised by the plants.
I I ) However. some of the carbon dioxide. thus evolved. escapes to the atmosphere.
12) Organisms like snails, oysters etc.. extract carbon dioxide dissolwd in water and
combine it with calcium to form calcium carbonate from which they construct their
shells. Shells of these dead animals collect in undersea deposits and may eventually be
converted to limestone.
Intrusion into the Carbon Cycle
In the carbon cycle, as long as the average amount of carbon dioxide h a i r and in water
remains the same, a happy situation prevails. If the tendency is for it to increase. a point will
come when some animals will find it intolerable for their breathing. If the tendency is for
carbon dioxide to decrease, then. over a large number of years. a point will be reached when
plants would not be able to photosynthesise and produce oxygen for animal life. So. we can
see how important it is to maintain a balance in this cycle. In the present century, the carbon
cycle has been impaired by non-judicious utilisation of fossil fuels, indiscriminate cutting of
forests and changes in land use from agriculture to the cement and concrete roads and
buildings, which reduces the area under plantation.
We see enormous amount of smoke emanating from some of our industries, vehicles,
accidental fires, aeroplanes, and some also from kitchens. This adds carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere in amounts much larger than can be tackled in natural course. Carbon dioxide
input has been increasing since the beginning of Industrial Revolution some 100 years ago,
and since then its concentration has increased considerably in the atmosphere. The major
concern over increased carbon dioxide content, is its possible effect on the temperature of
the air surrounding the earth. Excessive carbon dioxide in the atmosphere tends to trap the
heat radiated by the earth. The effects of such a situation will be discussed in detail in Unit 16.
SAQ 6
Fill in the blank spaces given below:
The reservoir of carbon is carbon dioxide ga\ found in the . . . . . . . . . ., and dissolved in
. . . . . . . . . .Carbon enter\ the producers through ........... during which they
incorporate . . . . . . . . . . I the food prepared. Carbon is released to the atm0sphere.a~carbon
dioxide during . . . . . . . . . . . Carbon dioxide is also returned to the atmospheric reservoir by
the death and . . . . . . . . . . of the dead bodies o f . . . . . . . . . . and . . . . . . . . . .

14.4.3 The Water Cycle

The importance of water is obvious to everyone. Water is synonynlou. with life. The most
comnlon substance in the body of iinv organism is water. It is also the most abundant
substance .in our environment. An estimatcd amount of'1500 million cubic kilometers of
Environment and Resources water, in one form or the other, is present in the biosphere. Ocean is the major reservoir of
water which covers about seventy per cent of earth's surface. Ocean water is salty. Fresh
water is mostly found in rivers and in between rocks below the surface of the earth.
The water cycle is driven by the sun's heat energy, which causes water to evaporate, while
gravity draws the water back to earth after water vapour condenses. Here, we would like to
point out a difference between the water cycle, and the two previous cycles. Unlike in
nitrogen and carbon cycles, most of the forces that cause water to be cycled do not involve
organisms, but are the normal physical processes, like evaporation, condensation etc.

In this unit, water cycle is divided into 4 basic steps. Before we proceed further, you may go
through Fig. 14.8 carefully, and then read the corresponding description as you did for the
study of nitrogen and carbon cycle.

Fig. 14.8: The Water Cycle

-
1) All water, which is used by mankind for personal and industrial purposes, is plain or
fresh water, which is derived largely from the ocean water through evaporation and
precipitation.
2) As the precipitation reaches the earth, some of the water falls directly on the ground,
some falls on vcgctation, on buildings and on strccts. A part of the watcr that falls on Lhc
ground, seeps through the soil, to an impervious layer of cla.1 or rock and collects as
groundwater. The rate of downward movement of water in soil is dependent on the type
of soil, its slope, type of vegetation and the amount of rainfall. The underground water is
utilised by human beings for domestic, agricultural or industrial purposes.
3) Some of the water falling on the ground runs down the gutters and drains to be carried
off to rivers. Some surface runoff may also collect in small ditches, lakes etc.
4) So far we have been discussing the various ways in which water, in different forms,
reaches the earth. Now let us understand as to how water reaches back to the
atmosphere.
i) Some amount of rain water never reaches the ground as it evaporates back into the
atmosphere.
ii) Plants also give out large amounts of water back to the atmosphere through their
leaves.
iii-v) The water remaining on the surface of the ground and on vegetation as well as the
water in the surface layers of streams, lakes madoceans evaporates and goes back
to the atmosphere.
As the water vapours in the atmosphere form clouds and drift with wind,'they eventually
 meet cold air and condense in the same way as moisture from the air in the room Ecosystem
condenses outside a glass of iced water.
Intrusion into the Water Cycle
Water management is one of the leading concerns of man today. The natural water cycle has
not been able to compensate for the effects of human actions on water resources. The
amount of water that is fit for human consumption has decreased over the years and its
quality has deteriorated. To a large extent this is due to increased population, higher
demands of water for personal use, agriculture and industry.
Foremost in the list of detrimental effects of human activity is deforestation, that is the
indiscriminate cutting of trees and the ultimate depletion of the vegetation cover. Extensive
use of paper, and of wood for construction and fuel is responsible for this. Deforestation, not
only reduces the humidity in the atmosphere but also leads to a chain of other undesirable
effects, for instance, the vegetation that helps to hold the soil together, when reduced
considerably, is not able to hold the top soil in place. This eventually results in washing
away of fertile, top soil during rainfall or by blowing winds, thus exposing harder infertile
rocks. Not much water seeps down the hard soil, and the underground water reservoirs are
not ~roperlyreplenished. The loosely bound soil is carried along by water running on its
surface, and is ultimately deposited in river beds and dams, thus choking them.
The other human activities that disrupt the water cycle are: concentration of population in
big industrial towns; lack of proper sanitary facilities, and disposal of wastes. Domestic and
industrial wastes are often rcleased intb the water streams, sometimes'adversc ,\ffecting
lire in the water.
The antidote of deforestation is afforestation, i.e., plantation of new trees. For this, it is very
important to know what kind of plant would be suited for a particular condition T f no
attention is paid to this aspect, we may further increase the damage to our envirc.,.nent.
Eucalyptus is one example in this regard. It is one of the economically important and fast
growing trees. It was planted as a soil binder and wind breaker in places where there was
need of water conservation. The choice of Eucalyptus proved disastrous as this plant is
notorious for its high rate of water intake from the soil and subsequent loss to the
atmosphere. Many people also call this plant an "ecological monster", as it drains the water
table and prevents all other plants from growing underneath. It also makes cultivation on
neighbouring lands impossible.

SAQ 7
Fill in the blanks
Water is constantly being redistributed on the earth through the ongoing . . . . . . . . . . .It is
driven by . . . . . . . . . . , and includes evaporation and precipitation. The major movement
of water is from its main reservoir, the . . . . . . . . . . ,to the. . . . . . . . . . and back to. . . . . . .
and . . . . . . . . . . as precipitation.

14.5 INTERACTION IN THE EARTH ECOSYSTEM

In this comparatively smaller section, we will give you the idea, that the earth as a whole is
an ecosystem. Whatever you have learnt till now is also applicable to earth on a large scale.
Let us see how.
So far you have seen that the interaction of organisms with each other and with their
environment is seemingly endless. As we see, the source of all energy is the sun. Solar
energy, through photosynthesis, is stored in the food prepared by plants. This energy
supports earth's organisms. Sunlight also powers the water cycle, that ensures supply of
fresh water and continually regulates warmth and moisture over the globe. Whether it is the
life on land or in water, energy captured by photosynthesis flows through the consumers,
thus making animal life possible. In a far more subtle interaction, the molecules of all
organisms finally reach the decomposer where the last bit cf energy is exfracted by them.
Not only that, the vital elements such as nitrogen, carbon etc. are also freed, to be recycled
back to the waiting producers for another turn of the cycle of life. In the ongoing energy
flow, each participant releases its quota of unused energy in the form of heat. This energy
goes back to the physical world that is the atmosphere. Thus there is an equilibrium between
the physical and the biological world in terms of nutrients and energy. This state is also
called natural equilibrium, a term we very often come across, when dealing with problems
of ecology and environmental protection.
Environment and Resoums Every individual in modern times, must understand these basics of existence, because he or
she may otherwise unknowingly make choices which would provide a set back to these
processes and eventually to the life on this planet.

14.6 SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied that:
In Ecology, we study the relationships between organisms and their environment, and
anything that affects an organism during its life cycle constitutes its environment.
An ecosystem consists of all the organisms living in an area and depending on.each
other in various ways and'also on their environment.
kvery ecosystem requires certain nutrients, a source of energy, producer, and decomposer
. organisms. Most ecosystems also contain consumer organisms.
All the organisms in an ecosystem are interrelated through feeding relationships, and
they form a food web, a diigam showing what eats what. Energy and nutrients enter
the living world together as producers make food. Almost all the energy entering the
living world comes fiom sunlight, trapped during photosynthesis by the green plants.
This energy is released and used for various activities by plants, consumeas and
decomposers. Dead bodies and animal wastes are used as energy sources by
decomposers, which release the nutrients in simple forms that plants can use.
Although the energy flow through an ecosystem is essentially one way, the nutrients may
cycle indefinitely.
Earth as a whole is an ecosystem, where the fundamental principles of existence of life
hold as good as for any smaller ecosystem.

14.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) %ck the box for correct statement. Put a cross for wrong statement.
a) Ecosystem is considered as an independent unit, and sunlight is usually its only
outside energy source.
b) An ecosystem can continue to exist indefinitely, without any other organisms
as long as plants are there to make food.
C) Energy moves in a cyclic way whereas nutrients move in one way only.
n
d) More energy is lost fkom an ecosystem when a k i v o r e eats u
an animal than a herbivore eats a plant.
e) Agricultural practices in the long-run disturb the natural equilibrium.
' 2) Answer the following in the space given below:
a) What are the factors that enabled life to exist on earth?

b) List the nutrients that are required by the living organisms in relatively large
amounts?

3) Fill in the gaps:

a) The entry point of energy in an ecosystem is ..........
b) In a food chain, the number of trophic levels are seldom more than four and five,
because at each level some of the ........... is lost, and ultimately very little of it
is left for the last, fourth or fifth level.
C) .......... is an example of organisms that occupies more than one trophic level.
d) ..........is a group of living beings together with their environmental factors with
which they interact.
e) A food web tells us about the ..........relations, and the flow o f . ......... in
an ecosystem.
 Ecosystem
14.8 ANSWERS

Self Assessment Questions

1) a) ecology, environment
b) environment, organism
c) biotic, abiotic
2) Left to right Top to bottom
1 Crane, Carnivore 2 Whale, Omnivore
2 Wheat, Producer 4 Grass, Producer
3 Jackal, Carnivore 10 Rat, Omnivore
4 Giraffe, Herbivore 11 Fungus, Decomposer
5 Grasshopper, Herbivore 12 Hen, Omnivore
6 Crow, Omnivore 13 Spider, Carnivore
7 Deer, Herbivore 14 Pea, Producer
8 Earthworm, Decomposer 15 ~ a m tHerbivore
, -
9 Man, Herbivore or Omniyore 16 Lion, Carnivore

3) a) insect
b) rat
c) wheat
d) snake

4)
e) rat

Snake - hawk wolf

/
herbivorous
insect
\ plant

5) gas, nitrate, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, pea, beans, denitrifying, dead bodies, decompo&rs.

6) atmosphere, ocean, photosynthesis, solar energy, respiration, decay, plants, animals.

7) water cycle, solar energy, mean, atmosphere, land, ocean.
Terminal Questions
1) a).l b) x c )x 4 e) 4
-
2) a) Sunlight, air, water, soil, appropriate temperature, and pressure.
b) Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen.

3) a) producers b) energy c) man d) ecosystem e) feeding, energy

UNIT 15 COMPONENTS OF
ENVIRONMENT
Structure
15.1 Introduction
Objectives
15.2 The Oceans
Some Physical Features of Oceans
Llfe In the Oceans
Ecological Crises
15-3 The Atmosphere
Some Physical Features of the Atmosphere
Life in Atmosphere
Ecological Cr~ses
15.4 The Forests
Some Features of the Forests
Life in Forests
Ecological Crises
15.5 Summary
15.6 Terminal Questions
15.7 Answers

- -
15.1 INTRODUCTION
-- --

In Unit 14 you have studied some basic aspects of existence of life on earth. You have seen
that the living beings together with their environment constitute an ecosystem. In this unit,
we shall discuss three important components of earth's environment, namely: oceans,
atmosphere and forests. Each of these components constitutes an ecological system having
distinctive features. Their environmental conditions are very different, accordingly the forms
of life occurring in these systems are also unique. We shall also discuss how, over the years,
these systems have been affected by several of the human activities.

Objectives
After studying this dnit you should be able to :
describe three components of the earth's environment, that are: oceans, atmosphere and
forests; and compare their features,
explain some of the salient ecological processes associated with oceans, atmosphere and
forests.
identify and lis! the kind of damage done to the above mentioned environmental
components by industries, transport, agricultute and @herb u m activities.
-
15.2 THE OCEANS
Every year, millions of people all over the world make their way to the sea-shore to enjoy
the cool sea breeze, to bathe and swim. Ecologically speaking, oceans are the oldest and the
largest ecosystems of the earth. The Atlantic, the Pacific, the Indian, the Arctic and the
Antarctic are the major oceans of the world. Though they cover varying geographical areas,
these are all interconnected and have certain common features. Before discussing these
features, we would like to point out that in this unit, we would be using the terms sea and
ocean interchangeably.

15.2.1 Some Physical Features of the Oceans

The oceans are so vast that they stagger one's imagination. They cover more than 70 per
cent of the earth's surface. The depth of oceans varies, from shallow near the coasts to deep
in the middle. There are trenches, valleys, and what may becalled hills under theocean
waters. Tlie deepest part happens to be in middle Pacific Ocean and its depth is greater than
the height of Mount Everest-the highest peak in the world.
Ocean waters are never still. Wind exerts frictional force on the surface of water and Components of Environment
generates waves that keep the surface water in motion. Tides are another type of movement
of the oceanic water, noticeable in coastal regions. Water level of sea rises and falls twice a
day. The gravitational pull of the sun and the moon, is the principal cause of the formation
of tides. Coastal waters rise to a high point called the high tide, when the sun and the moon
are on the same side of the earth, and the tide is low when the sun and the moon happen to
be on the opposite sides. Ocean currents are yet another form of water movement. Currents
are generated in several ways : by changes in the density of sea water, due to temperature
differences, by the effect of earth's rotation and also prevailing winds. These currents
transport sea water over long distances, more or less like rivers on the surface of the earth.
Ocean water is salty. It has about 35 parts of salt (by weight) per 1000 parts of water.
Ordinary salt or sodium chloride is the major salt component of the oceanic water. Salts of
magnesium, calcium and potassium are also present. This substantial amount of salt in sea
water, is the result of accumulation of small bits of salt that are carried by rivers from the
lands they drain.
Oceanic waters have a minimum temperature well below zero Celsius, near the poles, and a
maximum of about 28 Celsius in the tropics.
Another aspect of marine environment is pressure. The atmosphere exerts a pressure of
about 1 kilogram per square cm (= 1 Atmosphere Pressure) at the surface of the sea or land.
This pressure increases due to the weight of water by 1 Atmosphere, for every 10 metres of
the depth of water. Thus, if you are at a depth of 3000 metres in the ocean, the pressure there
would be 300 times that at the earth's surface. It would be quite impossible for human
beings to survive at this depth without very special equipment.

15.2.2 Life in the Oceans

Oceans are known as the largest and the thickest ecosystem. Tiny plants and animals exist in
it, in immense numbers. A cubic meter of sea water may contain as many as 200,000 .
organisms. Living forms occur, more or less, throughout the depth of the oceans, but they
are more dense around the margins of continents and islands.
The major factors that limit the quantity, and type of life in oceans are energy and nutrients.
You have already studied that for all forms of life, energy is provided by sunlight either
directly as in the case of plants, or indirectly to other forms of life ;ia the plants. In meadit
waters, the intensity of light decreases rapidly with depth. Even in the clearest and the purest
water, there is hardly any light available at a depth of 200 metres, and photosynthesis cannot
be sustained. Therefore, plants are only found in under water zones whex;e light is available.
You must be wondering as to how do the plants keep themselves in the lighted zone? They
have developed certain floating devices such as oil droplets in their cells or air filled sacs
that help them to float in the upper layerspf water. These plants are of numerous kinds,
some are tiny and microscopic, free 11oating (see Fig. 15.1) and tiley drift with &a,=,,
whereas others are comparatively large and are fixed to the substratum. One of the factors
governing their distribution, is the quality of light. We have just seen that sunlight penetrates
to only a certain depth in water. In the spectrum of colours which sunlight has, red is
absorbed in the top layers of water, and then green; blue penetrates farthest. Naturally algae
of complementary colours exist at various depths in water. Green is complementary to red,
hence green\ algae predominates in the upper layers of water; similarly brown algae are a
little deeper down, and red algae prevail in regions reached by blue light.
What about the animal life? They too exhibit zonation, i.e., they are also distributed zone-
wise (also see Fig.lS.1). In the upper layers, small animals (zooplankton) co-exist with
phytoplankton and derive energy from them. A little below, the energy for animal life is
obtained from wastes and dead bodies of organisms that sink, or from the living animals that
swim down.
The dead bodies that drift down from above, fall very slowly. For example, a small shrimp
may take a week to reach 3000 metres. The rate of descent of organic matter, except for
larger ones, is so slow that it is either consumed, decayed or dissolved before it reaches the
deep waters or the bottom of the sea. Thus, as we go down in the ocean, the food becomes
scarce. Beyond the depth of 200 metres or so, light does not penetrate and plants do not
grow there. Hence the plant feeders have to be good swimmers, to get their food. Some of
them come to the upper layers of water, take their food and go back. As you descend further,
or below 600 metres, not only is sunlight absent but also the temperature drops, and the
F'jg.15.1: Life i n orton. Most of the bask organic niaterial, 'food', that fueis and builds life i n the sea is
synthosiscd by phytoplankton (phyto=plan~ plankton=wandering) wlthin the surface layers of sea water
where light is available. These micnrsropic plant cells a n eaten by the herbivorous zooplankton
( z o o - s n i i phnkton=wandering) andby k m esmall fishes, which i n turn a n eaten by the other
carnivores. The 'rain' of the wastes and dead bodies of organism occurring i n the upper layers of water,
shown by dots and short downward arrows, serves as the principal soum of food for the varied inhabitants
nf the lower oceanic depths. I n the slwllower zone, food is available from the growing, large, flxed plants,
and the drainage from the Land. The typicai coastal upweliin~(long arrows at left) refertilises the surface
waters with nutrients of organic matter, by the decomposer organism such as bacteria etc., from near the
bottom. This process keeps the surface waters continually supplied with nutrients, leading to the survival
and growth oP phyto-, and zoo-plankton in the upper layers.
Notr: the orlpmisms, and depths are not drawn to the same scale.

pressure increases. Here too. life exists. There are more than 2000 species of fish and other
animals living at this depth. Let us see how these organisms have adapted to these difficult
conditions.

In this totally dark zone, many organisms produce their own light and this phenomena is
known as biolumninescence. This helps them to capture their prey or lure the opposite sex.
Certain sponges, jellyfish, combjelli~s,snails, worms, brialestars, squids, deep-sea shrimps
and prawns emit light. These light emitting organisms harbour certain bacteria, which are
the source of light. Colonies of these bacteria live in special pouches on the organism's .
body. For example. in a fish, they exist on the side of the head, at the and of their tail or on
the sides of their body. When light is not required, the fish raises opaque shutters, or restricts
the supply of blood to the light-producing bacteria. The light produced by these bacteria are.
usually of blue, green or yellow colour.

Besides the adaptations to cope with the scarcity or absence of light, some of the organisms
have also developed ways for counteracting high pressure at greater depths. At such high
pressure, bones and shells containing mainly calcium, like in the surface animals, would
disintegrate. So, the skeleton of organisms is made up of silica which enables them to
withstand this high pressure. Ear bones of whales, jaws of squids and teeth of shark contain
silica, so that they are more sturdy.
 m

Camponents of Environment
In a world that lacks any sort of protection, or defense against predation, the living beings
have acquired various bodily features and means of self defense as well as means for
securing prey. Among them, are the remarkably stream-lined body that enables them to
move with speed both for escape and pursuit, unusual colouration and highly developed
sense of smell and hearing.

Availability of Nutrients
The nutrients in the upper layers of water are constantly being taken up by the
phytoplankton, who are the producers, and then these pass on to the herbivores, and the
carnivores. When these latter organisms die, they are either eaten up by other animals or
they get decayed by the decomposers. Some of the decomposed matter sinks to the ocean
floor. It means, the nutrients taken up by the producers from the upper layers of sea water
are constantly being drained to the lower layers of sea water. Do you know what would
happen if the nutrients in the upper layers of water are not replenished? There would be no
phytoplankton and photosynthesis; no production of food to sustain other animal life. Hence
all the organisms would die. Actually, in nature such a situation does not arise. Let us see
how a constant supply of nutrients in the upper layers of water is ensured. There are two
ways: (i) As riversend in the seas, they bring along a lot of refuse and nutrients from the
land to the water. (ii) 'Upwelling' takes place, which is a process by which dwp, nutrient
rich waters are brought to the surface. What actually happens is that wind blows surface
water on to the shores. The watex which now comes to the surface is from below. It is cold
and high in nutrient content. Regions where upwelling takes place are very productive.
That's why important commercial fishexies in the world are situated in such regions.

Do you know why same oceanic waters appear blue and other gr-en? The cl*, blue
waters are usually poor in nutrients and hence there is less concentration of plankton in the
water. Nutrient-rich waters that support a large plankton community are greenish and
relatively murky, as sunlight is scattered by the microscopic bodies of numerous, small
living beings in water.

15.2.3 Ecological Crises in Oceans and Coasts

Coastal and marine areas all over the world including those in India are under stress,
because two thirds of the world's population lives near the coasts, and 60% of the marine
food is harvested from the zone near the coasts. Most of the sewage, garbage and industrial
- wastes find their way into the sea. Ever since the lndustrial Revolution, technology has been
developed to increase production of various kinds of goods, without regard to where the
smoke from the chimneys would go, or where various kinds of washed chemicals-many of
them poisonous would flow to. So industry produces massive amounts of "waste" which is
allowed to reach the sea. It was also thought in earlier times that the sea is so big, you can
throw anything into it without affecting it. Now, however, even in India, it has come to pass
that huge quantities of dead fish were found floating in the Arabian sea on the western coast.
due to poisonous outflows from a fertiliser factory. Such happenings are not rare, and
industrial wastes must be treated to remove harmful chemicals, before allowing them to go
into the sea. The same should be done to sewage, which carries harmful chemicals and
bacteria into sea water.
The rivers, which join the seas, bring sand from the hills and plains, and thus lot of silt
gathers near the coasts. Rivers also bring to the sea water, runoff from the fields, which,
today. means a certain amount of fertilisers and pesticides.

A new factor has recently come to light and that is chemicals from nucle'ar power plants and
nuclear industry. This waste has radioactive chemicals which can demolish and destroy
living organisms in ocean waters. Huge amounts of such waste is generated every year.
particularly, in the advanced countries of the world, who have found ways of dumping this
waste in the coastal areas of the poor countries.
A number of times it has been reported that ships, particularly tankers, transporting oil leave
a trail of oil along their routes. A thin layer of oil thus covers wide areas of the surfae sea
water, depriving living organisms of oxygen. We mention below in Table 15.1, the position
in this respect on the Indian Coast. 21
I
Envlronment and Resources
Table 15.1: Marine Pollution in India

S.No: Area Type of pollution

1. Gulf of Kutch Natural sedimentation due to erosion

and coast of of coast. Deposition of wind-borne
Gujarat sand. Pollution from salt-making industry. Destruction of
plants growing on coasts, for firewood and fodder.

2. Western Coast Oil drilling and oil spilling from

(from Bombay tankers. Pollution from factpries.
to Kerala) Runoff from uplands. Invasion of weeds like Salvinia which is
common in Kerala. Destruction of mangroves, exploitation of
fossil fuels, and dredging for deepening the navigation channel.

3. Gulf of Mannar Quarrying of corals for industrial

and Palk Bay uses.
along the
southeast
coast

4. Lakshadweep Excessive siltation in lagoons. Consauction along the coast.

Deforestation as in Minicoy. Increase in predators like
Aconthaster plonci on coral polyps.

5. Hoogly Estuary Untreated industrial wastes from more than 150 major factories
around Calcutta, including 87 Jute mills, 12 Textile mills, 7
Tanneries, 5 Paper and Pulp factories and 4 Distillaries, pours
into the river continuously.

We must remember that the seas are precious ecosystems for marine life and they provide
food and livelihood to millions of people in the world. Medicines are also being developed
from ocean flora. It is natural, therefore, that every step be taken to protect marine life and
reduce pollution going into the sea. Recently large ball-like concentrates of minerals called ,

nodules have also been found on sea bed. Some of these nodules are rich in economically
important minerals like nickel and chromium. However, 'mining' for these nodules m e s e
great depths needs high technology. India has already started taking initiative in this area.
SAQ 1
Fill in the blanks selecting appropriate words given below:
i) .......... are the largest and the thickest ecosystems of the earth.
ii) .......... , .......... and. ......... are the types of water movements
commonly seen in the seas.
iii) .......... and .......... are the major factors that govern the quantity and type of
' life occurring in oceans.
iv) The .......... bring minerals and essential substances from deep water to the
surface.
v) Oceanic waters that have high nutrient content, and support large variety of planktons
appear ...........
(tides, energy, waves, greenish, nutrients, oceans, currents, upwellings)

15.3 THE ATMOSPHERE

Atmosphere is an envelope of the most useful gases that cover the planet earth. It makes our
planet unique and enables life to prosper. If the earth did not have an atmosphere we
wouldn't have oxygen to breathe, and the plants wouldn't have carbon dioxide to make food
from. The rays from the sun would have scorched our planet during the day, and
temperatures would have fallen far below.the freezing point at night. No living organism
would have survived in such a situation. You have already studied how earth's atmosphere
has evolved. L t us see, what are the important features of the atmosphere.

15.3.1 Some Physical Features of the Atmosphere

i) The atmosphere is a mixture of gases. It is made up of 78.08% nitrogen; 21% oxygen
by volume. There is only 0.03% of carbon dioxide, and small amounts of a few other
gases. The presence of a thin layer of ozone is important for life on the earth. We also
 find in the atmosphere, a considerable amount of water vapour that evaporates from Components of Environment
oceans, lakes and rivers etc. Now, let us talk in detail about some of the important
gases constituting our atmosphere.
Oxygen, a constituent of air is also called the breath of life. Without it, the
chemical processes that sustain life are not possible. Human beings can live without
food and water for some time, but not without oxygen for more than a few minutes.
It is only oxygen in the air that makes combustion or burning possible. Burning of
fuel produces heat, that is used for cooking food, for running automobiles, in
industry and for various other purposes.
Nitrogen is another important constituent of the atmosphere, and forms the great
bulk of air we breathe. We cannot breathe pure oxygen for any length of time. If fire
ever breaks out in an atmosphere of pure oxygen, it would be difficult to put it off.
Thanks to the presence of nitrogen in air, such disastrous situations do not arise.
Another very crucial constituent of the atmosphere is carbon dioxide. In Unit 14,
you have already studied that plants utilise this gas in the manufacture of food
through the process of photosynthesis. The food thus produced serves as a source of
energy for other organisms.
The other gases, namely, argon, helium, krypton etc. are also present in the air.
These are called inert gases, because they do not react with other substances.
As we have already said in Unit 12, there is an ozone layer about 25 kilometers
above the earth's surface. Ozone is a form of oxygen. Each molecule of ozone
contains three atoms of oxygen (0,)while there are only two atoms in the ordinary
oxygen (0,) molecule. The ozone layer plays a protective role, as it absorbs a great
deal of ultraviolet rays of sunlight coming to the earth, and saves us from skin bums
and other harmful effects.
ii) Besides gases, dust particles and smoke there are numerous forms of life in the
atmosphere (see Subsection 15.3.2 for more details).
iii) The density of the air decreases as one goes up from the surface of the earth and at
around 4000 meters it is difficult for man and many other animals to survive without
supply of additional oxygen.

15.3.2 Life in Atmosphere

Just like the earth, the atmosphere also sustains life. Various types of insects and mites,
birds, bats and other organisms are some of the forms that you all might have seen. They
effectively use air as a medium for several of their activities, such as, flying and catching
their prey. Organisms like bats and birds are skilled aeronauts. In order to remain in the air,
they have developed wings and powerful muscles to move them. Some of the birds have
very good eyesight. They also have other well developed structures such as claws etc. for
grabbing and holding their prey. Have you ever seen large birds like an eagle, catching small
birds flying in the air? It is worth watching. The eagle comes flying from a distance, dives at
great speed and pounces on the prey, holds it firmly in its claws and flies away to a quiet
place, to sit and eat it. Birds usually fly too close to the land in search of food, but
sometimes, they even fly at heights of about 1500 metres. The migratory birds that travel
long distances while moving from one continent to the other, fly at an unbelievable height of
about 6000 metres. They come to this height, to take advantage of the winds that are usually
stronger and steadier there, than those at lower altitudes. These birds fly along the wind
currents, and thus save a lot of energy and effort.
Besides the large organisms that we can see with our naked eyes, the air also cames a very
large variety of life forms that we can only see with the help of a microscope. Spores of
plants such as fungi, mosses, ferns, pollen grains of various types, bacteria and viruses are
also found floating in the air. Also there are tiny seeds of many plants. The presence of
fungal spores in the air can be demonstrated by leaving a piece of bread in open for a few
days. It would show small, sometimes velvety patches of various colours. All these are fungi
of various kinds, whose spores were floating in the air, and have started growing on the
bread.
Similarly, in places, where there are no human settlements nearby, we find small plants of
different types occumng in groups. And also, soon after volcanic eruption, when the lava
cools, many kinds of plants appear on this lava. You may wonder how did these plants
amve here. Their seeds or spores that are present in air, establish on these new areas where
favourable conditions for growth are avmlable, and they form small groups.
 Environment and Resources
li'lg.lS.2: Seeds with wings (a, b)
and haiis (c, d). (a) Drum stick,
(b) Crtpe tm. (c) Madar,
($1 Devil tree.
fig. 15.3 Some pollen grains
I that cause allergy
i
The fungi and other plants whose spores or seeds are carried by the air, produce in huge
numbers so that at least a few of them can reach places where the righ1,kind of conditions
for growth, such as water, sunlight etc. are available and these seeds or spores are,able to
develop into adult plants. This is an adaptation to ensure the survival of species. Seeds
which are dispersed by wind have special features such as hairs on their surfaces, wing-like
structures and light weight (see Fig.15.2). Having well developed mechanisms to float in air,
some of the spores, seeds or pollen grains are taken to great heights by the air currents. So
one can also find life forms even at great height.
You may have noticed sometimes, that some people are suddenly seized with a fit of
sneezing, watery eyes, rash on the skin and even difficulty in breathing. This condition is
referred to as allergy. What causes it? Some forms of allergy are caused by certain spores or
pollen (see Fig. 15.3) present in the air, that cannot be seen with unaided eye. Hay fever - a
form of allergy, develops by inhalation of pollen of certain trees, grasses or weeds. All these
are carried by wind and affect the sensitive persons.
Having talked of some physical features of atmosphere and the kind of life it sustains, we
shall now briefly discuss the kind of damage done to this ecosystem.
15.3.3 Ecological Crises
The natural atmosphere which man has inherited from the past, with healthy and fresh air,
shielding from excessive radiation of the sun, has been deteriorating both under the impact
of increased population and industrialization. Factories pump millions of tons of dust and
smoke into the air, cars and buses spread fumes and stir up dust from the roads into the air,
and sprays used to kill agricultural pests all combine to change the idealpicture. The
pollution of the air has become a matter of great concern because it continues to increase as
"civilization" spreads. Near big cities and heavily industrialized areas;the situation has
become so bad that the birds have become rare, and the air is not fit for breathing. Rural
areas are beginning to be affected. Society will have to move towards strict pollution
control, and protection of the atmosphere as it is a great and irreplaceable resource for
living. In the next unit you would study in detail the type of damage done to this component
of the earth's environment.
SAQ 2
Fill in the blanks, selecting the right word from the list given below :
i) .......... is a blanket around the earth, that protects it from scorching during the
day and freezing during the night.
ii) A layer o f . ......... present about 25 km from earth's surface absorbs a great deal
of incoming. ......... rays of the sunlight.
iii) .......... also known as the breath of life, is essential for the chemical processes
that sustain life.
iv) The life found in the atmosphere includes several kinds o f . .....................
.......... and.. . . . . . . . .
V) At a height of about 4000 metres, it is a difficult for people to survive without the
supply of additional ..........
(pollen grains, oxygen, atmosphere, seeds, ozone, microbes, ultraviolet, spores, oxygen.)
15.4 THE FORESTS
Forests represent a well-organised, dominant and highly evolved community of living
organisms on this planet. Over one third of the total land area of the world is covered by one
or an other kind of forest. Forests represent nature's major processors of solar energy and
about 90% of the total global biomass. These are located in all the geographic regions of the.
world, except in the polar areas.
15.4.1 Some Features of the Forests
Forests are the most widespread stretches of vegetation, harbouring diverse kinds of life
forms. They are dominated by trees. Besides trees, forest ecosystem includes various types
of small plants, mosses, ferns, fpngi, several kinds of micro-organisms, insects, reptiles,
 birds, mammals and animals of diverse kinds. All these live under the soil or on it, and in the Components of Environment
water and air of the forest. Each organism is a part of the forest ecosystem, and each reacts
with all the other organisms. But all require the energy to survive, which is provided by the
sun and trapped by the foliage. Forests possess multi-layered structure termed as
stratification (Fig. 15.4). This makes available space for living for a wide variety of plant
and animal species. For example, there are small, tender plants, that form the lower most
layer. Them there are small shrubs which form the second layer. A third layer may consist
of small trees. And the tall trees that form roof or canopy of the entire vegetation may
constitute the fourth layer. Various kinds of animal life, depending on their living habits,
occur in different layers,of vegetation.
15.4.2 Life in Forests
Trees are the pillars of the forest upon which much of the other forest life is shaped.
Associated with them, there may be more than a thousand kinds of shrubs, vines, herbs,
ferns, mosses, and toadstools, even in a small area of a forest. Using trees as support, the
smaller plants grow in their shade, and depend on the high humidity that the canopy of
leaves maintains. As we have said above, all these constitute different layers of vegetation.
In addition, the forest consists of all sorts of animals such as, birds, amphibians, reptiles and
mammals. Forests are also the house of a variety of insects, mites etc. Some seek nectar
fr6m the flowers, others feed on green leaves and tender parts of plants, some bore deep .
holes in the wood, some form mines in the plant tissue and so on. Ants and termites are
C everywhere. It is a very rare forest that'does not harbour a dazzling collection of beetles,
butterflies, grasshoppers, spiders, scorpions and other insects. The abundant insects
constitute the prime food for birds. Man too is a member of the forest community -and
probably is the most destructive of all! Men are mostly, intruders, who go into the forest for
collecting wood or even for cutting down trees to prepare land for cultivation. There are,
however, small segments of human population known as tribes, who live in the forests. They
have perfect adaptation to the environmental conditions of forest life.
Let us have a closer look at the forest and its life. First we shall see what is there on the
forest floor. The dead leaves, twigs and fallen branches lie in heaps on the forest floor. At a
casual glance, they appear as a lifeless rotting mass. But actually they form the cover of a
hidden world of forest soil. These heaps enclose and shelter more life than can be found in
any other layer of the forest. Under these, the inhabitants live, in numbers that stagger one's
imagination. There are very tiny organisms such as bacteria, protozoa, algae, fungi, mites,
and bigger ones like millipedes, beetles, many forms of insects and earthwoms. By the
activity of the micro-organisms, the dead organic matter isbroken dawn simpl$.fwms
that mix with soil and thus become available for the plants. The occasional fires in forests
due to lightning or other reasons, also help in the recovery of nutrients from the dead organic
matter. Fire bums dead matter, and the resultant ash containing minerals, eventually mixes.
with the soil.
Besides the small creatures in the forests, ther,e are other life forms that are much bigger in
size and can be easily seen. All these have remarkably ingenious specialisationsfor life in
L forests. For example, various-typesof birds live on tree tops and feed on fruits or tiny insects
living on plants. For this purpose, they have highly specialized beaks and claws, some of
which are shown in Fig. 15.5. Woodpeckers climb on tree trunks and extract insects hidden
I under the bark with their strong and pointed beak(Fig.15.5b). For this purpose, they also
. "
have shak and curved claws to hold firmlv to the tree trunk (Fie.15.5h). In addition
Fig.15.4: A segment of a forest
different'animals have adapted to noctural or diurnal habits depending on when they can
showing several layers of vegetation.
easily feed and also remain protected. The owls, for example, hunt at night because that is" There are tall trees, small shrubs,
when the rodents (rats etc.) they eat, roam about in open in search of food. The mesh of tender plants near the surface, and
branches in the forest makes rapid movement difficult for many animals es~eciallythe large c"mbers that around the tree
trunks.
ones, like the elephant, buffalo, leopard and several others. Each of them possesses one or
more adaptations for moving through the undergrowth. Some of these are: strength, weight
of body, stout limbs and wedge-shaped head. Creatures like the owl, that hunt at night haw
Iarge, sensitive eyes and acute hearing power. Bats, which also fly at night, locate their prey
with the help of high pitched sound which they produce. This sound on reflection from
even small animals, discloses their position to the bats.

Forests in Different Regions of the World

Since forests occur in different parts of the world and in varying climatic conditions, we
shall now see as to what kind of life occurs in the forests situated in different regions and
climatic conditions of the world.
 Forests where the temperature drops to 40°C,have little diversity of life. The extreme
cold not only threatens the tissues of trees, but denies them one of the essential supplies
of life, that is water, as it gets frozen into ice. So how do these plants cope with the
cold? In these regions, plants such as pines etc. are found. They have long, needle-like
leaves, (Fig. 15.6a), that are coated with wax. This is an adaptation to avoid snow
settling on the leaves, pnd weighing them down. The thick wax-coating prevents loss of
water, which is hard to replace in these conditions These plants also have dark leaves,

ecq@
b
WOODPECKER that absorb maximum amount of heat from even the feeble sunshine. Depending on the
SPARROW
ucd cruhing
wood chiselling plants present in the area, diversity of animal life too varies. As the leaves are hard,
resinous, not easily bitten, so many insects do not touch them. But several birds extract
seeds from the cones (Fig.15.6) of such trees and enjoy eating them.
PARROT d
fruit scooping HAWK
learing and pierring
ii) Now, let us see the type of life forms occurring in the areas having long winters. Most
of the water tends to freeze in such conditions, and thus is not available to plants. This
situation is the same as that of a drought. So what do the plants do in such a situation?
Most of them simply shut down. They do this by shedding off their leaves, thereby
' H ~ P O E SUNBRID preserving the moisture contained in the cells of their roots, trunks and branches. Plants
csnh digging and m a r suchng
insex crlehong having developed such life saving mechanisms are termed as deciduous,-a Latin word
that means 'to fall off'. In such forests, during the autumn season heaps of fallen leaves
may be seen everywhere in the forest. During this period, plants do not produce any
new leaves, flowers or fruits.
The animals in such'forests, have developed equally remarkable ways to survive the
harshness of winter and long periods of food shortage. Some birds migrate thousands
of miles, to areas where food is not a problem and temperature is to their liking. Some
birds do not migrate, but remain inactive, lower their heart beat and breathing rates
considerably. Thus they conserve a lot of energy. Some animals do not migrate but go
to sleep or hibernate, for example bears curl up and sleep. The duration of sleep varies
from animal to animal. During hibernation, the sleep is so deep that some of the
OSTRICH animals will not wake up even if they are prodded and shaken.
N"w
iii) Thick forests occur in areas that receive plenty of rain and have high temperatures
Fig.lS.5 (aHF): A variety of throughout the year, as these are the ideal conditions for abundant growth. Such forests
beaks suited to particular have the richest and the most varied types of plants and animals found anywhere on the
modes of feeding of birds.
earth. In one hectare of such a forest, it is common to find over a hundred different
(gHk): Some adaptive
variations in the feet of birds. kinds of tall trees and several kinds of small plants. The richness is not restricted to
. .
plants only. Over 1600 species of birds live in these forests, and the number of insects
(Aler SJlm All)
is uncountable. The canopy of such forests is a deep continuous layer of greenery that
is, about 6 to 7 metres deep. Each leaf is so angled that it will collect the maximum
amount of sunlight. As a result only little direct sunlight reaches the forest floor and so
it is much darker there. Similarly because of the intense vegetation, strong winds are
reduced to a gentle breeze inside the forest. Much of the rain is intercepted by the
canopy. Only when the leaves are thoroughly wetted, does water drip gently to the
forest floor. There are no well defined seasons, so that all the trees do not shed their
leaves simultaneously. Each species has its own season for shedding leaves. Some shed
leaves after every 6 months, some after more than 12 months and so on. Similarly
flowering period also varies. Some plants bear flowers after 10 months, others after 12
months and so on. Therefore one finds flowers of different kinds all the year round.
The aerial plants, such as orchids and bromeliads (Fig. 15.7), and intertwining vines are
interesting plant types found in such warm and humid forests. These plants reach for
light by climbing on taller trees, whereas intertwining vines, reach the place where
sunlight is available, by supporting their trailing branches along the long tree trunks.
Tiny plants also grow near the forest floor. Such plants have large and dark leaves, to
trap whatever little light is available.
Because of the relative scarcity of edible plant material close to the ground, much of
the animal life in such forests lives high above the ground, in the green world of the
canopy. This includes numerous birds, monkeys, insects and other animals. In fact, the
tree tops are alive with noise and colour of countless birds. The animals have
Fig.15.6(a): A pine twig with a developed certain adaptations for tree life. They have slender shapes, necessary for
cone, and needle-like leaves. agile movement. These animals hunt, thieve and scavenge food materials; breed and
(b) A cone cut longitudinally,
shows woody scales enclosing die within the forest, without ever leaving them. The insect population flourishes in
seeds. (c) A scale with seeds has these forests, despite the intense competition for food and constant threat of being eaten
been taken out a n q p l a d in a by sharp-eyed birds. They have evolved several mechanisms in the fonn of a protective
way that it laces us. strategy known as camouflage. Whereby they assume the colour of their surroundings,
and shape their bodies like leaves etc. So that they cannot be recognised easily.
iv) Forests in areas where temperature is very high in summers, have the danger of losing Components of Environment
too mu&hmoisture. The leaves of plants growing in such areas have a waxy, water-
tight surface and relatively few pores, often mainly on ths underside. Many leaves hang
downwards from the branches during the hotter part of the day so that they do not catch
too much of sun's heat. Such trees give little shade, because of the position of their
leaves and thereby most of the light reaches the ground.
In brief, we have seen that plants and animals have acquired characteristics to fit them for
the different conditions in different types of forests.
Having discussed the life in forgsts, we shall now see what makes forests an important
constituent of earth's environment. Forests not only'add to the beauty of the landscape, but
make the climate salubrious and provide suitable habitat for the wildlife. They are also
described as environmental buffers. Forests consume large quantities of water through the
roots of plants and lose it through respiration by the leaves. Extensive forests, to some extent
also increase precipitation. They intercept heavy rainfall and release the water steadily and
slow.1~ to the soil beneath to prevent the soil running away with the rushing water. The roots
of innumerable small plants and trees hold the soil in place.
Fotests are also important, because they are the source of wood used for building purposes
andTor industry, that manufactures newsprint paper and plywood etc. The wood of about
one hundred or more species of trees are clipped, to produce pulp for paper. Forests also
supply food, fodder, fibres etc., which are the indispensable needs of people residing in or
near them. They yield a wide variety of products of commercial value, such as lac, resin and
essential oils. They are also the storehouse of medicinal plants many of which are yet to be
explored and fully utilized.

15.4.3 Ecological Crises

Forests have been over-exploited and are shrinking throughout the world. It is estimated,
Fig.15.7: Aerial plants. An orchid
that during the ten years, from 1963 to 1973, forest area has declined by 15 per cent, (a), and.a bromeliad (b) on the,
affecting all regions of the world. India is losing forests at an extremely rapid rate. trunks oftrees. These plants fulfil
According to the satellite data, India lost 1.3 million hectares of forest every year between thelr-termquirementsfmm
1972 and 1982. Arunachal Radesh. Manipur and Andaman & Nicobar islands are the only ~ ~ ~ y ~ ~
areas which fulfil-thestipulation of forest cover in hill regions laid down by the National trees, that support them, also oUer
Forest Policy in 1952. The maximum deforestation has occurred in Madhya Radesh, which an additbnal supply of nutrients.
lost nearly 2 million hectares, Maharashtra lost one million hectares, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh
and Jammu & Kashmir lost nearly a million hectares of forest land each during the above
said period.
Now let us see, what has led to the destruction of forests in our country?
i) Shifting cultivation, i.e., the process of slashing and clearing of the forest, burning
much of the fallen vegetation and cultivating a mixture of crops for two or three years,
until the soil loses its productivity. Then this process is repeated elsewhere. Shifting
cultivation is practiced in many hilly areas of India.
ii) The conversion of forests to pastures for cattle.
iii) ' Overgrazing - Grazing intensity is high in most of the forest areas of India. This has
depleted vast forest areas. In addition to.depletion of vegetation cover, trampling by
cattle, hardens the soil, preventing forest regeneration. When there are no plants, the
soil becomes loose, and is lost by winds or ismwashed.offby heavy rains.
iv) Commercial exploitation of timber is one of the main causes of forest destruction.
Wood (for building for making boxes to tiansport fr,uits,for making paper, andjustfor.burning)
is in great demand, and thkrepresents a major threat to our lush green forests.
The restrictions, which the government puts on cutting trees are circumvented by
greedy contractors and those who share the profit. At this rate, forests will perish one
day. New plantations will help, but they cannot replace the present forests for a very
long time. It will take at least a hundred years for a plantation to become a forest. It
must be remembered, that reducing forests to barren land not only disrupts animal life
and its balance but also the lives of tribal people who have been existing for centuries
in hannony with the forests.
v) ~eveld~mental activities such as irrigation projects, building of roads etc. have led to
the destruction of forests. This amounts.to~acquiring a good thing, like roads, by losing
something which is even better.
Now that we know the causes of deforestation, let us discuss its consequences. Removal of
Environment and Resources forests causes soil erosion, silting of lakes and.rivers, resulting in devastating floods and loss
of thousands of species of plants and animals forever. Some of these effects have been
depicted in Fig.15.8. If one plant species becomes extinct, it takes with it many dependent
organisms, sometimes as many as 30.

lakes and rivers choked with

s~lt,resulting in floods

\ . . .\ .'
\

sloping arable land terraced ' '

streams clear Iii&l

chances of flooding lessened

Fig.15.8: (a) Consequences of deforestation, (b) Conservation

rrees can grow on hillsides, even when the soil layer is quite thin. When the trees are cut
down to clear them for cultivation and the soil is ploughed, there is less protection from the
wind and rain. Heavy rainfall washes the soil off the hillsides into the rivers. The hillsides,
thus, are left bare and useless, and on the other hand, the rivers become choked up with mud
and silt resulting in floods. The disastrous floods in our country have been attributed largely
to deforestation. According to the National Commission of Floods (1980), the annual
economic loss due to floods during 1977-78, was more than 1000 crores. The total areas
affected by floods has doubled during the last decade.
~ e ~ r a d a t i bofnforests leads to the destruction of habitat for many wildlife species.
Presently, over one hundred species of wild animals need immediate protection as their
population has dwindled to dangerously low levels. Similarly, many plants, too, have
suffered from the onslaught of human activities. In a recent list prepared by the Botanical
Survey of India, 135 species of Indian plants have been listed, which need immediate
protection for their survival. Similarly, over 200 species of animals all over the world have
become extinct. Atleast one species has ceased to exist each year of this century. Presently.
eight hundred species of animals distributed in various regions of the world, are in great
danger of extinction. The list includes orang-utan, the pygmy chimpanzee, the mountain
gorillai the leopard, eight species of whales, five species of rhinoceros, the polar and grizzly
bears and many species of birds.
Don't you think, that the situation is grave! Many people have realised that concrete steps
should be taken towards conservation, to slow down the destruction of the environment. It is
hoped that, if these steps are taken even now, it will go a long way to bring a halt to the Components of Environment
extermination of species and to preserve the beautiful areas of the world. In our country, too,
a number of people have become aware of the situation, and several steps have been taken in
this direction. Quite a few forest protection movements have been started by the people
residing in or near the disturbed areas.
The Chipko Andolam- the movement to hug trees, is a well known movement for
conservation. The story about how this movement started is this. In the year 1970,
Gopeshwar in the Garhwal area of Uttar Pradesh and nearly 20 nearby villages were
devastated by a flash flood in the Alaknanda river. There was clear evidence, that these
floods had been caused by man-made erosions. The people of this area realised that if thess
destructive activities of man continued, it would ultimately wipe off the hill people. The
people of Gopeshwar and their leader Shri Chandi Prasad Bhatt organised a movement and
pledged that no more tree felling would be allowed in the area. So, whenever, the
contractors approached forests for felling trees, these local people used to go and hug the
trees. They said that if the contractors have to cut a tree, their axe will have to fall on them
first. So the contractors had to give up, and the local people were successful in saving a lot
of trees and plants.
Like a migratory bird, the Chipko Andolan flew from the Himalayas to various comers of
the country, such as the hilly districts of Karnataka, the hills of central India, and to Aravalli
hills in Rajasthan. This movement is also spreading to other areas of the Western Ghats.

SAQ 3
Given below are some words. Place them appropriately in the blank spaces of the statements
given below:
i) . . . . . . . . . . are the major processors of solar energy.
ii) . . . . . . . . . . are the dominant life forms of forests.
iii) Forests occur throughout the world except the . . . . . . . . . . areas.
iv) In a forest, plants of different kinds and heights are arranged naturally in such a way
that they form distinct layers. Such a situation is referred to as . . . . . . . . . . .
V) . . . . . . . . . . and. . . . . . . . . . are the plants found typically in warm and humid forests.
(polar, stratification,forests, orchids, trees, bromeliads)

15.5 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt that:
Oceans, atmosphere and forests are three significant components of earth's environment.
Oceans, contain an immense amount of salty water and form a continuous water body
over the earth's surface. One can find living beings all along the oceanic depth.
Phytoplankton, however, occur in the water layers near the surface, where sunlight is
available. Life forms occumng in various depths of oceanic water have special adaptive
features that enable them to withstand the harsh conditions, such as poor light, higher
pressure due to the water above, low temperature etc. The life forms become less and less
in number, as one moves away from the sea shore.
Today we find that the ocean ecosystem is very much disturbed. This is because of the
pouring of untreated wastes by various industries directly into the ocean or into the rivers;
sedimentation due to erosion of coasts; destruction of mangroves; quarrying of rocks etc.
Atmosphere provides a protective covering to the earth, and generates conditions that
enable life to prosper on the earth. A variety of life exists in the atmosphere -from
microscopic organisms to birds of various kinds.
The quality of atmospheric air is deteriorating by activities like the addition of smoke and
dust by the industries and automobiles, sprays used to kill agricultural pests etc.
Forests, cover over one third of the total land area of the world. These are located in all
the geographic regions except the polar areas. Depending on the availability of food,
sunlight and water, different living beings live in different layers of the forest. Forests
perform important ecological role. They have been found to regulate precipitation.
During rainfall, a large quantity of water is absorbed by forests, and then is slowly
released to the soil beneath, and to the streams and rivers that flow through the forest.
Recent surveys have shown that all over the world, the area under forest cover is
decreasing day by day due to thoughtless commercial activities of man, and various other
Environment and desources reasons. The consequences of deforestation, in the long run, are deleterious for the life on
earth. Quite a few forest conservation movements have been started. But all this is just
like a small drop in the ocean. We must do our best to conserve earth's environmental
components.

15.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) Although all organisms require essentially the same resources from their physical
environment to survive, certain resources are more plentiful in some ecosystems than in
others. Give examples of two ecosystems in which each of the following is plentiful :
light, water, oxygen, nutrients, and space.

2) Answer the following in four or five lines.

i) Where is life in the oceans more abundant and why?

ii) Describe what happens to solar energy reaching the earth's atmosphere.

iii) What is the major reason of stratification in forest ecosystem?

.......................................................................

3) Given below are some aspects of the ecological crises, in oceans, atmosphere and forest,
that you have just studied. What you have to do in this exercise is to match the
statements of the first column with those of the second column. Write the number of the
appropriate match in the given box .
I Column II'Column
1 Erosion of coasts
2 Depletion of vegetation cover,
a 1 By rivers and from surface runoff
2 Shifting
trampling and consequent cultivation
haidening of soil, preventing
regeneration of plants
3 Enormous amount of dust and 3 Spilling during
smoke pumped in the air L1
- drilling operations, and from tankers
4 Silt gathering near coasts 'd 4 Automobiles, industries and excessive
use of fossil fuels
5 Slashing and clearing the 5 Deforestation
vegetation in an area,
burning the fallen plants,
 and cultivating crops for a
couple of years. Then after
repeating the same process
elsewhere U
6 A film of oil spreading over 6 Overgrazing
large area of sea water 0
7 Soil erosion, silting of -7 Destruction of
lakes and rivers, and plants growing in
consequent floods 0 the coastal
regions for fuel,
fodder etc.

15.7 ANSWER
Self Assessment Questions
1) i) oceans
ii) tides, waves, currents
I iii) energy, nutrients
b
iv) upwellings
v) greenish
2) i) atmosphere
ii) ozone, ultraviolet
iii) oxygen
iv) pollen grains, seeds, spores, microbes
V) oxygen
3) i) forests
ii) trees
iii) polar
iv) stratification
V) orchids, bromeliads
Terminal Questions
1) i) Light-atmosphere, grassland
ii) Water-lake, oceans
iii) Oxygen--atmosphere, forest
iv) Nutrients-forests, estuary
V) Space-atmosphere, desert
2) i) Life in the oceans is abundant around the margin of the continents and islands,
because here plenty of nutrients are available. This enables the luxuriant growth of
producers, and of other organisms dependent on them.
ii) When sunlight, reaches the upper atmospheric layers consisting of ozone, mmy of
the sun's harmful rays, such as the ultraviolet rays are absorbed, thus making it safe
for the life.
iii) Stratification enables the various kinds of organisms occumng in a small area of the
forest, to obtain the basic necessities of life such as light, temperature etc., according
to their requirements.
3) 1 7
2 6
3 4
4 1
5 2
6 3
7 5
UNIT 16 THE CHANGING ENVIRONMENT
Structure
16.1 Introduction
Objectives
16.2 Pollution
Air Pollution
Water Pollution
Soil Pollution
Pollution due to Noise
Pollution due to Radiations
16.3 Impact of Technology on Environment
16.4 Impact of Population Increase on Environment
16.5 Summary
16.6 Terminal Questions
16.7 Answers

16.1 INTRODUCTION
The early human was a nomad, and he spent a lot of time in search of food. He was close to
nature because his existence depended directly on plants and animals. He, then made the
leap from hunting and food gathering to farming, creating conditions of living in small
village communities. If we compare the life of early man with that of today, we find a
tremendous difference. Today, most of the people are better off, in regard to food and other
basic necessities of life. There is production of goods and provision of services of various
kinds for health and communication etc. Much of it has been made possible by the
application and improvement of technology. Man has constructed dams on rivers; cut down
forests, ploughed land and grown crops; built towns, cities, canals and roads. No doubt, all
these developments have made his life easy and comfortable, but in the process he has
altered his environment, and often short-sightedly or even recklessly damaged it. Today,
there is clear evidence of man induced harm in many regions of the earth such as: the
dangerous levels of pollution in water, air and soil; the disturbances in the ecological
balance of the biosphere; and the destruction and depletion of irreplaceable natural
resources. There is, therefore, need to identify the areas and causes of the degradation of
environment that have occurred over the years, so as to take steps to preserve the heritage of
mankind and live in harmony with the environment. In the previous two units you have
studied the basic components of the environment and their relationship. In this unit, we
would briefly touch upon a few problems of global concern regarding our environment.

Objectives
After studying this unit you would be able to:
define pollution, and list the sources and effects of primary air pollutants
describe how photochemical smog and acid rain are formed, and how they affect the
living beings
list the major sources of water, soil, noise and radiation pollution and describe their
impact on environment
realist? how technology, over the years, has contributed to the degradation of environment
understand the reasons for tremendous increase in population in our country and the role
education can play in finding a solution.

16.2 POLLUTION
Now-a-days, you might have heard every one talking about pollution. What does pollution
mean? Pollution is the addition to the environment (air, water, soil) of substances or energy
(heat, sound, radioactivity,etc.) at a rate, and in quantities that are harmful to life.
Pollution has a long history. It became noticeable when larger and largcr numbers of people The Changing Environment
began to live in cities. Unplanned growth of the cities,led to difficulties in the disposal of
garbage and sanitary wastes. Living .;pace was often shared with animals as is sometimes
done in lndia even now. Mud, slush and dusty roads added to the pollution. Air, water and
soil, acquired many harmful substances, in the form of wastes, from human activities.
The waste materials (pollutants) that cause pollution are of two types:
i) those that remain in an unchanged form for a long time and are known as persistent
pollutants, e.g. pesticides, nuclear wastes, and plastlcs etc. Many of these are toxic;
ii) those that break down, into simple products, and are known as non-persistent
pollutants, e.g., garbage. If this break down process is facilitated by living organisms,
then such pollutants are referred to as biodegradable pollutants, e.g., wastes from
animal sheds.
Pollution has disturbed the ecological balance in so inany ways that can be disastrous for
mankind. Presently, we have reached a stage where we must begin to protect our
environment in order to protect ourselves. In the following pages, you will study how
different wastes have entered into air, water and soil, and how noise and radiation have
caused immense damage to our environment, and ultimately to us.

16.2.1 Air Pollution

Air pollution is one of the major problems created by modern man. It is estimated that about
100 million tons of waste are poured into our atmosphere each year. Wastes in the form of
smoke from industry, power plants, automobiles and homes; and also due to burning of
fossil fuels, spread pollution into our atmosphere (see Fig. 16.1). Aircrafts also release large
amounts of burnt or unbumt fuel into the air. You may have seen a long trail of smoke left
behind by a climbing jetliner.

Fig. 16.1: The causal agents of air pollution in most cities.

The burning of coal, wood, diesel oil, kerosene, petrol etc. produces the following five
categories of pollutants:
i) Carbon monoxide
ii) Hydrocarbons
iii) Particulates
Environment and Resources iv) Sulphur.dioxide
V) Nitrogen oxides
These five categories of primary pollutants react with one another, producing secondary
pollutants that are even more dangerous to animal and plant life. First, we shall discuss each
of the primary pollutants separately.
Carbon monoxide is produced when organic materials such as gasoline, coal, charcoal, and
trash are incompletely burnt. Virtually all stoves, furnaces, fires in open places and forests,
factories, power plants give off carbon monoxide. The other significant source is from the
incomplete burning of tobacco when smoked. This gas combines with hemoglobin, and
reduces the oxygen canying capacity of blood, causing blurred vision, headache, and in
extreme cases, unconsciousness, and even death.
Automobiles emit a variety of hydrocarbons. These are a group of organic compound:;
consisting of carbon and hydrogen. They are either evaporated from the fuel or are the
remnants of fuel that did not bum completely. Hydrocarbons in air, are washed down oy
rains, and eventually they run off into surface water. They form an oily film on the surface
of water. Hydrocarbons are mostly only a nuisance except when they react to form
secondary pollutants.
Particulates constitute the third category of air pollutants. These are mostly fine carbon
particles (less than 0.002 mm in diameter) formed by the combustion of fossil fuels. They
remain suspended in the air, where they absorb other substances such as lead, hydrocarbons,
sulphur and nitrogen oxides. These particles enter the lungs during breathing and increases
the chances of lung cancer, and other respiratory diseases. Diesel automobiles and trucks
emit between 30 and 100 times more carbon particles than other vehicles. Asbestos is also
an air pollutant in the form of particles that enter the atmosphere from asbestos mining and
milling operations and from the manufacture, disposal and use of asbestos containing
products such as insulation devices. Asbestosis, a cancerous disease caused by deposition of
asbestos in the lungs, is widely prevalent among the people working with this material.
Several miners are known to have died in Singhbhum, Bihar due to this disease. Recently,
this disease has been classified as a killer disease under the Factories Act.
Silicosis, another cancerous disease caused by deposition of silica in the lungs, is prevalent
among the people working in the mining, potteries, foundries, stone cutting and finishing,
and glass manufacturing industries. It is also a fatal disease.
The air in most of the urban areas in India has a very high level of particulates. In fact, an
unpleasant haze of dust and smoke particles has become almost an integral part of our urban
environment. For example in cities like Delhi and Bombay, during rush hours in the
mornings or evenings, it becomes difficult to breathe if you are caught for long at traffic
crossings. There is so much of vehicular exhaust fumes.
One of the most harmful pollutants is sulphur dioxide. It is a compound containing sulphur
and oxygen and is produced when fossil fuels contaminated by sulphur are burned. Sulphur
dioxide has a sharp odour and irritates the respiratory tissues. It also reacts with water,
oxygen and other materials in air to form sulphur containing acids. The acids also become
attached to particles in the air, When, inhaled, such particles are veiy corrosive to lung
tissue. Sulphur dioxide also adversely affects the plants and reduces their growth. Steel gets
corroded 2 to 4 times faster in sulphur-laden air. Sulphur dioxide also corrodes other metals
like zinc as well as building stone.
Oxides of nitrogen are also major primary air pollutants. As a result of a variety of
combinations of nitrogen and oxygen, a number of compounds, oxides of nitrogen, are
formed. The primary source of nitrogen oxides is automobile engines. Oxides of nitrogen
react with other compounds to produce photochemical smog which we will describe now.
Photochemical Smog
Photochemical smog, a secondary Pollutant, results when the two pollutants,
nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons found in automobile exhausts, react with one
another in the presence of sunlight to produce nitrogen dioxide (N02), ozone ( 0 3 )
and a compound called PAN (Peroxylacetyl nitrate), which then appear as a
yellowish brown haze. Breathing ozone affects the respiratory and nervous system.
It causes respiratory distress, affects eye membranes and stimulates tears. It also
causes headache. Ozone also damages rubber articles, textiles and discolours
paintings. It has been recently found that smog is harmful to timber. PAN is
especially damaging to plants. Plants exposed to PAN exhibit leaf mottling and
Acid .Rain The Changiw EnviroamcP(
A side effect of air pollution is acid rain, which is now of common occurrence. You might
have seen, that some industries build very tall smoke stacks to protect the air quality in their
immediate vicinity. But this allows wind currents to carry the fine particles that have
absorbed sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides to far off places. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides react with water in the atmosphere to give rise to sulphuric acid and nitric acids.
These acids, formed in the air, come down to the eanh along with rain. The pH of acid rain
The strength of acids and
depends on the concentration of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere. alkalies is measured on a pH
The pH of acid rain varies from 5.6 to as low as 3.0, which makes it almost as acidic as scale which goes from 0 tcr 14
vinegar (also see Fig. 16.2). The pH of natural rainfall is also slightly acidic and is 5.6. This and on which pure water uhich
is because rain water reacts with carbon dioxide in air and forms weak carbonic acid. is neither acidic non alkaline
stands at the neutral. ie.,pH 7.
n
Substances having pH less than
R
7 are acidic and those having pH
more than 7 are alkaline.
Battery acid

Lemonjuice

Vinagar

Fish d i u p p n lrom lsk

Unpoll~tSdrain

Bakinp soda

I)
ABalln.
Ammonia

Fig. 16.2: pH scale showing the range of acid rain (see the shaded region). The top scale indicates the pH of
various substances, and the lower scale indicates the effect of acid rain on the ecosystem.

Now let us see the effects of acid rain on the ecosystem. It causes direct damage to the
leaves of p!ants. Forests in many pans of the industrialized world are drying because of acid
rain. It also causes the leaching of nutrients out of the soil, some of which are very essential
for plant growth, e.g., calcium and magnesium. These nutrients are carried out of soil into
streams and ponds. Besides this, it causes a lot of other effects, as indicated in Fig. 16.2.
Acid rain also affects lakes. Their waters become devoid of life, except for some algae and
fungi that grow at the bottom. Acidity leads to increase in dissolved metals, particularly
aluminium. This element affects the gills of the fish. and they die of suffocation. Birds living
near lakes that have high aluminium content, are poisoned by aluminium because they feed
on the aquatic insects. Acid rain also corrodes materials such as marble stonework and metals.
Then, how could one minimise the occurrence and the effects of acid rains? Most of the
sulphur dioxide produced, that leads to acid rain, is due to the burning of sulphur-containing
coal. Coal, therefore, could be washed prior to burning. Low sulphur coal could be
substituted for high sulphur coal. Devices such as scrubbers could be installed in tall
chimneys of furnaces to prevent sulphur dioxide from entering the air. A new method of
burning coal in which a mixture of coal and limestone are used, is now under development.
This technique could reduce the emission of sulphur and nitrogen oxides. Experiments have
been done to restore the lakes, streams and soils that have been affected by acid rain. Lime is
added to lakes and in fields where soil becomes too acidic. But it helps only for a short time
and does not completely solve the problem. However, limestone cannot be spread in the
forests. So. don't you think. the most effective solution is to reduce the emission of sulphur
and nitrogen oxides from all devices that produce them?
Weather
Scientists have reason to believe that air pollution. both due to carbon particles or soot and
carbon dioxide would affect weather. A rise in surface temperature of land and water due to,
what is called. the greenhouse effect is predicted.
When sun's rays fall on the atmosphere containing carbon dioxide, some of the heat is
reflected towards the sky but much of it passes down to the earth. Heat from the earth enters
the atmosphere and some of it is again reflected back to the earth, while the rest passes
through the atmosphere. Thus, the surface of the earth. i.e.. the surface of land and water are
net gainers of heat during the day. and this establishes a certain temperature on the surface
of the eanh. If the amount of carbon dioxide in the air increased. the net gain of heat and
Envlmnment and Resources hence temperature on the earth would be greater. The earth would warm up in such a case. A
greenhouse is a glass house often used in cold weather to grow plants of warmer climates
and it works on the same principle. The greenhouse has glass walls, and the glass prevents
all the heat inside the house from being lost to the atmosphere. You would, perhaps, have
experienced the inside of a closed car parked in the sun becoming unbearably hot. The
reason is the same.
Since 1958. the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has risen by almost 6 per
cent and is expected to increase in future. What leads to the increase in carbon dioxide level
in the atmosphere? VJe shall discuss that now. You have already studied in Unit 14, that
plants take up carbon dioxide and use it for making food. Forests comprising of enormous
vegetation remove a lot of carbon dioxide from the air. The destruction of forests
significantly increases the proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The buming of
fossil fuel by industry and transport vehicles also keeps adding carbon dioxide to the air.
Thus, there is a continual build up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. If the present trend
continues, it is feared that a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide could occur sometime
towards the middle of the next century, and this would cause an average annual temperature
rise of 3 to 8OC. This rise in temperature could have a disastrous impact on all life. It will
affect agriculture, resulting in problems in the availability of food and other agriculture-
based activities. Melting of polar ice would result in the rise of sea level. This could
submerge many coastal areas and farmlands. It is feared that cities like London, Glasgow,
Florida, Tokyo, Osaka, Montreal, Stockholm, Copenhagen and Calcutta would loose much
of their temtory to the rising waters.
Another scenario has also been predicted, i.e., the earth's temperature will be lowered
because of the increasing number of suspended particles in the air, coming not only from
soil erosion and dust but also because of soot and smoke from industries, fires in forests,
automobiles or from bombs and other weapons used during hostilities and war. The clouds
of suspended particles would prevent solar heat from reaching the earth and thus lower the
surface temperature of land and water. It has, indeed, been calculated that if even a small
fraction of nearly 50,000 nuclear bombs in the possession of the USSR and the USA are
used in an unfortunate war, so much debris, dust and soot will be thrown up in the
atmosphere from buming of fuel dumps, buildings, bridges and other objects, that solar heat
will be shut off from the earth for a considerable period causing, what is called, a nuclear
winter. The cold will destroy crops and vegetation and starve and kill all animals
everywhere on the planet earth. No wonder, people everywhere in the world are agitated and
look to the great powers to solve their disputes peacefully. The first step towards this would
be to destroy the nuclear weapons in stock and stop their production.
Depletion of Ozone Layer
Since the last decade or so, there is concern about the possible reduction in the ozone layer
surrounding the earth. Now the question arises, what had led to the depletion of this layer.
The reasons are many. The foremost is the widespread usage of chlorofluorocarbons. These
are gases which readily liquify when compressed. This makes them useful as refrigerants,
propellants in aerosol cans, and in plastic foams. Chlorofluorocarbons are very stable and
accumulate in the atmosphere, where they react with ozone. Nitrogen oxides also play a
significant role in ozone destruction. It is being felt that the introduction of more nitrogen
oxides into the upper atmosphere by jet planes flying there could decrease the ozone to
dangerously low level.
The fear is that chlorofluorocarbons will deplete the ozone layer and allow more ultraviolet
radiations to reach the earth's surface. An increased level of ultraviolet radiations would
cause more skin cancer, affect crops, interfere with oxygen cycle and even distoti weather
patterns.
Controlling Air Pollution
So far, you have studied, how air pollution of various kinds is caused, and what are its
effects. Now let us see, how air pollution can be controlled.
i) Photochemical smog-eliminating this would require large scale changes in life style
and culture. Life has become fast, and quicker modes of transport are preferred. Every
year hundreds of thousands of vehicles are added to the existing large number of
automobiles. So the net result is an increased production of oxides of nitrogen, and the
phorochemical smog. The alternative is to develop transport of a very different kind,
perhaps electrically operated cars and two wheelers rather than those burning petrol, or
to make the automobile industry develop devices that could be fitted to the vehicles to
minimise the discharge of pollutants.
ii) Particulates generated largely by industries, can be controlled by scrubbers, The Changing Environment
precipitators, and filters. These devices cost money but they save lives. So far, owners
of industries have thought only of cost and profit. They have not cared as to what
happens to plants and animals that are exposed to the soot and smoke which their
factories pump into the air.
iii) To control sulphur dioxide, which is produced largely by coal furnaces and coal-fired
steam generators. several possibilities are available. One is to change from high sulphur
to low sulphur fuel, such as natural gas. oil or nucleat fuel. This is. however, not a long
term solution, as low sulphur fuels are in short supply and nuclear fuels have problems
of their own. The other possibility is to remove sulphur from fuel, before use.
'
Scrubbing the gases is the third alternative you have studied about it earlier.
iv) The amount of smoke emanating from the kitchens can be minimised by the use of
smokeless cbulhas solar cookers and biogas. These have dualadvantage. One. they are
within the easy reach of people and secondly, there is minimum pollution.
So you can see, air pollution is related to technological development and
industrialisation. Technologies were available in the past to speed up transport or to
release the energy of fossil fuels for increasing production. There was little concern
about the pollution that was caused, until the use of technologies became more
widespread and the hazards became too great to ignore. But for the poorer countries. air
pollution means many other things. The housewife who bums cowdung or dry leaves
or splintered wood to cook food is exposed to intense heat and smoke. It is known that
a lot of people. particularly in rural areas, go half-blind due to such exposure. People
live in very dusty atmospheres-again very much so in rural areas. and their lungs
often get damaged. Those working in mines and small workshops are exposed to air,
that contains substances which irritate the breathing system causing disease, and often,
early death. Air also carries foul odours, flies and mosquitoes which make life
unpleasant and cause communicable diseases. Our priorities in combating air pollution
have to be intelligently determined. Perhaps, it can be said that the greatest hazard is
poverty which obliges people to live in dirt and squalor and work under conditions, to
which, even animals should not be exposed.
Before we proceed further, how about trying a couple of SAQs first?
SAQ 1
Fill in the blank spaces in the following statements with appropriate words given below:
a) .......... is anything produced by humans in a quantity that interferes with the health
or well-being of organisms.
b) The main primary pollutants are. ........................................
and . . . . . . . . . .
C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,and .......... constitute the photochemical smog.
d) .......... causes leaching of nutrients from the soil; and increase in the quantity of
certain metals such as aluminium that dissolves in water and may prove toxic to many
organisms.
e) Increased. ......... in the atmosphere may contribute to the greenhouse effect and
may lead to an overall .......... of earth's temperature.
f) Activities like emission o f .......... into the upper atmosphere by jet planes and wide
spread use of. ......... in refrigeration, have adversely affected the ozone layer in the
atmosphere.
(carbon monoxide. chlorofluorocarbons,ozone. sulphur dioxide, pollution,
hydrocarbons, peroxylacetyl nitrate, particulates, acid rain, nitrogen oxides, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, warming. nitrogen oxides).

SAQ 2
List three health effects of air pollution.
Environment and ~aoweos 16.2.2 Water Pollution
Pollution of fresh water is one of the most serious environmental problems of the world as a
whole. In our country most of the rivers and lakes are polluted and their waters are unfit for
drinking. According to an estimate nearly 2/3rds of all illness in India is related to water -
borne diseases such as typhoid, hepatitis, jaundice, cholera, diarrhoea and dysentry. About
73 million workdays are lost due to these diseases every year. Pollutants from different
sources enter surface waters as depicted in Fig. 16.3. Now we shall take up these sources
one by one and discuss how they cause pollution.
i) Water is required in large quantities in industrial processes, for cooling. washing,
diluting chemicals or cleaning purposes. Power plants, fertiliser factories, steel mills,
paper mills, refineries, sugar factories and automobile factories are examples of
industries which mostly dump their wastes in rivers or into the sea. It is not a rare sight
to see the used water with foul smelling chemicals just standing around the factories as
a symbol of total disregard of civic responsibility.
ii) Community wastes (sewage and garbage) from urban and rural settlements account for
four times as much water as industrial wastes. Most of these wastes are discharged
untreated into the water courses. Out of India's 31 19 towns and cities, only 217 have
partial (209) or full (8) sewage treatment facilities. It is not unusual to find whole
localities where waste water, with all its filth, just stands around the houses where poor
people live.
iii) Water that flows on the surface of cultivated fields where fertilisers, pesticides,
insecticides and other agrochemicals are used, contributes much to the pollution of
water. This water, on absorption also pollutes the underground sources.

Fig. 16.3 :Human beings bring about water pollution in many ways as shown here.

iv) Nuclear and thermal power stations use large quantities of water for cooling purposes.
They discharge the resultant hot water often containing chemicals, into water streams.
This results in increase in temperature of the water of the stream, which is injurious for
fish, and other aquatic organisms.
V) Pollution of river water by ferries which leave a certain amount of oil on river surfaces
and similar pollution by ships on the high seas interferes with the supply of oxygen
needed for plants, and animals such as fish etc. in water. Offshore exploration for
petroleum, and accidental oil spills cause similar problems for under-water life.
vi) Acid water from mines, and also from rain pollutes water in rivers and in the sea.
 The Changing Environment
vii) Suspended particles in the air, such as the pesticides sprayed through an aircraft are
brought down into the water bodies by rain and thus cause pollution of water.
So far, you have seen, how water on the surface of the land is polluted by various means.
Now, let us talk about our underground water resources and see if they are free of pollution.
Ordinarily one would expect underground water to be free of pollutants, because bacteria
and deca y-causing fungi present in the soil can remove most organic contaminants before
water reaches the water body underneath the soil. But sometimes, the underground water is
polluted with heavy metals, nitrates, chlorides etc.
You may wonder how do pollutants enter the groundwater? Previously, industries were
accustomed to running waste waters to pits. There the pollulants would seep into the
ground. Also some of the wastes, were buried in deep wells made in the soil. from which
pollutants were constantly discharged. Anolher reason is excessive use of fertilisers in the
fields, which gradually seep down to the ground water.

Having seen how our water resources both on surface and underground, are pollutt.d, we
shall now discuss the effects of water pollution on the life forms. Some of the worst
problems have been created by pollution of streams.with heavy metals such as lead and
mercury coming out of industrial wastes. These pollutants make bathing and drinking water
from such sources dangerous. Fish from such sources are also not safe to eat.
Mercury, especially, is a heavy metal that builds up in the food chain. Industrial activities
such as mining, paper making, manufacture of electrical equipment, have increased.
the concentration of mercury in the aquatic environment. Mercury is not easily excreted.
Once it enters the food chain its concentration goes on increasing at each level. For
nxample, from plants+ large fish -+human beings. In countries like Japan which depend
largely on fish and other sea food, there is a distinct danger of mercury poisoning resulting
from the industrial discharge into the sea. In the 1950s an outbreak of mercury poisoning in
Japan raised awareness of the hazard. Residents who ate sea food from Minimata Bay that
had been contaminated with methyl mercury developed numbness of the limbs, lips and
tongue and lost muscle control. Deafness, blurring of vision, clumsiness. apathy and mental
derangement also occurred. Of the 52 reported cases, 17 people died and 23 were
permanently disabled.
Pollution due to oil and petroleum products from refineries, drilling and pumping
operations, shipyards and oil spills, have destroyed wildlife and made water unfit for use.
Many of the sea birds die, because their feathers get soaked with oil, and they lose buoyancy
and hence get drowned. Thermal pollution is caused by the addition of heat to a body of
water. Power plants and other industry use water to cool their machinery. Then they
discharge the heated water back into a stream or lake. This changes the temperature of
nearby water environment and may kill many of the aquatic plants and animals that are less
tolerant.
Eutrophication
Materials such as sewage or organic wastes from milk plants, canneries, slaughter houses,
paper mills, starch factories and fish processing plants, and runoff from agricultural lands
greatly increase the productivity of waters and cause algae to grow in abundance, so that
sometimes water surface gets entirely covered by algae. This is called 'algal bloom'. In
general, the entire water body becomes a green nourishing soup. Eventually, the death of
this algae promotes the growth of a very large 'decomposer' population. The decomposers
break down the dead algae using a lot of oxygen present in the water. In addition, the living
algae also consume oxygen from water at night for their respiration. The decomposers, and
the algae cause decreased amounts of oxygen available to fishes, ultimately causing them to
die. The problem of eutrophication or excessive nourishment leading to loss of life in water
bodies mainly occurs in ponds and lakes and not in flowing water.
Now the question arises what is the solution to this problem? One solution is to process the
sewage thoroughly, to remove nutrients to prevent 'algal bloom'. Since such a treatment is
expensive, ~ t h e ways
r are being explored. One suggestion is to use this water to irrigate
crops and/ or to grow algae and aquatic plants in a man made shallow pond which can be
used for making biogas.

SAQ 3
Fill in the empty spaces picking up the right word(s) from the list given below.
. .
Major sources of water pollution are . . . . . . . . . ., . .. . . . . . . and . . . . . . .. . o s ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Environment and Resources matter in water requires high amount o f . . . . . . . . . . for its decompbsition. . . . . . . .. .
depletion can result in the death of fish along with many aquatic organisms. Many of the
pollutants such as organic matter, some industrial wastes etc. enrich the. water with
. . . . . . . . . .,and result in . . . . . . . . . ,Algal blooms occur in the. . . . . . . . . ., polluted
waters.
(oxygen, municipal sewage, nutrients, industrial wastes, eutrophication, non-flowing,
oxygen, agricultural runoff.)

16.2.3 Soil Pollution

The problem of soil pollution is rapidly increasing in the rural, urban and industrial areas
due to unscientific and irrational disposal of solid wastes generated by human beings from
their domestic and industrial activities. In many rural parts of our country, daily thousands
of people pollute the soil through their wastes, as toilet facilities are not available. In
industrial areas heavy metals, plastics and other persistent organic compounds including
msticides, are the major causes of soil pollution. Hazardous wastes in soil, often
accummulate in the bodies of organisms including man, because they are not excreted. Once
they enter the food chain, they become more concentrated at each level. Note in Fig. 16.4.
how DDT, a pes'ticide, becomes more concentrated as it passes along fmm producer to
consumers. The story of DDT is one everybody should know. It was once a widely used
pesticide. It is a substance that does not easily break down. It can persist in the environment
for as long as fifteen years. It enters birds through the organisms they feed on which in turn
get it from the organisms lower in the food chain (see Fig. 16.4). When a high concentration
builds up in birds. their reproductive systems are affected. As a result they lay fragile eggs
that easily break in the nests. Similarly other pesticides are also major soil pollutants,
because of their retention in soil. The pesticides not only kill the targeted pests, but also kill
many harmless and even beneficial insects. They cause more harm than benefit. Therefore,
DDT and many such agrochemicals have been banned in many parts of the world.

Fig. 16A: The accumulation of DDT in living organisms. Dots represent the density of 8crumnJatIon.

What should be done to minimise soil pollution? First of all, in India, the use of open fields
and banks of ponds and tanks as open toilets should be stopped, by providing latrines. Care
should be taken while dumping wastes in the soil. Substances such as heavy metals, plastics
and other substances that remain unchanged for very long time should not be added to the
soil. Instead ways should be found for their reutilisation by various recycling processes.
Utmost care should be taken so that the minimum necessary pesticides or other
agrochemicals are used. In fact. biological control of pests and fixation of nitmgen should be
urgently developed by rcsearch, so that dependence on widespread use of toxic chemicals is
reduced.
SAQ 4 The C k P ~ n g
Environmmt
Name three comr~lonsoil pollutants.

SAQ 5
List the ways in which the soil pollutants harm the living beings? Complete the answer
giyen below, by picking up the appropriate word(s) from the list provided.

Firstly. many of these pollutanls enter the .......... and eventually get concentrated at
each trophic level. At the last ...........their concentration becomes so much that it does
considerable .......... to a variety of organisms. Secondly, pollutants like the. ........
not only destroy the harmful organisms, but also wipe out a large number of beneficial
organisms.
(pesticides, trophic level, food chain, damage)

16.2.4 Pollution due to Noise

Sound is an important means of communication, but high levels of noise could damage
hearing, and cause deterioration in capacity to concentrate on work. Noise is referred to as
unwanted sound that is usually unpleasant. The loudness of noise is measured in decibels
(db). The quietness of a lonely place at night may be represented by, 20 db; a library where
people are not supposed even to talk loudly, by 40 db; the sound level when you hear a radio
broadcast, by 60 db; a factory or a motor-cycle may produce uncomfortable noise at 100 db,
if you stand near a jet engine of the airlines it may be hard to bear the noise of 120 db level.
High level of noise is harmful to man. Hearing loss begins with prolonged exposure (8 hours
or more) to noise at 80-90 db or more.
Can you think of some places where there is high level of noise? The level of noise is very
high in certain industries, such as the ones dealing with iron and steel manufacture, motor
vehicle production, metal products fabrication. printing and publishing, lumbering and wood
products, and textile manufacturing. Busy streets in big towns, and the places near the
railway tracks are so noisy that if you were living there, you would hardly be able to sleep.
It is often said that noise pollution is different from air, soil and water pollution. let us see
how? Noise pollution differs significantly from air, soil and water pollution in the sense that
it decays almost instantaneously and leaves no residues, whereas a majority of pollutants of
air, soil and water remain as such for very long durations.
Now the question arises how can noise pollution be reduced? Maintenance of machinery and
automobiles, etc. in good condition reduces noise. Loudspeakers which blare music at night
during celebrations of festivals or marriages cause tremendous strain on the whole
neighbourhood. Rules that already exists to stop such noise should be enforced by local
administration. Planting of trees along roads also reduces noise levels in residential areas or
i~ work places.
SAQ 6
List three places where high level of noise, could harm your sense of hearing.

16.2.5 Pollution due to Radiations

Hazards of nuclear radiations are extremely serious, because they upset the genetic make up
of the living beings. Environmental pollution from nuclear radiations is increasing rapidly
due to proliferation of nuclear power plants. All nuclear power plants produce large
quantities of nuclear wastes, which remain radioactive for long periods of time. These
wastes need to be stored and disposed off in a manner that prevents the contamination of the
environment with radioactivity. But no satisfactory way has yet been developed to store the
radioactive waste material over long periods, without running the risk of leakage. Nuclear
wastes include radioactive elements that will be dangerous for thousands of years. For
example, Plutonium-239 remains in the biosphere for 2,00,000 years, with all its ill-effects
before it loses its radioactivity. Unfortunately, the developed countries which produce such
waste in huge quantities are known to be cleverly dumping this waste in the poor countries.
producing grave hazardf o their people who do not at all benefit from the positive side of
nuclear energy.
Environment and Resources Whenever nuclear explosions occur, radioactive particles are camed to great distances by air
currents. The radioactive material eventually settles on earth and is then taken up from the
soil by plants. If these plants are eaten by animals or man, these radioactive particles get
deposited in flesh, milk or bones of the animals. Once a certain concentration of these
radioactive substances is reached, their radiations can destroy tissue and cause death from
cancer or tissue damage. Unfortunately nuclear bombs were used by USA against Japanese
cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. Apart from the deaths caused by heat and blast,
tens of thousands of people died from damage caused by radiation, even the babies born
afterwards were affected by radiation that brings about genetic change. Testing of nuclear
weapons over the ground also creates increasing danger from radiation and so there has been
a worldwide movement to ban nuclear tests. India has played a big role in this movement.
Now a days, many people talk of the devastating effects of a nuclear war. There are now
enough nuclear warheads to destroy all military installations, most concentrations of
industry and almost every city on the globe. If even 1% of existing weapons are used, then
for months after the explosions, radioactive ash would continue to fall upon us from the
upper atmosphere. The dust and smoke raised by these nuclear explosions might create a
nuclear winter about which we have talked earlier, and all life and the whole civilisation
may be extinguished, The attacker as well as the attacked, and all the other nations would be
there no more to shed tears over their fate. Therefore, concern to bring about nuclear
disarmament has become the most important problem of the world.
SAQ 7
Identify the following statements as true or false. Write T for the correct statement and F for
the wrong statement in the boxes provided.
a) Radioactive wastes do not require any special treatment.
b) Exposure to a large amount of radiations can cause a number of diseases. LA
C) Radioactive waste materials are biodegradable. Cj
d) Nuclear radiations disturb the genetic make up of the living beings. l
I
u
-7

e) Nuclear wastes belong to the category of persistent pollutants.

16.3 IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON ENVIRONMENT

Since the mid 1950s, in most parts of the world, growth and development have vastly
improved living standards and quality of life. This improvement is largely due to the
application of technology. Technology, however, has also produced a new set of problems
concerning environmental stress due to.industrial effluents and emissions, use of chemicals
in agriculture, clearing forests, converting cultivable land into a maze of cement concrete
roads, buildings and embarkments, noise and radioactivity that are added to the atmosphere.
The consequent impact on human environment is greater than ever before in human history.
The increasing use of coal and oil as energy sources, the release of non-degradable or very
slow-degrading wastes from industry, and some of its products such as plastics and stainless
steel alloys have the potential of accumulating in the environment. Environmental stresses
also arise from more traditional form of production. More l a ~ has~ d been cleared for
cultivation in the past 100 years, than in all the previous centuries of human existence. The
loss of forests and other wild vegetation wipes out whole species of plants and animals, and
drastically reduces the genetic diversity of the world's ecosystems. This process robs present
'
and future generations of the genetic material to improve crop varieties, such as to make
them less vulnerable to weather stress, pest attack and disease. The loss of species, many of
which have not yet been studied by science deprives us of important potential sources of
medicines and industrial chemicals. The loss of forests could also bring in its wake
disastrous effects such as erosion, siltation, floods and local climatic changes. Massive
dams, most of them built after 1950, impound a large proportion of the river water,
submerge agricultural land and drive away wild animals.
Many of the risks arising from productive activity and the technologies we use, cross
national boundaries. Many of them cause global risks. Though the activities that give rise to
these dangers tend to be concentrated in a few countries, the risks are shared by all, rich and
poor. those who benefit and those who do not. A variety of air pollutants are killing trees
and lakes and damaging buildings and cultural treasures, close to. and sometimes thousands
of kilometers from the points of emission. The acidification of environment and the The Changing Environment
greenhouse effect etc. are threats to life-support system. It springs up directly from increased
use of resources. Another threat &risesfrc~nithe depletion of atmospheric oLone layer, by the
gases released during the production of foam, and the use of refrigerants and aerosols. A
substantial loss of ozone could have catastrophic affect on human and livestock health, and
effect on other life forms.
Political and technological amibitions have led to dangerous arms race which is not confined
to the two big powers only. Even the production and testing of armaments affect the
environment. The missiles, aircraft and space rockets leave burnt fuel in the upper
atmosphere, which affects the ozone layer adversely. A war involving the use of nuclear
weapons by the big powers can be totally destructive to all living beings including humans.
It can cause so much destruction to the atmosphere, the earth and the oceans, that they
cannot, probably, recover their original state.
In many cas.es, the present practice of disposing off of toxic wastes, such as those from
chemical industries, involves unacceptable risks. Radioactive wastes from nuclear industry
remain hazardous for centuries. Many people, who have to actually bear the risks of these
harmful wastes, do not benefit in any way from the activities that produce the wastes.
All the above-mentioned environmental stresses are linked to one another. For example,
deforestation is linked to increasing water runoff, it accelerates soil erosion and silting of
rivers and lakes. Air pollution and acid rain may kill forests and destroy life in the lakes. Such
links mean that several problems must be tackled simultaneously. Success in one area,
such as forest protection, can improve chances of success in another area, such as soil
conservation.
Industries, that constantly burden the environment with pollutants, also pose another kind of
danger, namely that of industrial accidents. These of course, are rare, but can additionally
endanger people far and near. We shall discuss here two such instances that most of you
might be familiar with.
Bhopal Disaster
All of you must have heard of the Bhopal disaster that occurred on 3rd December, 1984. It is
considered to be the worst industrial accident till today. Poisonous MIC (methyl isocyanate)
vapours, leaked out in large amounts, from a pesticides manufacturing plant owned by a
multinational company called Union Carbide. About 2,50,000 people were exposed to this
gas, and thousands of human beings and animals died after inhaling large quantities of this
gas. The surviving people who had lesser exposure, now suffer miserably with respiratory,
eye, gastrointestinal, neuromuscular and gynaecological problems. The plant, handling
highly toxic and poisonous substances, was situated right in the midst of a populated area.
Besides this, there are other possible Bhopals in India. Baroda with a population of a
million, has the country's single largest concentration of heavy petrochemical industries. In
West Bengal, too, there are 400 chemical factories that deal with poisonous gases. Even
though such factories manufacture chemicals which may be very useful, they should have
been installed at safer places, away from centres of population. In addition to this, the
factories must be well equipped with safety devices which would automatically minimize
the untoward effects of an accident.
The Chernobyl Disaster
This disaster that has happened in the Ukraine (USSR), has highlighted the dangers of
nuclear radiation. On April 26th. 1986, one of a cluster of four power reactors got over-
heated and is reported to have melted. As a result, radioactive material from this reactor
evaporated and spread into the atmosphere.
Places as far as Western Europe were soon showered with radioactive dust. It is the biggest
disaster in the history of nuclear power generation resulting in the death of 31 persons in the
vicinity and affecting a large population which was exposed to radiation. According to some
estimates, over 6000 additional deaths are likely from cancer, over the next 70 years.
Problem of Disposal of Industrial Eftluents
Rapid population growth, in combination with industrial and technological growth,
represents the potential danger to earth's ecosystems. It is believed that by the year 2000, the
production of various basic items like petroleum products, nitrogen fertilisers, coal, cement
and steel will increase by 6 to 20 times. If technologies and present practices remain the
same, the pollution of air, water and soil will also increase to an unbearable extent.
Envkomncnt and Rcsoums Ganga Action Plan
Of all the environment protection measures India has taken, the Ganga project is the
biggest and the boldest. The water of the Ganges, once considered the purest and
sacred, has over the years become polluted with industrial effluents and the other
wastes like garbage from the cities, partially burnt human bodies etc. Even mass
bathing of thousands of people leave a load of infectious material in the water.
Efforts are now being made to make it fit for human, industrial and agricultural
consumption.
The Rs. 292 crore project is planned to be carried out in different phases. In the first phase,
treatment of sewage from big cities on the bank of the river is planned. It is also being '
planned to control the discharge of industrial effluents, which are the other major sources of
pollution. As many as 4159 large and medium-size industrial units are responsible for
causing pollution.
SAQ 8
Match the items of the first column with that of the second. Write the number of the
appropriate match from the second column, in the bracket of the matching statement of the
first column.

Cdumn 1 Column 2

a) Ganga Action Plan [ 1 a) methyl isocynate vapours

b) The Chemobyl Disaster
C) Disposal of industrial
wastes on land
d) Bhopal Disaster
e) Improved living standards
and quality of life
[ 1 b) application of technology
C) to restore the quality of water
1 1 for human, industrial and agricultural use.
1 1 d) radioactive material evaporated
and spread into the atmosphere over large areas .
e) pollution of ground-water
[ 1

16.4 IMPACT OF POPULATION INCREASE ON

ENVIRONMENT
Early human hunted and killed wild animals for food, and they also gathered and ate many
plants. When they discovered that. food crops could be grown and animals could be confined
and bred, their nomadic life came to end. Smaller areas could support more people, and
human populations began to increase. Since the number of children born was proportional to
the size of $e population, the increase in population every year became greater than in the
previous year. From an estimated world population of about 10 crores in 3000 B.C., we
increased five times by the year 1650 A.D., or in about 4600 years. The next increase by a
factor of five took only about 300 years. or in about 1950. Today world population has
already exceeded 500 crores. The remarkable fact is that much of this irlcrease takes place in
the poorer countries such as Asia, Afiica and Latin America. Population of USA or U.K. is
not increasing as rapidly as that of China or India. If we examine increase of population in
India, we find that family size is smaller among the well to do people than among the poor.
Again, among Indian states, those with high level of education have a lower rate of
population growth than the others.
There is a high correlation between rate of growth of population, poverty and lack of
education. This is understandable because education would lead to better understanding of
one's own difficulties about providing food, shelter, clothing and education to children if
there are too many children to share an income. Education would also lead to knowledge
about how birth control can be achieved without too much expense or trouble, overcome
cultural factors which lead to large families, for example too much importance to male
children. In search of having one boy, a family may sometimes produce 3.4 morechildren.
Education would also lead to better health care of the children, so that those who are born
have a greater chance to survive. Educated population would also increase economic
productivity 'which could lead to removal of poverty, and greater pressure to improve
benefits of production so that social justice is achieved. .
However, here our concern is the strain which increasing population puts on the resources of
the world, including the environmental resource. All the things we dig out of the earth such
as coal, iron, petroleum, copper, and so on, are available in limited supply and all of them
are going to be exhausted within a limited number of years-and if population keeps The Changlng Envlronmcw&
growing, world consumption of these materials will keep increasing, advancing the date of
resource exhaustion. Already there is a world crisis of energy, and we are obliged to
examine how to use renewable sources of energy like solar or wind energy, etc. We have to
use more of nuclear energy, rather than energy obtained from coal, diesel or petroleum.
Larger and larger population also requires more production of food. Agriculture requires
land and in 6any countries land is not available to grow the crops needed for the doubling or
tripling population. There is tremendous strain in resources of drinking water, and on
facilities to remove filth and muck. Larger population could mean shortage of housing,
congestion on roads, slums going from bad to worse, and pollution-which we have
described in this unit, becoming increasingly active. Are we to keep poisoning the air we
breathe, polluting the water that we drink or otherwise use, and polluting the soil at an
increasing pace? The rich countries have to cut down on excessive consumption of world's
resources and their technologies must evolve so that they do not poison the air we breathe
and the water in which vast resources of food and medicine flourish. The poor countries
have to make massive efforts to educate their people, to control growth of their population
and to evolve a society which does not make the rich, richer and the poor, poorer. They have
also to evolve a technology that doesn't just copy what has been done in the past when
pollution and limitation on resources was not a looming danger, and a technology which
increases harmony between environment and living style.
SAQ 9
What factors do you think could motivate persons to have smaller families?

--- --

16.5 SUMMARY --

In this unit you have learnt that:

Wherever organisms live, the environment is affected. The wastes from human
community, and the industry are eventually deposited in water, air or soil.
Persistent pollutants are those that remain in the environment for many years in an
unchanged condition. Many of these are toxic. The non-persistent pollutants break down
into simpler forms. Many a time, the break down is brought about by living organisms,
and we say such pollutants are biodegradable.
Carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, particulates, sulphur dioxide ;uld nitrogen oxides are
the primary air pollutants, which combine to form secondary pollutants, some of which
are dead1y .
The major sources of water pollution are municipal sewage, indusmal wastes and
agricultural runoff. Organic matter in wastes, requires oxygen for their decomposition.
Oxygen depletion can result in the death of fish and other aquatic organisms. Addition of
excessive nutrients to a water body, in the form of wastes such as sewage etc., results in
problems like eutrophication.
Hazardous wastes from industry have become a threat to fife. These wastes require
special treatment to render them harmless or to isolate them from human beings.
Radioactive wastes are another special category of wastes that require special handling to
protect the public. Because of the high levels of some dangerous pollutarits th,~:irsvc
accumulated in the environment, the very existence of mankind is in danger. Inlmediate
attention orland remedial measures are required to tackle the problems such as: depletion
of ozone layer, change or suspended particles in the atmosphere, and consequences of
nuclear winter.
The developments in technology have made our life easy and comfortable but it has
happened at the cost of the environment. Pollution from the industries has caused
maximum damage to environmental quality. The acc~dentslike those of Bhopal and
Chemobyl have not only resulted in heavy casualities, but also caused long term damage
to the environment.
The reasons for tremendous increase in population in our country are : economic
backwardness, illiteracy, socio-cultural attitudes, and the increasing difference between
death and birth rate. Now a growing number of people are becoming aware of the critical
En-t end Resources state of our environment. It is hoped that use of modem technology, and educating people
would take us towards the preservation and improvement of the environment.

16.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) How much do you and your family contribute to the pollution of your environment?
Look carefully around your house, make a list of every thing that your family adds to the
air, water or soil. What suggestions can you make to reduce your family's contribution
to the local pollution?

2) In the space provided put a tick mark for the correct statement and cross for the wrong
statement.
i) Tall smoke stacks contribute to the acid rain problem.
ii) Eutrophication is caused by the inhibition of algal blooms.
iii) Water pollution is related to agricultural practices.
iv) The level of dissolved oxygen decreases in the ponds or any standing
water body that receives organic wastes.
v) Technological developments are in no way responsible for increased
pollution.
vi) Photochemical smog belongs to the category of primary pollutants.
vii) There is a positive correlation between the rate of growth of
population and lack of education.
viii) Air pollution decays instantaneously whereas noise pollution does
not.
ix) Many of the hazardous wastes in the soil tend to accumulate in the
bodies of organisms.
X) The air in most of the rural areas in India have a very high level of
particulates.

16.7 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1 ) a) pollution
b) carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, hydrocarbons, particulates, nitrogen oxides
c) nitrogen dioxide, ozone, peroxylacetyl nitrate
d) acid rain
 e) carbon dioxide, warming The Changing Environment

f) nitrogen oxides, chlorofluorocarbons

2) headache, eye membrane affected, respiratory diseases such as lung cancer etc.
3) municipal sewage, industrial wastes, agricultural runoff, oxygen, oxygen, nutrients,
eutrophication, non-flowing.
4) Heavy metals, plastics, agrochemicals.

5) food chain, trophic level, damage, pesticides.

6) textile loom, newspaper press, metal product fabrication plant.
7) a) F
b) T
c) F
d) T
e) T
8) a) lcl
b) Id1
C) lel
d ) la1
el [bl
9) education and sound economic conditions.
Terminal Questions
1 ) Your choice
Hint:While cooking food by various means. pollutants are added to the air. Similarly,
we add pollutants to water when we take bath or brush our teeth. If you have a small
garden or a farmland, surely you must be adding fertilisers or pesticides etc. from time to
time:If these agrochemicals, are added in excess, they may also cause soil pollution. .
2)i) 4
ii) x
iii) 4
iv) d
v) x
vi) x
vii) d
viii) x
ixj 4
x) x
UNIT 17 NATURAL RESOURCES
Structure
17.1 Introduction
Objectives
17.2 Natural Resources
Renewsblc Rcsourees
Non-renewable Resources
17.3 Energy: A Non-Conventional Renewable Resource
17.4 Exploration of Resources
Conventional Methods
Remote Sensing Method
Type of Resource Maps
17.5 Summary
17.6 Terminal Questions
17.7 Answers

17.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 16, you have studied changes in the environment due to greater pressure on natural
resources to meet the demands of present day world. Now you would be interested to know,
what our natural resources are. There are both living and non-living resources on land as
well as in the ocean. The living resources include forests, wild life, and creatures living in
water or on land. The non-living resources are water in the rivers or under the ground, soil
and mineral deposits. Some of these resources are found in abundance, while others are
found in limited quantities and that too in some restricted parts of our land or the ocean.
Here you would study how these resources are explored. In the next unit you ~l~ould study
how best they can be utilised.

Objectives
After studying this unit you would be able to:
define renewable and non-renewable resources
describe types of natural resources available on our earth
describe the non-conventional sources of energy and explain how they can be tapped for
the production of energy for domestic and industrial use
outline different methods for resource exploration and various ways in which resource
mapping is done.
-- ---------- -----A-

17.2 NATURAL RESOURCES

--

Resources, or the wealth nature has bestowed on us are essential for civilised living, and
therefore, they have to be wisely used. However, it is believed that these resources are being
used indiscriminately. This is partly because of the tremendous increase in population and
partly because there is insufficient realisation that these resources will one day be exhausted.
Industrial and technological progress which the world has experienced has increased the rate
at which these resources are being used. A significant factor has been that, for centuries, the
resources of some countries have been exported as raw materials to the dominant or imperial
countries. The poor countries still have to export some precious minerals to the same
countries which are now called developed countries. For example, we are now-a-days
exporting cadmium, a soft silvery metal, to foreign countries so as to earn foreign currency
to meet our other necessities. The metal is extremely useful and is used for a variety of
purposes like making cadmium rods for nuclear reactors and cadmium-silver cells for
electronic watches etc. At present, we are not able to make much use of this metal in our
country because of the low level of technological development. If tomorrow our mineral
reserve of this metal is exhausted, we may be forced to import it at a much higher cost.
Some countries which are importing this mineral may be stock-piling it and they will sell it
at exorbitant price when our stocks are exhausted.
 We should, therefore, know what our natural resources are, what their uses are and how Natural Rosw-
judiciously we can make use of these resources. Careful and planned use will no doubt
increase the life span of our resources. For this it is necessary that we are able to explore our
natural resources and estimate their reserves. Modem technology has made scientific
exploration of natural resources possible.
Our resources are basically of two kinds, viz, renewable and non-renewable. Let us see what
they mean.
i Some of the resources of the earth are replaced from time to time by natural multiplication
as for example, is vegetation. In other words, these resources are inexhaustible and are
therefore called renewable resources. Forests, pastures, wild life. and aquatic life are
renewable resources. Water is also a renewable resource because it recycles. There are some
other resources, such as minerals which once used are lost for ever. They cannot be
regenerated. Mineral deposits were formed slowly in millions of years. Once a deposit is
used, it cannot be regenerated. For example, petrol gets burnt up and cannot be recovered.
These are known as non-renewable resources. Similarly, the formation of soil is a very
slow and long term process and it takes thousands of years. It is, therefore, not renewable in
the life span of even several generations of people. Hence it is also a non-renewable
resource.
Let us look at some of these resources of our country in detail. To begin with let us see what
our renewable resources are.
7 17.2.1 Renewable Resources
As stated earlier, renewable resources are in principle inexhaustible, because they get
regenerated naturally. However, through misuse we can interfere in this natural process and
cause irreparable damage to these resources. Water and forests are our main renewable resources.

Jammu and Kashmir

1% 0.113%
Arunachal Pradesh

% in rust, usable water potential

% In black, water being used
a
4

Fig. 17.1: Ground water potential in the Indian Sub-Continent

Environment and Resources Water Resources
Water, as you know, is the most essential component of life. Our water resources are
limited, though apparently, water is available in an abundant quantity. There is scarcity of
usable quality of water in large parts of the world. You will be quite amazed to know that
only 2.7% of the total water resources of the earth consist of fresh water, fit for drinking,
irrigation and such other purposes. Water flowing in the streams and rivers is only 0.0001%
of the total water resource on the earth, i.e., one bucket in 10,000 buckets! Fresh wate~lakes
contain only 0.009% of total water. Ground water upto a depth of about 150 metres accounts
for only 0.625%. Water found in the frozen state as snow on high mountains, which cannot
be directly used, accounts for about 2.15%.
The total volume of water found in underground reservoirs, called aquifers, which can be
pumped out is estimated to bi: 42.3 x 10'%cbic metres, of which only a quarter is being
used, and the rest can be utilised in future for irrigation, industries and homes etc. The
hydrological map of India given here (Fig. 17.1) shows that there are many regions of the
country, such as parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, which have a low ground water
potential. That is, the amount of ground water is in small quantity in these regions.
From the above, we can cee that water which is required for various purposes like irrigation,
navigation, generation of hydro-electricity and domestic and industrial needs is rather
scarce. It is, therefore, necessary that water resources should be exploited judiciously.
Forest resources
Forests are our treasures, which provide us a wide variety of commodities we use in the
form of fuelwood, fodder, fibre, fruit, timber, herbal drugs, cosmetics and many raw
materials that are used in wood-based industries. A great many types of animals and birds,
which live in the forests, serve as useful living resources. Forests play a great role in
maintaining oxygen supply in the air we breathe, and they affect the climate.
Analysis of satellite photographs shows, that in 1982, about 14% of the geographic area of
our country was covered with forests of which nearly I I% were closed forests and 3%
degraded forests (Fig. 17.2). As a result of increased utilisation of wood and other forest

Fig. 17.2: Area underlorest cover as percentage of total area

products, without putting in adequate efforts to regenerate them, the forests are known to be Natural Re~nurces
fast disappearing. This has caused an environmental imbalance. For example, rain water
flows unimpeded over the mountain Slopes and often causes floods. The excessive washing
away of top soil results in low fertility and decreased production of crops. It is because
of these evil effects of deforestation, that a strong policy has been adopted by our
government to protect forests and to plant more trees.

17.2.2 Non-renewable Resources

After learning about the renewable resources like water, forests etc., you would like to know
what our non-renewable resources such as land, mineral, oceanic resources are. These
resources can neifher be regenerated nor expanded.
Land resources
Land is a basic resource for us. As you have learnt in the previous unit, it is, in fact, the
foundation on which the entire ecological system rests and it is the living ground (habitat)
for all terrestrial plants and animals. The capability of land to support life and various
activities of man and animals is dependent both on its biological productivity, and load
bearing capacity of the soil and rocks.
Land is under great pressure due to increase in population. Our land mass which was, in
1901, inhabited by 238 million people, is now shared by more than 780 million people.
Mismanagement of the land resource as a result of indiscriminate cutting of trees or
deforestation has caused considerable damage to the quality of the soil and landscapes.
Today, per capita land resource available in India is less than 0.4 hectare and it is presumed
that with the present rate of population growth, it would be reduced to about 0.33 hectare by the end
of twentieth century. Thus, you can realise the magnitude of the pressure on our land resources.
Soil resources
Soil, which forms the uppermost layer of the land, is the most precious of all resources,
because it supports the whole life system, provides food and fodder in the form of vegetation
and stores water essential for life. It contains sand, silt and clays, mixed with air and
moisture. It possesses rich organic and mineral nutrients.
The type of soil varies from place to place. Those soils which are rich in organic matter are
fertile. Fertility is also dependent on the capacity of the soil to retain water and oxygen. The
following major types of soil are recognisable in the Indian sub-continent (Fig. 17.3).

2. Black Soils
3. Desert Soils
4. Alluvial Soib
5. Laterite Soils
6. Mountainous Soib

Fig. 1 7 3 Type of soils found in the Indian sub-continent 51

Environment and Resources i) Deep red soil is found on plateaux and lowland areas of Eastern Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh and North Andhra Pradesh, where rainfall is 100-300 cmlyear and temperature
remains above 22°C. The soil supports rail1 forests and grasslands and is good for
cultivation of potatoes, bananas, pineapples and rubber etc.
ii) The type of soil found on the Deccan and Malwa plateaux of western and central India
has a cover of clay and is loamy and black. It is very fertile and supports mixed
grasslands, forests, crops of sugarcane, groundnut, soyabean, cotton and rice etc.
iii) The soils of the desert region of western India are low in organic matter and generally
considered to have low fertility. However, if water is provided they can be made very
fertile. Over-irrigation, on the other hand, leads to salinity of these soils, thus reducing
their productivity.
iv) Another type of soil, forms part of the Indo-Gangetic plain extending from Pakistan to
Assam. It is found in the delta regions on the coasts of Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Gujarat. This soil is characterised by loamy texture, dry
composition and variability of thickness from place to place. The soil is highly
productive and supports crops of all kind. In the arid conditions, it becomes locally
alkaline or saline and is not v e y productive.
v) The soil that forms part of the low-lying wet land or marshy land in the deltas of
. Ganga, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri and in the river basins of Kerala, contains rich
organic matter such as decomposed farmyard manure (dung) and plant material (wood
peat), and as such is very fertile.
vi) Another type of soil found on the mountainous Himalayan region, which is ash grey to
pale yellow-brown in colour, has low fertility and supports coniferous plants such as
pines, deodar and oak etc.
The system of soil classification that you have read above is based on their general
characteristics. There are many differences within these types of soil which are due to
differences in climate and natural vegetation.
Mineral resources
Minerals, natural substances got from the earth by mining, are the backbone of our
industries, and hence of commercial and economic use. Now-a-days, minerals such as
uranium are also used for generating atomic energy as an alternate source of energy. A grear
variety of minerals like coal, iron, copper, aluminium, petroleum etc. are indispensable to
meeting our day-to-day requirements.

Flg. 17.4: Mineral producing Zones of Indla

 We are predominantly dependent on petroleum for generating energy for all purposes, but Natural Resources 1
the world stock of underground resources of this fuel is believed to be exhausting.
India is self-sufficient in 35 minerals, which are used as raw materials in basic industries.
We have iron, aluminium, coal etc. in enough quantity, but for the requirement of
phosphates which are used inmaking fertilisers, crude oil and non-ferrous metals like cop
per, zinc and lead, we are dependent, to some extent on imports from foreign countries.
Our mineral producing states are'Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Bengal, Gujarat, Rajasthan and
Andhra Pradesh (Fig. 17.4). With the introduction of modem technology, it is now possible
to locate the reserves of petroleum on the land as well as in the ocean bed. Picture9 sent by
the satellites, satellite imageries, help us to pin point the area where mineral deposits are
likely to be found in abundance. Earlier, before we had the satellites in space, this was not

Oceanic resources
Various minerals are found in the sea basins. Among the minerals found at a depth of
4000-5000 metres below sea level are the "nodules" or lumps of manganese oxides
(Fig. 17.5) and sulphides of cobalt, nickel, copper and iron. India is also trying to exploit this
resource. Today more than 115th of the world's oil and natural gas production comes from
offshore wells. The Bombay High, for example, has petroleum reserves of the order of 7,400
million tonnes. Deltas of the Kaveri, Godavari and Mahanadi are also found to have big
deposits of natural gas and oil. The coastal sands of Kerala and Orissa contain many
valuable minerals such as monozite (raw material used in generation of atomic energy) and
zircon. Many other metals like tin, gold, platinum etc. are also found in the deposits on the

(a)

Fig. 17.5: (a) Dbtrlbutlon of mangane~enodulesin the Indian '

Ocean; (b) Technique of ocean bedding.

The living resources of the ocean such as fish and plants serve as good food to meet thc
needs of the people or as a source of some medicines.
-

a) Complete the fallowing statements:

i) Resources which are inexhaustible are called. . . . . . . . . . and the resources which
once used are lost for ever, are known as. . . . . . . . . . .
ii) Forests, pastures, wildlife and aquatic life constitute . . . . . . . . . .
iii) The capability of land to support life and various other activities depend on its

I
.......... and ...........
iv) The uppermost layer of the land forms . . . . . . . . . . .
i soil depends on the capacity of soil to retain . . . . . . . . . .
v) ' ~ e r t i l iot ~ .
vi) l'he deep red soil found on plateaux and low-land iueas of Eastern Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh and North Andhra Pradesh is good foi the,cultivationof. . . . . . . . . . .
 Environment and Resources
Solar run refrigerators have been
developed for rural areas. These
keep vegetables, fruits fresh for a
longer,period.
vii) The type of soil found in tire mountainous Himalayan region is .......... in
colour.
b) Answer the following questions:
i) Why is there a scarcity of usable quality water?
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
ii) What are the two major environmental imbalances caused by deforestation?
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
iii) Name four important minerals which are used as raw materials in the industries of
our country.
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
iv) Give two reasons for increasing the importance of the exploitation of oceanic
resources.
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
17.3 ENERGY :A NON-CONVENTIONAL RENEWABLE
RESOURCE
The demand for energy doubles every 14 years and is taken as one of the indicators of
development of a country. India, with 16% of the world's population consumes only 1.5%
of the total energy produced in the world, in comparison to USA which has 6.25% of the
world's population and utilises 33% of the energy produced. This gives us an idea of the low
level of our development and should be an incentive to better utilisation of our resources for
generating more energy, so that we can meet our growing demands of energy. Even today.
about 80% of our population continues to depend on fuelwood, dung and agricultural
wastes. We know that non-renewable reserves such as fossil fuels, coal and petroleum, are
not going to last for long. Forests are also being depleted at a fast rate due to indiscriminate
felling of trees. Therefore, it has become necessary to think of alternative, non-conventional
sources of energy. Some of these sources of energy are discussed here.
Solar energy
The energy we get today from the fossil fuels like coal, is in reality sun's energy, trapped in
them millions of years ago. Plants make their food and grow because they use solar energy
for photosynthesis. Millions of years ago, huge forests got buried in the earth's crust and
under great pressure and temperature, they were converted into coal or oil. Hence coal and
oil are called fossil fuels. Solar energy is the great source for production of vegetation which
serves as food and fuel for us.
However, nowadays, we have learnt to trap solar energy for various purposes. Solar energy
can be used directly to give us hot water during winter (Fig. 17.6), or run a refrigerator. It
can be used for heating rooms (Fig. 17.7) in colder regions. It can also be used, with the help
of a "photocell" to produce electricity for driving vehicles and illumination of streets
(Fig. 17.8). In a desert like Rajasthan, the earth's surface receives solar energy at the rate of
200 watts per square metre per hour. Since this is an unfailing source of energy, it would be
a great advantage to develop cheap and efficient photocells or photovoltaic devices to
harness solar energy. A feature of using solar energy is that it can be generated where
needed. Solar cookers are being used in many homes to cook food. Photocells are also
becoming common, though their efficiency has to be improved and their price brought
down.
 Natural Resources

overha& f o r y
summer sunshading

Solar ray r" Fixed Glass

I (1Roof Radiation tra

Earth roofing

Tower Electrical power

transmission network

Mirror water in

Insulating -
Curtain

Fig. 17.6: Solar energy being Fig. 17.7: Solar h@

used for heating water room

Steam Electric
turbine generator
A field of thousands of mirrors concentrates sunlight on a boiler
mounted atop a 300 foot tower to produce steam, which is used
to generate electricity.
, Fig. 17.8: Method of tapping solar
energy for electricity Fig. 17.9 A wind mill
W mu energy
Like solar energy, wind flow can also be harnessed to obtain mechanical energy for fetchin
water from the wells or from rivers. Once the windmill (Fig. 17.9) is turning due to force of
the wind, it may as well run a generator to get electrical energy. In the coastal and hilly
regions, where wind blows at high speed, a wind mill can be used for the supply of
electricity to a small town. Windmills have been used since long in many countries, but in
India they have only been recently introduced.
Wave and tidal energy
Waves and tides are another source of energy which is perpetual and can be converted into
electric energy, particularly where sea water can move into a narrow cut, such as is provided
naturally where rivers flow into the sea. Energy carried by water has also been widely used
in India's hilly regions, since a wheel with pedals can be made to turn when it is put in a fast
flowing strehm. Flour mills of small size built on this principle were used in Kashmir for
long time. In fact, large "hydroelectric" power stations work on the same principle. A
natural or artificial water fall is made to turn a modem kind of pedal wheel, called a turbine,
which rotates and causes electricity to k generated.
Geothermal energy
Hot water and superheated steam of hot springs are a natural phenomenon and can be used
to generate electricity. In our country there arc 46 hydrothermal areas where the temperature
of the spring water exceeds 15D°C.These hot springs can be used to generate electricity for
heating homes, or glass-houses to prow vegetables.
Envirwment and Rcsoums Atomic energy
In view of the fast depletion of our non-renewable resources like coal and petroleum, and
because of pollution which power stations burning coal cause, there has been a move to use
other means of obtaining energy. Since the energy of the atom had already been unleashed
in the form of a bomb, efforts were made to release atomic energy in a controlled manner.
The device used for this purpose is called an atomic reactor (Fig. 17.10). Nuclear reactors
produce heat, which is commonly used to raise steam, which rotates turbines and generators
of electric power. It is estimated that 1 kg of natural uranium, written as^^^, generates
energy equal to that produced by 35,000 kg of coal. Thus production of energy from nucrear
fuel like uranium is efficient, and since great loads of coal or diesel are not consumed daily,
this energy is convenient. Nuclear reactors need to be situated at places far away from
habitations. They have to be operated under strict safety control, so that there are no
accidental leakages of radioactive material. The radioactive wastes have to be carefully
disposed off. India is very short of energy and all of you may have heard or experienced
power cuts or load-shedding. We have plans to set up several nuclear reactors to generate a
good position of our total power requirement.

Fig. 17.10: A view of Narora Atomic Power Station

Biogas
You may have heard of the use of cattle dung for production of biogas which is used for
cooking (Fig. 17.1 1). Water weeds like water hyacinth, water lettuce, salvinia, hydrilla, duck
weeds and algae are found to be useful supplement to cattle dung. Biogas can be used not
only as cooking gas, it can also be used to raise steam, which can be used for running
engines or machines in the factories or for running turbines to generate electricity. It has
been found that large biogas plants can supply the needs of a number of families or even
small villages. What is left over after generating the gas, can be used as manure. Hence this
is also an economical way of getting more energy. That is why in countries like China or
India, great efforts are being made to instal tens of thousands of biogas plants in rural areas.
Now that you have studied about various kinds of resources, you would like to know about
the methods used for exploring these resources. But before that, you may try the following SAQ.

Fig. 17.11: A village lady using biogas burner for cooking food.
 SAQ 2
Tick mark (4)the correct answers in the statements given below:
i) Solar energy is a:
a) renewable resource
b) non-renewable resource
ii) Plants manufacture their food by using:
a) energy from fossil fuels
b) solai energy
C) energy from organic nutrients
iii) Use of non-conventional source of energy like solar energy, biogas, wind energy is
gaining importance over conventional sources such as wood, coal or other fossil fuels
because it is:
a) cheap
b) pollution-free
C) both cheap and pollution free
iv) Reactor generates:
a) Biogas
b) Geothermal energy
c) Atomic energy
d) Tidal energy

17.4 METHODS OF EXPLORATION OF RESOURCES

Exploration of resources involves complex techniques which depend on the physical,
chemical and biological properties of a particular resource. Now-a-days, in our country,
much of the exploration is done by analysis of photographs taken from air raft or spacecraft
9
(satellites) and other data supplied by the sensors mounted on these vehicle by a method
called' remote sensing'. You may like to know something about the methods used for /
exploration of resources.

17.4.1 Conventional Methods

In olden days, discovery of minerals or of petroleum wis purely accidental. People used to
know about the hidden treasures of the Earth, when they used to dig out land for water or for
construction of houses. Sometimes, while tilling land, fanners struck luck and discovered
precious metals and minerals. However, in this way, they could only hit upon the mineral
wealth which lay close to the surface. Now, many techniques are used for systematic
exploration of the hidden resources, and drilling or digging is undertaken when preliminary
surveys have clearly indicated what is underneath and how much is likely to be found.

17.4.2 Remote Sensing Method

Principle
Remote sensing is a method of collecting information about ground objects like soil, water,
vegetation and minerals, from a remote place, such as an aircraft or a satellite. This
technique not only enables us to locate various resources, but also helps us to know about
their quantity and quality. The simplest device could be a camera canied by an aeroplane to
photograph large areas of land systematically. Television cameras could be mounted on
satellites and they could take pictures showing details of clouds, water, forests or buildings
on the earth. Both these are "optical" methods of remote sensing because visible light is
used by the cameras. But one could send out radio waves from the satellites and observe
how they are reflected or absorbed on the surface of the earth. Usually radio waves of
wavelengths as small as a few centimetres called 'microwaves', are used for such studies,
because these waves penetrate through klouds and their reflections also go through the
clouds to reach the satellite. Similarly, infra-red signals can be sent from the satellite and
reflections studied to reveal the nature of the reflecting surface.
Remote sensing of water resburces
, Radio waves of the shortest known wavelengths are called 'gamma rays'. These are given
off by atoms of several elements. As a result, the ground soil sends out gamma rays which
Environment and Resources can be picked up by aetectors in the aeroplanes or satellites. This emission is affected by the
presence of moisture or water in the soil and hence, it can be easily detected whether or not
the soil holds water. Moreover, in the pictures taken from space, the wet soil will have
altogether different appearance compared to dry or waterless soil. Due to the presence of
moisture, the water rich soil will not only show day time (diurnal) variation in temperature
on its surface, but will also have a cover of vegetation. Analysis of the type, density and
pattern of the vegetation growing on the wet soil helps us in locating the areas of potential
ground water. Similarly. the belts of hotsprings may be identified and will show up in
thermal or infra-red detectors.
Survey of the vegetation cover
Forests of deciduous trees which shed leaves in a certain season can be easily identified with
the help of pictures taken from the spacecraft specially during autumn when the deciduous
trees shed leaves and there is no snowfall as yet to conceal the vegetation.
Vegetation cover can be surveyed by measuring and analysing infra-red reflection, or with
the help of photographs. The density of vegetation, shape and size of the plants and even
size, orientation and health of the leaves can be studied from afar. The pattern of seasonal
growth of deciduous trees is different from that of the coniferous trees like pine and deodar
and thus the difference can be detected in the photos taken by the spacecraft.
Plants absorb solar energy to make carbohydrates. A part of the absorbed energy is given out
and therefore the leaf temperature remains 10-15°Chigher than the surrounding air
temperature during sunniest part of the day, and about 5OC below the air temperature at the
coolest hour of the night. So by measuring ground temperature from a distance, the presence
or absence of vegetation can be detected.
Search for mineral deposits
Aerial photos and satellite pictures show very clearly if there is a break in the continuity of
layep of rock. or other unusual features on the surface of the earth. The distinctive linear
features are found to be very common centres where mineral deposits and ground water are
accumulated. Radio waves and magnetic measuremcuts also pro.vide infomtion about
..
minerals and oil under the surface.

17.43 Types of Resource Maps

~ e n e r a l lseveral
~, types of maps, based on the type of.resburces, are prepared. Some of
these are:
Soil Maps showing the types of soil (Fig. 17.3), their composition and biological
productivity.
Mineral Maps showing locations of various kinds of mineral deposits in relation to settings
of the earth's crust.
Hydrological Maps show presence of underground water aquifers, i.e., rock formation
containing water in recoverable quantity, in terms of the depth of water table (Fig. 17.1).
Snow Cover Maps demarcate the extent of snow packs on high mount+ns.
Resource mapping
Using various techniques, Resource Mapping is done to locate different resources like water,
minerals, forests. vegetation as well as the types of land. Mapping of resources makes it
possible to visualise how land use could be managed to best advantage. The rural land use
map tells us about the health of forests and the state of deforestation, about pastures, and
agricultural crops. It also tells us how much land and of what kind is unutilised. The urban
land use maps shqw housing, commercial buildings, sports facilities, esseitial services such
as roads, water supply and disposal of waste etc. Likewise, the preparation of regional land
use maps will focus upon the broader aspects of development such as land used for
agriculture, industrialisation and urbanisation, for obtaining natural resources (forestry,
mining etc.), water resource development (dams, reservoirs and canals), transportati~nnet
work (rails, road etc.) and also the zones prone to natural hazards like floods, cyclones,
earthquakes, landslides and avalanches etc.

SAQ 3
Which of the following sktements are true-and which faise. Write (T) for true and (F)for
faise.
i) In remote sensing, visible light can be used by the camera for collecting
information from the surface of the earth. [ 1
ii) Analysis of density and pattern of vegetation growth on the wet soil
helps us in detecting areas which have potentials of ground water. 1 1
iii) Deciduous forest, which does not shed leaves, can be identified with the
help of the pictures taken from the space-craft during winter when trees
are concealed by snow. [ 1
iv) The linear features on the surface of the earth are very common centres
of mineral deposits and accumulation of underground water. 1 1
v) The preparation of urban map helps us in identifying the health of
forest and the state of deforestation, about pastures and agricultural crops. [ 1

17.5 SUMMARY
In the present unit you have studied about two categories of natural resources viz.
i) Renewable resources, such as water and forests.
ii) Non-renewable resources, like minerals, fossil fuels and land.
* You have learnt that it is important to make best use of the limited resources we have got
on our earth. Besides this, you have also learnt about various sources of energy like the
sun, wind, waves, hot springs, atomic energy and biogas etc. which can be used as
alternate sources of energy.
You have also studied various ways through which exploration of resource is done,
particularly with the help of aircraft and satellites, which are able to "see" large tracts of
the earth's surface at once. This helps in locating new resources and monitoring
deforestation.
You have been acquainted with various types of maps, indicating the type of resources, their
quality, quantity and more precisely their location.

17.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

Answer very briefly the following:
1 What do you understand by renewable and non-renewable resources?

2 What are the various mineral resources which c& be recovered from the ocean?

3 How is biogas helpful in meeting the energy crisis of people living in rural areas?

........................................................................
4 What are the methods used for resource exploration?
Environment and Rcstmms

-\

5 How are hidden resources of water investigated?

........................................................................
........................................................................
6 How is the quality of a forest surveyed through satellite imageries or air photos?
........................................................................
........................................................................
......................................................... i . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17.7 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1) a) i) renewable resources, non-renewable ii) renewable resources, iii) biological
productivity, load bearing capacity of the soil and rocks, iv) soil, v) water and
oxygen, vi) potatoes, bananas, pineapples, rubber etc., vii) ash grey to pale
yellow-brown.
b) i) only 2.7% of the total water resources of the earth is fresh water which is used
for drinking and other purposes.
ii) Oxygen supply in the air is lost and due to rain soil erosioh and flood occur.
iii) Coal, iron, aluminium, tin etc.
iv) Firstly various minerals like nodules of manganese oxide and sulphides of cobalt,
nickel, copper, iron etc. are found in the sea basin. Secondly there are big
deposits of natural gas and oil in the sea.
2) i) a, ii) b, iii) c, iv) c.
3) i) T, ii) T, iii) F, iv) T, v) F.
Terminal Questions
1 Some of the resources of the earth grow and go on multiplying naturally such as
vegetation, forests, pastures, wild life, aquatic life etc are renewable resources. Whereas
the other resources like minerals, coal, petroleum etc which are once used are lost for
ever, are known as non-renewable resources.
2 Various minerals like nodules or lumps of manganese oxides and sulphides of cobalt,
nickel, copper, iron are found in the sea basin. Besides, petroleum, natural gas and oil
. are extracted from the sea.
3 The raw materials such as water weeds, cattle dung etc which are used for the production -

of biogas, are found in abundance in rural areas. If the use of the biogas for kitchen
cooking is encouraged, the fuel or energy crisis can be solved to a greater extent.
4 In olden days discovery of minerals and oil was purely accidental. People used to come
across the hidden treasures of the earth while tilling land for agriculture or construction.
These days remote sensing device is used to locate resources like soil, water, vegetation,
minerals etc.
5 The ground soil sends out a kind of radio waves of the shortest known wavelengths,
which can be picked up by detectors in the aeroplanes or satellites. The emission is
affected by the "pesence of moisture or water in the soil and hence it can easily be
detected whether or not the soil holds water.
6 The quality of the forest cover can be surveyed by measuring and analysing infra-red
reflection or with the help of photographs takkn from aeroplanes or satellites.
UNIT 18 RESOURCE UTILISATION,
PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Use of Natural Resources
Recycling of Used Resources and Waste
Resource Planning and Management
Land Use Planning and Management
Soil Management
Management of Forest Resources
Management of Water Resources
Conservation of Mineral Resources
Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

--

18.1 INTRODUCTION
-----

In Unit 17, you have studied about different types of natural resources and methods for their
exploration. In this unit, you will study how best some of the limited and non-renewable
resources such as water, soil, forests, and minerals etc. can be used.
You will also briefly study planning and management of resource utilisation. Resource
planning is necessary to make the limited resources last longer and management is required
to conserve and make most effective use of the available resources for national
development.

Objectives
After you have studied the present unit, you should be able to:
explain how, with wise and careful planning, various natural resources can be utilised for
the betterment of mankind and how best our limited resources can be maximised
describe various aspects of conservation of water and mineral resources
describe how the forest resources can be used without depleting our forest stock
outline some methods of utilising wastes such as municipal waste, slag, flyash etc.

18.2 USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES

In Unit 17, you studied about various natural resources such as land, water, soil, minerals
etc. You know that these resources are limited and precious. Therefore, they should be used
more efficiently. We will now discuss how various resources are being currently used in our
country.
Land
Land is the most precious resource, because its produce supports human population and
other living beings on land. Nearly 44% of land in India is used for agricultural purposes, of
which 11-14% is covered with forests that include good as well as degraded forests, and 4%
of the land is used as pastures and grazing fields. The remaining 8% is used for various other
purposes such as housing, agroforestry, establishment of industries, development of roads
and reservoirs etc..
About 14% of our land is barren i.e. it cannot be used for the cultivation of crops. Nearly 113
of the barren land has lost its productivity due to alkalinity or salinity of the soil, and water
logging etc. Soil erosion causes a great harm to productivity of our land, because in this
Environment and Resources process soil is broken up and washed away by water or swept away by wind. These facts
indicate careless and unwise use of land and is a reflection of the mismanagement of our
land resources.
Today, nearly 24% of our population lives in urban areas. The rapid increase of urbanisation
and migration of population from rural to urban areas lead to two serious consequences.
Migration of people to towns increases their population and expands their size, thus
necessitating conversion of agricultural land to housing, office and factory buildings, roads
and bridges etc. Rural land, on the other hand, may remain underutilised. The conditions of
life in the cities often deteriorate due to increased population. Sewage and water supply
come under strain; more vehicles cause more pollution; or the poor end up in unhygienic
slums. Migration can be checked only if the living conditions in the villages are improved.
Particularly transport and communication, health care, education, and other basic amenities
like clean water and good sewage disposal should be provided in rural areas. Setting up of
rural industries can lead to employment of growing numbers, so fewer people would leave
their villages for urban areas.
Water
Water, used for irrigation of fields or for drinking, is obtained from rivers and streams and
from wells which give access to the underground water reserves. In spite of the abundance
of the water flowing down the rivers or s t ~ r e dunderground, most of the villages, even
today, do not have adequate supply of good quality drinking water. Quite often, in rural
areas, drinking water has to be brought from a distance of a few kilometres. Even all the
towns do not have a municipal water supply system. On the other hand, a lot of water is
misused or wasted. Ground water accounts for about 48% of the irrigation water. Ground
water often remains under-utilised. If necessary equipment and energy are available to pump
it out, it could provide assured irrigation to sizable part of our land.
Forest cover
An analysis of satellite imageries and air photos indicates that in 1982 about 1 I%of land
area in India was thick forests and the remaining 3% degraded or thin forests (Fig. 17.2).
The world figures are much higher than this, and a higher figure is considered necessary
from the point of view of climate as well as maintenance of the composition of the air we
breathe. In India, most of the forests resources are used as fuel by people living in or around
them. A good deal of forest trees arb felled for timber, and for packing fruit and for making
paper. Besides, forests are being overgrazed by the increasing number of cattle. During the
last 30 years, approximately 4.3 million hectares of forests were converted into agricultural
fields or lost in construction of dams and roads. This is quite a good fraction of the 75
million hectares of total forest area. According to the latest information, the country is losing
its forests at the rate of 0.16 million hectare every year. If the present rate of deforestation
continues, a good deal of the country would become a mere grassland within a hundred
years, with drought and floods becoming a regular feature in India.

Minerals
Minerals like coal, iron, copper, steel etc. are used in all kinds of industries and in every-day
life. The rate of consumption of minerals is increasing every year. Although the per capita
consumption of some minerals like lime stone and iron ore is higher than some other
minerals like bauxite, clay. gypsum, silica, sulphur, coal etc. Our per capita mineral
consumption is very small compared to that of the developed counhies like USA, USSR or
Japan. A major proportion of minerals produced in our country are exported to other
countries as raw material to earn foreign exchange. However, quite a few minerals, like
uranium, diamond, some kinds of steel, copper, non-ferrous alloys, crude oil etc. are
imported in one form or another.
An important issue in the utilisation of resources is how to handle waste, so as to extract the
useful resources from it. Let us now consider the recycling of waste materials. But before
that you may like to try the following SAQ.

SAQ 1
Statements regarding the use of various natural resources are given below. Match the
statement given in column B with the resource in column A.

Land i) The world figures are much higher than this, and a
 higher figure is considered necessary from the point of Resource Utilization.
view of climate as well a\ maintenance Planning and Management
of the c~mpositionof the air we breathe.

Water ii) A major proportion produced in our country is exported

to other countries as raw material to earn foreign
exchange.

Forest cover iii) If necessary equipment and energy are available to

pump it out, it could provide assured irrigation to
sizable part of our land.
r Minerals iv) The conditions of life in the cities often deteriorate due
I to increased population. Sewage and water supply come
under strain, more vehicles cause more pollution.
-

18.3 RECYCLING OF USED RESOURCES AND WASTE

Some of the materials once used need not go waste, these can be re-used. The process
through which the waste resources are again made usable is known as recycling.
Scraps and used metals
Scrap metal is produced in large quantities in mills and factories. Old used metal of
discarded vehicles, machine, aircrafts, ships, buildings etc. can be melted and recycled for
D
useful purposes. Used aluminium utensils, for example, can be collected, melted and shaped
into new utensils. We can meet the growing demand of such scarce metals as copper, zinc,
I lead, platinum etc. by recycling the used materials.
Waste water
Domestic and municipal waste water is rich in organic nutrients. If this kind of water is
made free from disease carrying germs and poisonous elements, it can be used for irrigation
of farms, gardens and other vegkations.
For the removal of germs and toxic elements, the waste water or sewage is treated in a tank
or in ponds for several days. In doing so, the heavy particles settle down to the bottom by
themselves, while the finer particles are made to settle down by adding alumand caustic
soda. The clear liquid is then allowed to pass through filters or sand or earth and finally air is
blown through it. This treatment not only removes carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide
which is generally dissolved in waste water, but also adds oxygen to the filtered water, thus
helping in purification. Treatment of water with appropriate doses of chlorine, known as
chlorination, kills all the harmful germs and makes water usable.
Growing of algae or water hyacinth, a wild plant that grows in floating masses in rivers,
lakes etc. serves a double purpose. It cleans the water of pollutants like phosphates and
nitrates that act as nutrients for these plants, and these plants can also be utilised for the
production of biogas about which you have already studied in Unit-17.
Solid waste
Solid waste in some cases can be a resource. A good example is the factory at Yokohama in
Japan which is engaged in converting waste paper into toilet paper. In our country, the main
street of Patna city is being illuminated by biogas produced from nightsoil of the city
dwellers. In Delhi, the sewage treatment plant produces cooking gas. Fermentation of wastes
such as cattle dung, human excreta, garbage and aquatic weeds like algae and water
Fermentation is a chemical
hyacinth, produces biogas which can be used for a variety of purposes. Fermentation takes change in the organic bodies in
place at temperatures between 28" and 40°C and gases produced are predominantly methane which complex compounds are
and carbon dioxide with a small quantity of hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen. broken down into simpler ones

Slag, a waste product left when the metal has been extracted from its ore, can be powdered
and added to cement for construction. Flyash is another material used as a valuable
cementing material.
It is clear from the above that the solid wastes can serve as very useful resource for
providing raw material for our industries, for generating energy and for the production of
manure. You can try the following SAQ to test what you have learnt.
Environment and Resources
SAQ2 -
Complete the following sentences:
i) Scraps and old used metals can be remelted and. ......... for useful purposes.
ii) Treatment of water with appropriate doses of chlorine kills the harmful. ........
present in water.
iii) Domestic and municipal waste water can be used for. . . . . . . . . .
iv) The process through which waste resources are again made re-usable is known
as. ..........
v Flyash is used as valuable . . . . . . . . . . .
vi) Solid waste serve as useful resource for providing .......... for our ihdustries.

18.4
-
RESOURCE PLANNING AND-
MANAGEMENT
-- ----A

You already know that our resources are limited and if they are not used properly they will
get exhausted soon. It is, therefore, necessary for us to study, how with wise and careful
planning, we can make use of our limited resources.

18.4.1 Land Use Planning and Management

People see land everywhere and get an impression that plenty of it is available. Besides, they
do not care how it is being used, unless of course, it is their own property. Lack of concern
on the part of the public and official agencies has led to widespread erosion. soil sickness
and other damage to land resources. Land is an exhaustible resource and is very sensitive to
changes in climate and physical processes in nature like rain, sunshine, vegetation, erosion,
land slides etc.
Land should be used according to its suitability and capability. As you have studied in
earlier sections, suitability and capability of land is assessed in terms of its load bearing
ability and fertility.
Since food for an increasing population requires more land for cultivation, the encroachment
of fertilsagricultural lands for non-agricultural purposes like construction of roads and
buildings should be reduced to the minimum. Extreme care should Se taken in selecting sites
for development of industries, construction of dams and water reservoirs etc., so that the
environment and socio-economic conditions of the people living in that area are not
disturbed. In locating sites for the development of urban centres, the need for housing, water
supply, disposal of waste and garbage etc. should be taken into consideration.
Hill areas, as far as possible, should be put under forest cover because forests serve as a
resource for fuel, fodder, and timber, and provide space for animal farming (Fig. 18.1).
Besides, forests help in increasing the ground water, since they impede the free surface run-
off, thus allowing water to be absorbed by the ground. In this process, soil erosion is
minimised and flooding can be avoided. Forests help to maintain a balance in the ecosystem,
that is, among animals, plants, air and water etc.

FIB.18.1: An Meal land w e In the bin region

Let us see what are the essential components of land management. Resource Utilization,
Planning and Management
Essential components of land management
There are five essential components of land management:
i) Drawing up of a land capability map indicating soil productivity and ability to support
various human activities.in rural and urban areas. This kind of map is prepared with the
help of aerial photoh and satellite imageries. The map can also give information
regarding the properties of rock and soil and underground potentials of water reserves.
ii) A detailed study of various aspects of land, such as type of soil, physical features of the
earth's crust, water resource input, its distribution, utilisation, surface flow, surface
storage, for example in ponds and ground water. A programme of land use can be
worked out on the basis of such information.
iii) Changes resulting from land use have to be monitored. This can be done by remote
sensing.
iv) Tnvestigation and estimation of anticipated intensity of natural hazards likely to
threaten a particular area or region.
v) A comprehensive study of the programme and plan of land management with a view to
preserve the land by-reducingor checking the intensity of erosion or soil sickness.

18.4.2 Soil Management

As we have said before, soil is a precious resource which takes millions of years to form,
and hence proper management of soil is very necessary. The management of the soil is two-
fold, i.e. (a) to minimise or check soil erosion and (b) restore productivity of the soil.

Stilling Basin
Fig. 18.2a: Drainage system for preventing uncontrolled flow of water. Fig. 18.2b, c; check dams for
prfventing the flow of running water
Control of soil erosion
The most significant measures of erosion control include (i) growth of grasses, shrubs and
trees on soils and (ii) construction of a drainage system which can prevent free, uncontrolled
flow of water (Fig. 18.2 a). Water flow causes formation of narrow channels o r gullies and
leads to development of deep narrow valleys leading to ravine land. The famous Chambal
ravines have been formed as a result of deep soil erosion and the process is still continuing.
This can be controlled by constructing a series of check dams which prevent the flow of
running water and widening of gullies (Fig. 18.2b, c). Formation of a broad wall of stone
along the coasts of Maharashtra, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa has proved to be very
effective in controlling erosion by sea waves and currents. Movement of sand by gusts of
wind in the deserts and sandy coasts can be prevented by putting barriers of trees and shrubs
across the path of wind (Fig. 18.3). In the mountain and hilly areas, planting of stems and
branches of self propagating trees and shrubs, not only strengthens the slope of the terrace
but also provides fuelwood and fodder to the farmers. Alternation of beds of crops with
strips of erosion resistant vegetation like grasses, shrubs. trees, maize, sugarcane, cotton and Fig. 18.3: Checking of
tobacco etc. brings about stabilisation of the terraced fields on mountainous and hilly areas. sand gust by erecting barriers of
trees and shrubs
The most effective step in controlling erosion and mass movement, such as landslides in the
hills, is the construction of a network of the drainage ditches which are filled with fragments
of stones or bricks so that water flows out through them. The hill slopes are stabilised by
constructing walls around them which allows the free passage of water. On the vulnerable
slopes, a cover of vegetation is provided and in the beginning, seeds are covered with coir
netting pegged firmly to the ground (as shown in Fig. 18.4). Netting checks erosion, holds
the soil material together and adds nutrients. The quick growth of grass stabilises the soil. 65
 - - --

Environment and Resources

Sprouted post - A

Earth and
boulder filling

Mulch

Fig. 1 8 4 : Plantationo f vegetation cover and brush wood or coir netting on tk do+ of mountain

Treatment of soil sickness

Due to overuse without rest, soil becomes deficient in the requisite nutrients and loses its
fertility. Rotation of crops and vegetables, such as peas and beans, helps to remove the
deficiency of nutrients. Plants such as peas add nitrogen to the soil and thus increase its
binding property as well as productivity. The roots and off-shoots of the crops and their
remains are left in the field for a certain period of time to protect the soil from erosion.
It is found that excessive irrigation causes complete saturation or water logging of the soil,
which consequently loses productivity, partially or completely. As a result of over irrigation
in some areas, salinity and alkalinity of the soil increases, making it "sick". This kind of'soil
sickness can be controlled by, first of all, sealing off all points of leakage from canals,
reservoirs, tanks and ponds, and use of only the required amount of water. Alkalinity and
salinity of the soil can also be reduced by application of some chemicals like gypsum
(a chalk like substance, from which Plaster of Paris is made), phosphogypsum (gypsum with
phosphates), pyrites (sulphides of copper, iron etc.) in addition to organic manures and
fertilisers. Planting of salt resistant plants such as barley, millets, soya, cotton, spinach, date
palm is another way of overcoming the problem of salination of the soil.

18.4.3 Management of Forest Resources

Considering the ever growing demand of wood and realising the importance of conserving
our forest resources, it has become necessary to find alternative fuels as well as raw
materials to manufacture paper, sports goods, packing cases, furniture and beams used in
buildings. Research is going on to discuss alternate sources; in some cases, plastics and
composite materials have been developed, though they are not widely used as yet. The other
way is to cultivate quick growing trees and herbages in large numbers in selected farms of
degraded or wastelands. This will provide us fodder, fuelwood, timber, fruits and seeds. If
deforestation has to be stopped. some necessary steps have to be taken:

i) adoption of a scientific method of harvesting forest stocks,

ii) developing a mechanism of monitoring forest growth rate and depletion,
iii) establishing an effective system of fighting forest fires,
iv) strictly enforcing laws to deal with unauthorised cutting of trees.
Tree plantation
Plantation, on a mass scale, of fast growing trees such as poplar, casuarina etc. should be
undertaken. The productivity of tree plantation is found to be greater than that of natural
forests. In a well irrigated tree farm, the productivity may be as high as 45 tomes per hectare
per year.
Social forestry
A farmer can partly meet his needs of wood from the fast growing trees planted within the
limits of his village, along the footpaths, roadsides, alongside railway tracks, side roads or
canal,, and streams, boundaries of fields and empty spaces. The aim of social forestry is to
meet the needs of fuel, fodder, fruits, timber and other requirements.

18.4.4 Management of Water Resources

Management of water resources means a programme to provide an adequate supply of good
quality of water for various uses without endangering the life of the source or the reserve of
water. In other words, efforts should be made to see that: (i) water of the right quality is
available for all kind of Uses and (ii) there is no misuse or wastage of this precious resource.
Water management includes recharging the reserves of groundwater and d~vertingsupply
from an area of surplus to the region of scarcity.
Recharging of groundwater is the most important aspect of the water management. In the
mountains and hills, the watersheds are covered with vegetation. The litter-covered soil of
the watershed allows infiltration of rain water, which finds its way to the aquifers.
In urban and rural areas, storm water, used water or domestic drains can be fed into pits,
trenches, or any depression, where it can filter underground. Flood water can be injected into
aquifers through a series of deep pits or it can be spread on the fields through a network of
ditches.
The excess flow of normal as well as flood water can be diverted to areas where there is
scarcity of water. This will not only remove the danger of damage caused by floods but will
also benefit the regions of scarcity.
By proper treatment of the domestic and municipal waste water, one can obtain a supply fit
for many industrial and agricultural purposes. The treatment of waste water involves.
removal of pollutants, germs, and toxic elements as you have already studied in the previous
section.
Desalination of sea water
By use of solar energy, sea water can be distilled, thus fresh water of good quality can be
obtained. This method of desalination of sea water is being used in our country at places like
Bhavanagar in Gujarat and Chum in Rajasthan.
Reducing over consumption
Using more water than necessary is an unpardonable waste of the precious and scarce
resource. In our country, a lot of water is wasted due to leaking taps and bad plumbing.
There is also need for a check on excessive irrigation.
So you see, there are ways in which we can better manage our limited resources. Before
going on to the next section, you may like to check what you have learnt.

SAQ 3
Give very brief answers to the following questions:
i) What type of resource is land?
......................................................................
......................................................................
ii) Why should we take extreme care in selecting the site for development of industries,
construction of dams, water resources etc.?
......................................................................
......................................................................
Environment and Resources iii) Why should hill areas be put under forest cover?

......................................................................
iv) What does flow of water do to the land?
.......................................................................
......................................................................
v) How do plants like peas help the soil?
......................................................................

vi) Why is social forestry important for a fanner?

............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
vii) How is ground water recharged?

18.5 CONSERVATION OF MINERAL RESOURCES

In the previous unit you have studied that mineral reserves are present in a limited quantity
and they can be exhausted. At the present rate of consumption many of them will not last
long. Conservation means that there should be judicious use with minimum wastage. One
way of minimizing or reducing wastage is recovering as much as possible and leaving
nothing as waste. The quality of lower grade ore can be improved by processes which
remove undesirable materials like earth, rock etc. and give enriched ore.
As described in the previous ~ection,scrap$ of used metals can be recycled or used again.
This will reduce the pressure of demand on many mineral reserves. The alloys of
magnesium are fast replacing steel and are also reducing the demand for copper, lead and tin
which are in short supply. There is a need to find substitutes for metals like mercury, gold,
silver, platinum etc. and also for asbestos.
Further, the natural environment of the area from where the mineral ores have been taken
out needs to be protected from deterioration. The dug out parts are devoid of nutrients.
Hence, they remain barren and do not allow the growth of any vegetation. Such waste or
damaged lands can be covered by fresh topsoil (Fig. 18.5). Use of fertilisers, sewage water,
domestic or municipal waste, farmyard manure, etc. will help in restoring the fertility of
these degraded lands.

Strip Mining
Undisturbed land

Fig. 18.5: After scrapping off top soil, the excavated parts are covered with soil and afforested

Monitoring of resource utilisation

Continuous recording of the changes in the quality and quantity of various.resources is as
imyortant an element of resource planning as evaluation of original reserves.
The monitoring of resource utilisation is best done through remote sensing. It involves Resource Utilization,
studying the nature and size of reduction or deterioration of the forests, soil, land, mineral Planning and Management
deposits, water W i t s rind snowpaib~.For cxmple rnon~toringof r h bzhakjmr ofri\tr7
will help us in averting or reducing the menace of tloods and erosion. Monitoring has also
demonstrated that over-imgation of arid or semi-arid areas causes salinity or alkalinity of
the soil. Such harmful effects of over-irrigation are witnessed in southern Haryana and
adjoining Rajasthan.

SAQ 4
Given below are some statements. Write true (T) for correct statement and false (F) for
incorrect statement.

i) Conservation means that there should be no use of the resource.

ii) The dug out parts from where minerals have been taken out are full of numents and as
such these areas are very productive.
iii) Use of sewage, domestic or municipal waste, farm yard manure etc. will decrease the
fertility of the degraded'lands.
iv) Monitoring of resource utilisation is best done through remote sensing.
v\ Monitoring has demonstrated that over-irrigation of arid or semi-arid areas increases
the fertility and productivity of the soil.

18.6 SUMMARY
In the present unit, you have studied how best we can make use of our limited and non-
renewable resources like soil, water, forests, minerals, etc., and if we use our limited
resources with wise and careful planning, they will last longer and can be spared for future
generations. For example:
8 a comprehensive programme and plan of land management will enable us to preserve our
land resources by lessening or checking the intensity of soil erosion or soil sickness.
by adopting scientific method of harvesting forest stocks, monitoring the growth of
forests, establishing a system of controlling and preventing forest fires and enacting
stringent laws for protecting forests, we can preserve our forest resources.
by recharging ground water reserves, diversion of excess water from the area of
abundance to an area of scarcity, recycling used water and desalination of sea water, we
can provide good water in adequate quantities to our people.
by recycling wastes, the utilisation of resources can be improved and also pollution can
be reduced.

18.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

Give brief answers for the follo~iing:
1 HOWcan you ube sewage Hater iar irrigaticr?'?

2 What is recycling of a metal? What purpose does it serve?

3 In what way can you check soil sickness'?

4 Why is conservation of mineral resources necessary:'

 --

I Environment and Resourres

18.8 ANSWERS
-- -p-pp--p-
--

Self Assessment Questions

1) i) Forest cover, ii) mineral, iii) water, iv) land.

2) i) recycled, ii) germs, iii) imgation, iv) recycling, v) cementing material, vi) raw
material.
3) i) land is an exhaustible non-renewable resource.
ii) Because encroachment of fertile agricultural and forest lands for non-agricultural
purposes will disturb the environment and socio-economic conditions of the people
living in that area.
iii) Because forests serve as resource for fuel, fodder, timber and provide space for
animals. Forests also help increase the ground water and check soil erosion.
iv) Water flow causes formation of narrow channels or gullies and leads to formation of
deep narrow valleys converting it into ravine land.
v) Plants like peas add nitrogen to the soil and increases its binding property as well as
productivity.
vi) Growing trees within the limits of village can meet the needs of fuel, fodder, fruits,
timber and other requirements of the farmer.
vii) By plantation of vegetation and trees, the underground water reserves can be
recharged.
4) i) F, ii) F, iii) F, iv) T, v) F.

Terminal Questions
1 The sewage water is rich in organic nutrients. It can be made free from germs and
poisonous elements for imgation by removing them.
2. The process through which the waste resources are again made reusable is known as
recycling. Scrap and old used metals can be remelted and recycled for useful purposes.
3. Soil sickness can be checked by rotation of crops such as peas and beans which help to
remove the deficiency of nutrients. Salinity and alkalinity of the soil can be controlled by
sealing of all points of leakage from canals, reservoirs, tanks, ponds and use of required
amount of water.
4. Mineral reserves are present in limited quantity and if they are used carelessly they will
be exhausted soon. That is why there is necessity of conservation of mineral resources.
Conservation means that there should be judicious use with minimum wastage.

GLOSSARY
Abiotic factors: non-living parts of an organism's environment
Acid rain: rain or snow having pH less than 5.6
Aquifer: a deposit of rock that yields economic supplies of water to wells or springs
Aerosol: suspension of small, liquid or solid particles (0.1 - 100 microns diMeter) in a gas,
e.g., smoke (solid particles in air). Aerosol sprays are widely used for insecticides, air
fresheners, paints, cosmetics etc.
Aerosol propellants: compressed gas or vapour in a container which upon release of
pressure and expansion through a valve carries another substance from the container. These
are used for cosmetics, household cleaners etc. butane, propane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
chloroflourocarbons, are common aerosol propellants
Agrochemicals: chemicals used in agriculture
Algae: simple plants, found in places where abundant moisture is available, these grow on
walls that are constantly wet, or on moist soil, ponds, and other water bodies including the
sea
Amphibians: animals like frog, salamander etc. their young ones live in water, whereas
adults are terrestrial
Arid: land area.having not enough rainfall to support vegetation
 ~tmosphericpressure: the pressure at any point in the atmosphere, due to the weight of the Resource Utilization,
Planning and Management
atmospheric gases above the point concerned
Bark: the outer portion of the stem. It consists of cork, which is largely a dead tissue; and
also some living tissue of the stem
Bauxite: clay-like substance from which aluminium is obtained
Biodegradable: a substance that can be broken down by living beings such as
microorganisms etc.
Bioluminescence: the emission of visible light by living organisms
Biomass: the total weight of all or selected group of living beings in a particular area
Biotic factors: living components.of an organism's environment
Bog: wetland ecosystem, having acidic conditions, and lot of peat and moss
Buoyancy: power to float or keep things floating
Camouflage: any device used to deceive or mislead an enemy, e.g., many insects living on a
plant, resemble its leaves in colour, shape, size etc. and is difficult to locate it easily
Canopy: a covering at some distance from the level of ground, formed by branches, twigs,
and leaves of woody plants.
Carnivores: those animals that eat other animals
Cell: the structural unit of life. It consists of cytoplasm and genetic material, that are
enclosed in a membrane that allows selected materials to pass through
Combustion: the burning of gas, liquid or solid evolving heat, and often light also
i
I Consumers: organisms that obtain energy in the form of organic matter
Corrosive: substances that corrode. Corrosion means slow destruction by chemical action
Currents: a type of water movement
Deciduous: plants that lose their leaves during one season of the year; are not evergreen
Decomposers: organisms that use dead organic matter as a source of energy
Ecology: a branch of biology that studies the relationships between organisms and their
environment
Ecosystem: an interacting collection of organisms and the abiotic factors that affect them
Environment: anything that affects an organism during its life time
Estuary: where fresh water and sea water meet and mix
Fern: small, tender plants having few leaves, large in proportion to the stem, and bear spore
containing structures on the under surface or margins; many of these grow at high altitudes
Fertiliser: material that is added to soil to supply chemical elements needed for plant
nutrition
Filter: a device to separate any undesirable substance
Food chain: a sequence of organisms that feed on one another resulting in the flow of
nutrients and energy from a producer through a series of consumers
Food web: a system of interlocking food chains
Fungi: (singular-fungus),e.g., yeast, mushrooms, molds, mildew, puffballs
Gamma rays: electromagnetic rays of very short wave-length emitted by radioactive
I
I
substances
I
Gastric secretion: these are the digestive fluids secreted by the wall of the stomach

i Gastrointestinal: conceming the digestive system that includes stomach, intestine and all
the accessory organs
Genetic: conceming heredity
Geothermal energy: heat within the earth's interior that is a potential source of energy
Gills: the breathing organ of animals that live in water
Gravity: the force that attracts objects towards the centre of the earth
Greenhouse: glass-enclosed, climate controlled structure in which young, or out-of-season
plants are grown and protected
Environment and Resources Gynaecological: dealing with the diseases of women, particularly those affecting the sex
organs
Habitat: it includes land, water or vegetation, which is the natural home of any living being
Heavy metals: a metal whose specific gravity is approximately 5.0 or higher
Herbivores: those animals that feed directly on plants
Hibernation: a condition of partial or complete torpor into which some animals relapse
during the winter season
Humidity: water vapour content in the atmosphere
Insecticide: a chemical agent that destroys insects
Leaching: washing away of elements that are necessary for plants by rainfall etc.
Leaf mottling: appearance of spots or areas of different colours without a regular pattern on
the leaves
Limestone: a rock made up largely of calcium carbonate, known as calcite, e.g., chalk
Mammal: animals which are characterised by the presence of hair, a muscular diqphragm,
milk secretion, and placenta development, e.g., cat, cow, human beings
Microbe: any small organism such as bacteria; yiast*etc.(also called micro-organism)
Microscopic: things that are not visible to unaided eye, and can be seen clearly under the
microscope. Microscope is an instrument that produces a large image of small object
Moss: tiny green plant, occurring in nearly all damp habitats except oceans
Neuro-muscular: pertaining to both nerves and muscles, functionally and structurally
Non-persistant- pollutant: pollutants that do not remain as such in the environment for a
long time, that is, they are broken into simple forms
Nuclear reactor: a device in which a controlled nuclear reaction is carried out to generate
energy
Omnivores: those animals that are carnivores at times and herbivores at others
Ores: rock earth, minerals etc. from which metals can be mined or extracted
Organic substances: substances containing carbon, hydrogen, and sometimes oxygen,
nitrogen and other elements
Pesticides: these are chemical.substances that are deliberately introduced into the
environment, to kill organisms that are considered undesirable
Pastures: grassland for cattles
Photovoltaic devices: device used in producing electric signals in response to solar
radiation
Phytoplankton: minute photosynthetic organisms floating in the upper layers of a body of
water (marine or fresh waters)
Plateaux: level land high above sea level
Pollen grains: (Latin-pollen dust) appear dust-like. A pollen grain is the male reproductive
unit of plant. It unites with the egg, and together they form a seed
Pollution: destruction of the purity of the environment
Precipitation: any or all the forms of water, whether liquid (rain) or solid (snow) that fall
from the atmosphere and reach the ground
Precipitator: a device that separates an undesirable substance from a mixture, by making it
settle down
Primary pollutant: pollutants like carbon monoxide, oxides of sulphur, and nitrogen,
hydrocarbons and particulates
Producers: organisms that produce new organic material from inorganic material with the
aid of sunlight
Propellant: a combustible substance that produces heat and supplies ejection particles as in
a rocket engine
Radioactive: substances like radium, uranium etc. having atoms that break up, and in doing
so, send out rays in the form of electrically charged particles capable of penetrating opaque
bodies
Ravine: deep, narrow valley Resource Utilization,
Planning and Management
Recycling: returning to an original condition
Refrigerant: a substance that by undergoing a change in phase, i.e., liquid to gas causes
cooling effect
Reptiles: animals with dry scaly skin, they lay their eggs on land, e.g., snake, lizards, turtles,
alligators, crocodiles
Rodents: mammals (see also mammals), e.g., rats, mice and their relatives
Rotation of crop: varying the crops grown each year on the same land to avoid exhausting
the soil
Salubrious: good for health
Satellite imageries: photos taken from satellite
Scrubber: also known as wet collector. It is a device for the removal of undesired
components from the gas evolved
Semi-arid: land having better rainfall in comparison to arid area
Sensors: receptors that are sensitive to specific stimuli, e.g., sound, light, pressure, heat
Silica; a hard, white or colourless substance occurring abundantly in nature, main
constituent of sand
Silt: rock fragments or a mineral particle in soil having a diameter of 0.002-0.05 millimetre,
and are smaller than fine sand.
Skeleton:the rigid or elastic, internal or external, framework which gives support and
protection to the soft tissues of the body and provides a basis of attachment for the muscles
Slag: waste matter remaining when metal has been extracted from ore
Snowpacks: frozen snow on mountains
Social forestry: tree raising programme to supply firewood, fodder, timber and minor forest
produce to rural population
Soil erosion: the detachment and movement of top soil by the action of wind or flowing
water
Species: closely related individuals that resemble one another, and are able to inter-breed
with OF': another, e.g., human beings
Spectrum: image as a band of colours (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet,
as seen in a rainbow) formed by a ray of light when it passed through a prism or any such
substance
Spore: reproductive cell that can grow into a new individual, as seen in bacteria, fungi etc.
Bacterial spores form when an individual cell encases itself in a protective covering, when
conditions are unfavourable for growth. It is a resistant structure, that is capable of standing
unfavourable environmental conditions.
Tanning: a process of preserving animal hides by chemical treatment to make them immune
to bacterial attack, and subsequent treatment with fat and greases to make them pliable
Terrestrial: living or growing on land
Tide: the periodic rising and falling of the oceanic waters resulting from lunar and solar
forces acting upon the rotating earth
Tissues: a group of cells that perform a particular task in an organism, e.g., cartilage,
muscles etc.
Trench: a long narrow, deep depression of the sea floor, with relatively steep sides
Trophic level: the level in the food chain at which an organism functions, e.g., herbivores,
members of second trophic level, eat plants that are the members of first trophic level
Ultraviolet light: also known as ultraviolet radiation. electromagnetic radiation having a
shorter wavelength than visible light and larger than X-rays, including wavelengths
normally invisible to humans but visible to bees, humming birds etc. It is destructive to skin
tissue and genetic material
Vine: a plant having a stem that is too flexible or weak to support itself
Water logging: land thoroughly soaked with water
Zooplankton: the minute animal life drifting near the surface layers of a body of water
(marine or fresh water)
Environment and Resources
FURTHER READING
General Geography of India Part - I , NCERT - Publications
Geography of India'Part - 11, NCERT - Publications
Human and Economic Geography, NCERT - Publications
The State of India's Enviroi~ment,The first citizen's report Centre for Science and
Environment
The State of India's Environment, 1984-85, The second citizen's report Centre for Science
and Environment
 COURSE CONTENTS
Block 1 : History of Science
Unit 1 Science as a Human Endeavour
Unit 2 Science in the Ancient World
Unit 3 Iron Age
Unit 4 The Golden Age of Science in lndia
i Block 2 : Emergence of Modern Science
Unit 5 Science in the Medieval Times
Unit 6 Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution and After
Unit 7 Science in Colonial and Modem lndia
Unit 8 The Method of Science and the Nature of Scientific Knowledge
Block 3 : Universe and Life -The Beginning
Unit 9 Universe as a System
I Unit 10 Exploring the Universe
Unit 1 l Solar System
Unit 12 Origin and Evolution of Life

I Unit 13 Evolution of Man

Block 4 : Environment and Resources
Unit 14 Ecosystem
Unit 15 Components of Environment
Unit 16 The Changing Environment
Unit 17 Natural Resources
Unit 18 Resource C tilisat~on,Planning and Management
Block 5 : Agriculture, Nutrition and Health
Unit 19 Food and Agriculture
Unit 20 Scientific Possibilities and Social Realities
Unit 2 1 Food and Nutrition
Unit 22 Health and Disease
1 Block 6 : Information, Knowledge, Insight
Unit 23 Mind and Body
1 Unit 24 Psychoiogical Aspect of Behaviour
Unit 25 Informarlor, 2nd Comm~~nicatlon
Unit 26 Modes of Cornn~unicatlon
Block 7 : Science, Technology and Development
Unit 27 Science and Technology in Industry
 Unit 28 Technology and Economic Development
Unit 29 Modem Development in Science and Technology - I
Unit 30 Modem Development in Science and Technology - I1
Block 8 : New Perspectives
Unit 31 Perceptions and Aspirations
Unit 32 Science -The Road to Development
RudioNideo Programmes
Audio : 1) Science and Society (Block 1)
2) Astronomical Development in India (Block 3)
3) Measuring Astronomical Distances (Block 3)
4) Evolution of Man (Block 3)
5) The Forest Ecosystem (Block 4)
6) Population Pressure (Block 4)
7) Common Misconceptions about Health (Block 5)
8) Human Factors in Engineering (Block 6)
9) New Information Order (Block 6)
10) Technology and Self-Reliance (Block 7)
11) Nuclear Disarmament (Block 7)
Video : 1) Method of Science (Block 2)
2) A Window to the Universe (Block 3.)
3) The Story of a ~ i v e (Block
r 4)
4) Green Revolution (Block 5)
5) Infectious Diseases (Block 5)
6) Jean Piaget Development Stages of a Child (Block 6)
7) INSAT (Block 6)
 UNIT 19 FOOD AND AGRICULTURE
-
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
in w-A
Agriculture,_-- Way of Life
Basic Resources for Agriculture
Sunlight
Soil
Water
The Plant and Animal Wealth of India
Scientific and Technological Advancements in Our Agricultud Produce
Cereals and Millets
Pulses and Soybean
Oilseeds
Sugar Crops
Fibre Crops
Plantatih Crops
Potato and other Tuber Cmps
Fruits and Vegetables
Agmforestry
Agrotechniques
Cropping Systems
Input of Fertilisers
Crop Protection
Livestock
Cattle
Sheep and Goats
Pigs
Poultry
Fisheries
~arikFisheries
Inland F i s h e d
Summary
Terminal Questions
19.12 Answers

>
19.1 INTRODUCTION
1

As you have already studied in Block I, availability of food has considerably influenced
human societies in the past. It was with the advent of agriculture, that supply of food was
assured to man, and he could give up nomadic life. In this unit, we shall take up various
basic aspects of agriculture and its products.

in Unit 2, Section 2.3, there is a brief mention of the origin of agriculture and civilisauon.
*
You may perhaps like to look at that section again.'~avingdone that, now let us discuss
fdod and agriculhlre. You would find a lot of numbers mentioned in this unit. Yware not
expected to memorise all of them. These figures are meant to give you a more realistic
picture of the whole situation.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to :
describe the,%adc resources for agriculture,
list the various scientific and technological advancements in crop production,
discuss the various agrotechniques,
describe the alternate food resources, and advancements rm& in their production,
understaRBthat growth in agricutto#;trari resulted because of inputs from science and
technolo&
I
-No-.ad
I
Ham 19.2 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA-A WAY OF LIFE
I
I
Agriculture is the bedrock of Indian economy. Of the approximately 245 million working
people in India, (1981 figures) about 93 million were cultivators and 56 million were
agricultural labourers. Together they constituted more than 60% of the total work-force. To
these 149 million people, agriculture is not only the chief occupation, but a way of life.

We have a total geographic area of about 329 million hectares. The net area under
cultivation is 142 million hectares, of which about 31 million hectares are cultivated more
than once a year, hence the total cropped area amounts to 173 million hectares. The land
under forests is about 67 million hectares.
Of our total net national product of Rs. 1,732,000 million at current prices, agriculture
contributes Rs. 570,660 million, fores'ky Rs. 15,970 million, and fishing Rs. 14,430 million.
Thus our farmers and agricultural labourers, who constitute 60.5% of work-force, contribute
34.7% of our total net national product. While reading these figures, we should keep in mind
the following points:
i) The majority of our farmers are poor, hence they are unable to qake the inputs required
to get the maximum production from their land.
ii) Our agricultural technologies and policies should, for some time to come, be labour-
intensive to provide employment to the large number of people already engaged in
agriculture. The introduction of any drastic labour-reducipg technology will throw most
of the agricultural workers out of employment, and will create more rural poverty and
hence social unrest.
So you have seen that agriculture employs a large chunk of our manpower and provides
them means to earn their Ifvelihood. Now let us study the basic resources for agriculture.
-
19.3 BASIC RESOURCES FOR AGRICULTURE
Besides human endeavour, the basic resources for agriculture are sunlight, soil and water.
We shall now discuss them one by one.

19.3.1 Sunlight
You already know that only when sunlight is available, can plants manufacture food. On an
average, in a 12 hour day, we on the earth, receive 500 kilocalories of solar radiation per
square centimetre. Of these, only 222 kilocalories are used by plants for photosynthesis.
Theoretically it is possible to get 140 tonnes of crop yield per hectare in a year, if water,
carbon dioxide and nutrients are not the limiting factors. In practice, however, the maximum
yield, has been only 25 tonnes of grains, per hectare in a year. During monsoon, the wettest
season, the sky is overcast most of the time, reducing the availability of sunlight. In
summers, maximum sunlight is available. But unfortunately, it is the period when water
availability is at its minimum. Under such circumstances, we could perhaps collect the
runoff during the monsoon in storage tanks in the low lying areas (see Fig. 19.1). and use

Fig. 19.1: A storage tank to collect surface runoff during rains.

this water in summers when crops need it. This, however, requires cooperative community
action of the whole village, or block, as construction of storage tanks is beyond the ineans of
individual farmers. Winter, however, is the best period of the year, as there is enougt! of
sunlight and moisture.

19.3.2 Soil
Nature takes more than 5 0 years to build a centimetre of top soil. But every year, wind,
water and human neglect, cause worldwide erosion of over 6,000 million tonnes of soil,
along with 2.6 million tonnes each of nutrients like nitrogen and potassium, and 3.3 million
tonnes of phosphorus. The best way to check soil erosion is by providing adequate tree and
grass cover. If this cannot easily done in regions where there is an acute demand on land
for crop cultivation, we should reson to contour-bunding and gully-plugging on scientific Contour bunding refers to the
lines, followed by planting green-manure shrubs and trees on field bunds. The commonly ridges made out of soil in the field.
used green-manure crops in our country are sunnhemp, dhaincha, cluster-bean, senji, In gully-plugging, materials like
cowpea, horse gram, pillipesara, berseem and lentil. hedges, soil, sand bags etc. are
placed in water channels in the
field to reduce the speed of runoff
Though history has taught us that civilisations have vanished because of improper use of water. This results in the settling of
soil, still we are diverting millions of tonnes of excellent soil for brick-making and road- fine soil particles carried alongwith
laying. This wasteful practice should be drastically curtailed by making use of alternative running water, and an increased
and more durable materials for making bricks and roads. seepage of water in the soil.

Do you know that every person born today needs 0.4 hectare of land for food production and
another 0.08 hectare for housing, roads, waste.di>posal, power supply and other needs.
Today, our agricultural land is less than 0.33 hectare to a person, which is below the
prescribed limit. It is time we created a country-wide awareness of the value of soil and the
importance of scientific land use. We must understand that, if we neglect our soils, our
future will be in peril.

Let us now see the different types of soils found in our country. Indian soils are grouped into
25 different classes. For simplification, they can be sorted out into 10 major groups that are
given in italics in the following lines. Their maximum production potential, in terms of grain
equivalent, is estimated at 4,572 million tonnes: plluvial soils can produce 1,536 million
tonnes; black soils 1,236 million tonnes; red-and-yellow soils 669 million tonnes; red soils
530 million tonnes; and coastal and deltaic alluvial soils 413 million tonnes of foodgrain
equivalent. Brown, laterite, desert, hill and mounlain soils can produce another 176 million
tonnes.

We see that we are endowed with a wide variety of soils. Before growing crops or other
plants in any soil, it is essential that we first ascertain whether this soil is suitable for the
plants that we intend to grow. The soils should, therefore, be tested to check their nutrients
and physical characteristics. This is important because if the soil is not of the right kind, not
only wii1 the yield be poor but the soil would also be damaged.

19.3.3 Water
A major factor in our country's agriculture is its dependence on rain to fulfil the
requirements of water. Out of our net sown area of 142 million hectares, the net imgated
area is only 40 million hectares. The rest is dependent on rains.

Indian agriculture is sometimes described as a gamble on the monsoon. There is some truth
In the statement. In our country, which is situated in the mcinsoon belt of south-east Asia, the
rainfall is neither uniform, nor is it distributed throughout the year, therefore, we do not have
good growth of the rain dependent crops. You might be knowing that most parts of our
country receive their annual rainfall in less than three months, leaving the rest of the year
dry. But in places like Rajasthan, 3 days of rain may be followed by'3 years of dry period!
Every year, droughts or floods are common in one or another part of our country, often
upsetting our economy. Droughts are known to Indians from times immemorial. The
Mahabharata makes a mention of a famine that caused untold suffering to people. The great
granaries of the Harappan period (see Fig. 19.2) are indicative not only of good agriculture
but also of the need to store grains in large quantities to cover the lean years. In 1987, we
faced the worst drought of this century, but our comfortable grain reserves helped us pass
through the difficult period. In recently recorded history, the years 1877; 1899 and 1918
~m l
h Ve,
Nutrition and iorrwm*u~r€anmImN
I S O MPROJE&O,+
~IC
OF THE GREAT GRANAW
Hcrlth U A W A

Fig.19.2: The granaries of the Harapph Period

stand out prominently as years of country-wide drought and 1878,1892 and 1912 as years of
widespread floods. On an average, we face drought, in various parts of the country, once in
every 4 years, and country-wide droughts o c m once in every 20 years. There is, however,
no regular periodicity in the occurrence of droughts and floods. Since we cannot change the
geographic situation of our country we have to learn to live with our inconsistent monsoons.
On an average, we receive an annual rainfall of 370 million hectare-metres (one hectare-
metre of rain is equivalent to 10,000cubic metres). The south-west mopsoon is responsible
for over 80% of the total rainfall in most parts of the country. An estimated 80 million
hectare-metres of water seeps into the soil, of which about half remains in the top soil layer
and supports plant growth. The rest seeps further down into the ground, and constitutes
ground water. Of this, three quarters may be re-utilised for crop growth. Currently, however,
we are using only one fourth of it. Here, we would like to @int out that the ground water
should be used only after careful study. There are salt deposits in the ground, in some places,
which make the water unusable for crops. These salts dissolve in ground water, come up
when water is pumped up, and form salt crusts on the soil surface, making the land
unproductive.

You have just seen that a large number of variations in these basic resources are found in our
country. In the next section, that follows SAQ 1, we shall describe some of the ecohomically
important plants and useful kimals found in India. We shall also see whether they are
natives of this country or !,hey have been introduced from elsewhere.
-

SAQ 1
a) Why is India referred to as an agriculture-basedcountry? Justify your answer giving two
or three reasons.

b) Fill in the blanks picking up the suitable word or words from the list given below :
i) Nearly eighty per cent of the total rainfall in our country is due to ............
monsoon.
ii) Of the total amount o f solar radiations received on earth, less than ............
are used by plants for photosynthesis.
iii) As a result of soil erosion, we not only lose soil but also many. . . . . . . . . . . . . a

iv) ............soils have the maximum production potential as compared to the

remaining nine groups of soils.
V) Most of our agricultural land is dependent on rains and only a very small
proportion, that is, about'. .............. per cent is under irrigation.
(alluvial, south-west, twent$ eight, nutrients, half)
1 19.4 THE PLANT AND ANIMAL WEALTH OF INDIA
You might be surprised to know that over 20.000 plant species are found in our country?
number that is more than that found in countries with larger land masses. This is because of
1 the great diversity in our soils and climate. Of the 20,000 species. 500 av. used in one form
or another, and about 250 species are under cultivation, excluding ornamentals, shrubs and
1 herbs. About 35 of these cultivated species were first domesticated in India and the
i adjoining countries. These include rice, minor millets, yam, taro, pulses, beans, mustard.
t Asiatic cotton, jute. sunnhemp, mesta, roselle. brinjal, spinach, cucumber. a diversity of
gourds, black-pepper, long-pepper, cinnamon, ginger, turmeric, cardamom, hemp. mango,
banana, citrus, jackfruit, date palm, tamarind, amla. ber, wood-apple, phalsa, jarnun, and a

several medicinal plants.

Amongst animals, the humped zebu cattle and the riverine buffalo have originated in India.
Motifs of domesticated hun~plesscattle occur on the seals of the Harappan period
(2400 B.C.) (see Fig. 19.3) that were found in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Fig. 19.3: Humpless cattle of the Harappan period.

The prcsence of a feeding trough indicates that
the cattle was domestkated.

The earliest ploughed field. dating back to 2450 B.C. was discovered in Kalibangan,
Rajasthan. You might be surprised to know that all the world's poultry trace their origin to
the red jungle fowl (see Fig. 19.4) of Madhya Pradesh.

Fig. 19A: Red Jungle Fowl (Callus gallus).

Hlndl nam-Jangll murgh.
After Salim Ali, the Book of Indian Birds, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, 1972.
A-lture, Nutrltlon and Not all the plants or animals that we use here, in our country, are the natives of this place.
Hcalth
Some of them were brought here from different parts of the globe. Since India had trade ties
with other countries from ancient times, a large number of economic plants and domestic
animals have been introduced into our country both from the east and the west. From
western Asia, the following plants were brought and grown here: barley, wheat, lentil, pea.
broad-bean, onion, garlic, beet, carrot, radish, fenugreek, coriander, cumin, fennel, alfalfa,
flax, belladonna, poppy, black-psyllium, licorice and foxglove. From Africa came sorghum,
pearl-millet, finger-millet, cowpea, castor, sesamum, okra, guinea-grass, elephant-grass ,and
coffee.'Similarly, from China, proso-millet, soybean, tung, tallow, loquat, litchi, peach,
apricot, walnut and tea were brought. The introductions from southeast Asia and Pacific
Islands include breadfruit, bilimbi, carambola, lime, lemon, sweet-orange, sour-orange,
citron, tangerine, mangosteen, coconut, sago, sugarpalm, areaanut, betel and henna. From
the New World, i.e., America came maize, potato, tobacco, sweet-potato, arrow-root,
tomato, chilli, pumpkin, papaya, guava, custard-apple, groundnut, cashewnut, American
cotton, rubber, sunflower, grape, squash and sarsaparilla. These plants .once they reached our
land, quickly established themselves in our diverse climates and soils. Indeed, some of them
thrive much better in our country than in their native lands.
Some of these plants, such as wheat and many pulses etc. have since been grown on a large
scale to meet the food requirements of our people. As these plants are grown in varied
conditions in our country, certain improvements in them were essential, to get maximum
yields from them. Our agricultural scientists have developed high-yielding varieties, and
evolved disease-resistant crops. In the following section, we shall discuss some of these
advancements brought about in our cereals, millets.-oilseeds, pulses and many other crops.

-
19.5 SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL
ADVANCEMENTS IN OUR AGRICULTURAL
--
PRODUCE -

In the recent years, there has been a marked increase in our agricultural productivity. A
major factor responsible for this is the change brought about by scientists in the genetic
architecture of plants (such as dwarf and bushy) and their devefopmental rhythms (for
example, when the plant puts forth flowers). Let us see what this means. Supposing there is
a plant that grows knd gives optimum yield in a particular part of the year. By genetic
manipulations, the scientists have now made it possible that it can be grown profitably in
any part of the year. Examples are many. Perhaps you may not remember, but surely your
parents can tell you, that a few years back, plants like potato, dolichos-beans etc. were
available in local market only during certain months of t'he year. Now, one can find them
almost throughout the year. This is due to the change brought about in their developmental
rhythms.

19.5.1 Cereals and Millets

The crops sown during the south-westerly monsoon are cailed kharif crops. In north India
where there are distinct seasons, it is the period from July to October. The post-monsoon
crops, i.e., the ones sown between October and March are known as rabi crops. The kharif
crops include rice, maize, jowar, bajra, ragi and other small millets. On the other hand,
wheht,barley, oat, rye and triticale are the examples of our rabi crops.

Rice is the main cereal of the country, accounting for some 80% of the cultivated area. In
Section 19.4,.you have studied that, in our country rice was one of the first domesticated
plants. The rice varieties under cultivation up to the mid 1950s were tall and weak stemmed.
They were not efficient in making use of sunligh~or nutrients, and produced only a few $
grains on loose panicles (see Fig. 19.5a). In contrast, the present high-yielding varieties are
dwarf, stiff-strawed, and produce tillers profusely. They respond positively, to the fertilisers
and produce compact panicles bearing an abundance of grains. The flag leaf (the leaf
immediately below the panicle) remains erect (see Fig. 19.5 b) and green right up to the
harvest stage, manufacturing food and sending it for grain filling. Most of the new varietks
are not season-bound, and can, hence, be grown any time of the year. They can be fitted in
rotation with other crops in summer, winter or the rainy season. .
b
 Food and Ag~culturt

a Fig. 19.5: A primitive rice variety (a) and an improved variety (b).
b
As a result of this breakthrough, rice production increased from 25 million tonnes in
1954-55, to about 59 million tonnes in 1984-85. In terms of yield per hectare, it increased
from 820 kg to 1,425 kg. Though the population in this period shot up from about 390
million to 75 1 million, the per head net availability of rice increased from 159 grams to 207
grams per day.

The story of wheat, our most important rabi crop, is even more spectacular, the yields per
hectare increased from 827 kg to 1,873 kg during the same period as above. This remarkable
increase has revolutionised the whole agricultural set up in the country. This is also
popularly known as the green revolution. Despite our population growth, the per head
availability of wheat has gone up from 80 grams to 130 grams per day.

With the release of high-yielding varieties, some of the area traditionally sown to coarse Coarse grains also known as millets.
grains were diverted to rice and wheat. Hence, the area under coarse grains declined from e.g., bajra, Italian-millet, sorghum,
finger-millet and other small miUets.
44.7 million hectare in 1958-59, to 39.2 million hectare in 1984-85. Still, the production of
coarse grains during the same period increased from 23.2 million tonnes to 31.2 million
tonnes. This is mainly due to the use of the new, improved varieties of the coarse grains.
The concept of the new, improved plant type has been extended to most other crops also.
Based on the evolutionary history of the plants and using statistical analysis, scientists now
create ideotypes, i.e. plants with ideal frame and desirable physiological and biochemical
characteristics. Scientists select suitable type of characters, by scanning the wide variation in
the adailable germplasm. They, then, try to incorporate as many of the desirable characters
as possible into one variety.

19.5.2 Pulses and Soybean

Pulses occupy an important place in the diet of our population. These &e an excellent source
of protein. They meet the needs of a large majority of consumers who are mainly
vegetarians. Many of them belong to weaker sections of our population, who cannot afford
better protein sources, such as eggs or other animal products. Pulses are also important for
feeding livestock. Pulses are legumes, and you know that they play an important part in
maintaining soil fertility (see Unit 14).

Let us now talk about pulses that we iommonly use in this country. The most commonly
used pulse is pigeonpea or arhar. Some of its traditional varieties have too many leaves and
branches and too few pods and grains. These are being replaced by more compact,
manageable plants with more pods and seeds. Many present day varieties come to harvest in
less than 150 days, compared with more than 300 days required by earlier varieties. In
ch~ckpeaor chana the straggling plant type wgs changed to an erect type with many
branches, that produce pods from the base to the tip. A change in the developmental rhythm
 has now made it po\cihle to grow mungbean and urdbean in winter and summer. Such a
change has also made ~tpossible, now to grow rajmash in the plains, which was not possible
hitherto.

One thing that we would like to point out here is that, in the cultivation of pulses, crop
management is more important than the variety grown. A fortnight's delay in sowing may
mean all the difference between a bumper harvest and total crop failure. Just one imgation.
at a critical stage of crop life can boost yields considerably. Pulse crops have nodules on
their roots which harbour bacteria that fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. Hence, their
nitrogen needs are less. But they need adequate doses of phosphate, which must be applied
. only after getting the soil-tested.Proper spacing of plants, their watering and need-based
application of chemicals to control pests like the pod-borers, are the other very important
factors. Unfortunately, the management technology has not spread among farmers as fast as
the high yielding seeds. Consequently, pulse production.nas not made any significant
advance. Our total production of pulses in 1986-87 was 12 million tonnes, compared with
11 million tonnes in 1954-55. Meanwhile, our population has shot up so much that our per
head availability of pulses today is reduced. Presently, it is less than 40 grams (compared
with 64 grams in 1954-55),as against the minimum requirement of 80 grams a day, as
recommended by the World Health Organisation. This is an alarming trend because we have
a very large number of growing children, who need pulses in their diet for adequate muscle-
building. Protein malnutrition not only hampers physical growth but also has an adverse
effect on the mental development of growing children.
f
In this context, there is an urgent need to popularise soybean cultivation in our country.
Soybean has 43.2 grams of protein per 100 grams of seed, compared with only 22.3 grams
of protein in pigeonpea or arhar. Trials conducted throughout India have shown that soybean
yields 29.6 quintals to grain per hectare whereas pigeonpea yields only 16.60 quintals under
similar conditions. The protein-rich soytiean has also 19.5% oil in its grain and occupies the
top rank in world vegetabie oil production. Soybean can be cul~ivatedon uplands, on rice ' ,

bunds, and as a companion crop with cotton, maize, fingermillet and pigeonpea. It can be
cultivated throughout the country. It has been found that, the quality of soybean is better in
the cooler hilly regions. Soybean can thus be a boon to India. Though, presently, the crop is
grown mostly in parts of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, its cultivation can spread
dramatically if we acquaint people with its advantages and increase the marketing facilities.

19.5.3 Oilseeds
The traditional oilseed yielding crops of our country are groundnut, sesamum, niger, castor,
brassicas, linseed, and safflower. To this list are to be added new crops, soybean, sunflower
and oilpalm which are highly promising. The vegetable oils that we all use, are derived not
only from traditional oilseed crops, but also from cotton seeds, rice bran, maize (corn),
coconut, and several other oil containing herhs;shrubs and trees.

Though oilseeds contributed to 7% of our foreign exchange earnings in 1963-64, our oilseed
production has never really been high. Our per head availability of oilseeds increased from
2.5 kg in 1955-56 to 5.5 kg in 1984-85. The per head availability of vanaspati oil increased
from 0.7 kg to 1.2 kg during this period. But the availability of oils and fats is only about 15
grams to a person in a day, which is, half the recommended ~ k v eof~30graAs. Though an
essential item of balanced diet, fats have traditionally formed an item of low importance in
our food intake. This disturbing trend needs immediate correction, since malnutrition is
rampant in India.
For centuries, the cultivation of oilseed crops has been relegated to marginal and
submarginal lands that are poor in both soil nutrients and water supply. As a result, most of
our oilseed types are those that can survive in most adverse conditions but their production
is very low. Efforts are being made to rcmcdy the situation by evolving plant typcs capable
of giving high yields under better conditions of cultivation.
Groundnut is our most important oilseed crop. Our immediate target should be to produce
a%out 4 tonnes of pods per hectare and this would yield nearly a tonne of oil. In groundnut as
well as in mustard, rapeseed, castor and safflower, we have varieties that can more than
meet his target. The use of well-tilled pods with healthy seeds, optlrnurn plant population per hectare,
timely sowing, at least one irrigation at the critical stage of crop growth, and feriliser application
based on crop needs can give more than 80% of the highest attainable yie!d. The other Food and Agrieultun
factors are timely ,weed control, need-based use of plant protcct~onrncasurcs and prevention
of post-harvest losses. There is also considerable scope for updating the present incfficient
village level methods of expelling oil from seeds. Not only that, our strategy should also be
to fit them in rotation with other crops, in areas where good soil, and assured rainfall are
available, aqd stabilise their yields with good management in regions receiving medium
amount of rainfall.

19.5.4 Sugar Crops

India has a history of producing superior varieties of sugarcane. Over 25 countries grow
sugarcane varieties bred in India, including the internationally popular 'NCO 310' variety.
The yields and duration of sugarcane show much variation in our country because of the
variations in our climates. Our effort should be to grow more sugarcane in regions where the
per-day productivity is high. We have several, good spring and autumn-planted varieties. If
the planting of these varieties is properly planned, we can produce enough sugarcane to keep
our sugar mills busy throughout the year. What is needed is some sort of guarantee for
remunerative price and assured sale for these crop. This assurance must come from the
sugarcane mills and the cooperative societies. They should also supply the farmers with
timely inputs in terms of fertilhers and crop protection measures, etc.

Sugarbeet, another sugar yielding crop, was introduced in India in the 1960s. It has an
excellent scope for cultivation on soils having very high amount of sodium, where no other
crop can profitably be cultivated. Sugarbeet removes the excessive sodium and improve the
texture of such soils.

In spite of increase of population, our per head availability of sugar increased from 4.7 kg in
1960-61 to 10.7 kg in 1984-85.

19.5.5 Fibre Crops

Of our fibre crops, cotton is the foremost. In fact, India is the first country that developed
hybrid cotton. Today we have a wide spectrum of varieties not only in the long-staple (see
Fig. 19.6) group but also in the med~umand short staple categories, for which there is a

Fig. 19.6: Hybrid cotton, L R A 5166

great demand in rural India. In spite o f o k research achievements. the availability ofcotton
cloth decreased from 13.8 metres per pelson in 1960-61 to 10.6 metres in 1984-85. The
increase in synthetic fabrics fro1111.2 metres to 3.9 metres perperson during the same period
did not ot'hiet this decrease. It is highly disturbing to note that an average Indian today, has
less cloth than his counterpart two and a half decades ago, even though, today. our area
under cotlon cultivation and our textile industry are the largest in the world. Since we cannot
bring any more additional land under cultivation. cotfbn in rotation with other crops should
receive a high priority together with adequate pest c6iitrol and crop management.
Agriculture, Nutrition and Jute is cultivated in regions where rainfall is high. In 1980-81, India exported 558 thousand
Health tonnes of jute goods valued at Rs. 3,991 million. But because of the world-wide changes in
materials used for packaging, storage and transporting which replace jute, our exports fell in
1984-85 to 160 thousand tonnes. There is, however, a good demand for jute products within
the country. Hence, our scientists have developed jute varieties that can be rotated with rice,
wheat, potato and mungbean.

19.5.6 Plantation Crops

Tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, coconut, arecanut, cashew, cardamom, blackpepper and related
spices are grown on a plantation scale, and their produce has a good demand both within and
outside our country. Our scientists have developed technologies for multi-tier cropping
(Fig. 19.7) to make a more profitable use of the available space in plantations and orchards.
For example, pepper can be twined along the trunks of coconut and arecanut trees, and in the
space between arecanut trees, pineapple, fodder legumes and grasses can be planted. Such
multi-tier cropping increases the productivity per unit area per unit time.

Fig. 19.7: Multi-tier cropping. The tall, coconut trees are in the bskground,
cocoa plants in the middle row and the pineapple plants form the third tier.

19.5.7 Potato and other Tuber Crops

Potato is propagated by seed-tubers, which should be disease-free to raise a healthy crop.
Till recently, healthy seed-tubers could be raised onlyminthe hilly regions that are free from
aphid pests which spread virus diseases. Through detailed monitoring studies, our scientists
have identified different periods of the year when different regions of our country are free
from the disease-spreading aphids. With the development of sultable varieties, all the potato
growing regions of the country can now raise healthy seed-tubers during the aphid-free time.

The potato crop is traditionally raised from cut pieces of seed tubers, which are expensive
and account for the major cost of potato cultivation. Recently, scientists have developed the
technology to raise the crop from potato seed much the same way as we grow tomato or
brinjal. When perfected, this technology will considerably cut the cost of cultivation of this
energy-rich crop.

Cassava (tapioca), sweet-potato, Dioscorea and a variety of other yams constitute an

important source of food, especially among weaker sections of the people. Though, some of
the consumers may switch over to cereals when our development programmes make
headway, tuber crops will continue to be important to our agr~culturaleconomy as they are
a cheap source of food calories and can be raised on lands that cannot support other crops.

19.5.8 Fruits and Vegetables

Annually, we produce about 15 million tonnes of fruits from about 2 million hectare land
and 9 million tonnes of vegetables from about 1 million hectawJand. Our per head daily
 consumption is only 6ograms of fruits and 75 grams of vegetables, much.below the Food and Agriculturt
minimum recommendation of 85 grams and 200 grams respectively.

However, after the initial emphasis on self-sufficiency in foodgrains, research was

intensified in horticulture, and the past two decades have witnessed considerable
development of high-yielding horticultural crops with better quality produce.

Recently a Technology Mission-hasbeen constituted and a Ministry for Food Processing

established to'harness the best available technology for long-distance transport, packaging,
I
processing and canning of fruits, vegetables, and low-fat, high-protein mushrooms, so that
these important food items are readily available to buyers.

Fruits and vegetables are seasonal produce. When produced in abundance, they create a glut
in the market, and the prices go down. The product is also, sometime's, wasted. Drying,
canning, extracting juices etc. are methods by which the product can bring good returns to
the farmers, and fulfil the needs of the buyer.

19.5.9 Agroforestry
As a result of clearing forests so as to put the land to other uses, or of cutting trees to sell
wood for construction or other purposes like making packing cases, our forest cover has
diminished at an alarming rate. Presently, forests occupy a precarious 22% of our
geographical area against the recommended minimum of 33%. Shrub jungles and fuelwood
trees are vanishing so rapidly that one wonders whether a day would come soon when
common people may have enough food but not enough fuel. Between 1960 and 1984, the
prices of fuelwood shot up by 65%! This concern has prompted planners to think of large
scale p!anting of fast growing trees with some suitable crops in between. But, not all trees
and crops are compatible with each other, and even the best of the combinations have an
adverse effect on each other's maximum potential. However, a certain sacrifice in
productivity is considered inevitable to partly meet the shortage of tree cover.

In the Gangetic plains, wheat or rapeseed in rabi and sesamum or pearlmillet in kharif can
be grown in the interspaces of subabul (Leucaena latisiliqual trees. In the tropical region,
Casuarina is compatible with food crops in the first two years, after which the shallow-
rooted.fodder sorghum and cowpea fare better. In the humid and sub-humid regions, maize
is suitable for intercropping with Acacia and Stylosanthes (stylos) for fodder for growing
with Eucalyptus.

We have a great scope for tree plantation on our 60.09 million hectares of land that is not
being used for one reason or the other. Much of the roadsides along villages can also be
planted with trees, whose wood forms fuel.

' You have just studied that improvements in our crops have resulted in better, healthy plants
with high yields. Here, we would like to point out that it is not only the use of improved
seeds which is important, but also other factors like cropping system, application of
fertilisers and pesticides. Let us now look into some of these factors, in the following
section. But how about trying a SAQ first?

SAQ 2
Fill in the blank spaces choosing appropriate word or words from the list given below.
i) The diversity in ............and ............ in our country is responsible for the
great many types of plant species found herE.
ii) All the world's poultry trace their o,rigin to the Red Jungle Fowl belonging to ............
iii) ............ is our main kharif cereal, whereas ............ is the chief rabi %

cereal.
iv) After studying the evolutionary history of plants, and using statistical analysis,
agricr~ltuialrrin~tists
create . . . . . . ,f b t is p ! a ~ twith
~ idczi fr:n.ework and
other desirable blochemica1 and pi~ysioiog~cal chariicteristics.
V) In the cultivation of pulses, crop management is more important than. . . . . . . . . . . . .
vi) For past several years, oil seeds.have been grown in our country where lands are poor
in ..... : ...... and. . . . . . . . . . . . This has resulted in hardy, plants with very
............. production.
Agriculture, Nutrition and vii) ............ is an important sugar-yielding crop, that can be profitably cultivated in
Health soils having high amounts of sodium. -
viii) The credit for developing the first hybrid cotton goes to the ............
agriculturists.
ix) A judicious mix of plantation crops can be profitably grown in a farm under the
............ cropping pattern.
x) The major expenditure incurred in potato cultivation is on the procurement of healthy.

xi) ...................................... etc. are some of the methods that can

bring good returns to farmers, who grow fruits on large scale.
xii) ............ , ......................... and. ...........are some of the
fuel-wood yielding trees'that have a great promise for our country.
(drying, Subabul, seed tubers, canning, Indian, sugarbeet, multi-tier, low. Casuarina,
extractin juices, Stylos, wheat, India, seed variety, ideotypes, soil, nutrients,
F
Eucalyptus, water supply, rice, climate)

19.6 AGROTECHNIQWES
19.6.1 Cropping Systems
Since cultivable land is limited, the only way to meet our growing food needs is by growing
two or more crops in a year from the same piece of land. Such multiple-cropping practices
would generate more employment in rural areas and also fulfil our food needs. In a relay
cropping system, a crop is sown before its preceding crop is harvested. The last imgation
given to a crop also serves as a pre-sowing imgation to the next crop. This results in saving
of water. In mixed cropping, compatible crops like chickpea and mustard are sown in
parallel rows with wheat. Pigeonpea, mungbean, groundnut, soybean and cowpea can be
grown in between rows of either sorghum, or maize, or sugarcane or cotton. Such
intercropping systems have a high production potential and generate additional employment
opportunities.

19.6.2 Input of Fertilisers

Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are the major nutrients that plants require. In addition,
zinc, iron, manganese, boron, molybdenum and cobalt are also needed by plants in small
quantities for healthy growth. Deficiency of any of these elements reduces yields, even when
all other nutrients are available in adequate amounts. But, the excessive presence of some of
these nutrients may prove toxic to plants.
Cereals require more nitrogen than phosphorus and potash. But pulses, whose m t nodules
harbour bacteria, that fix nitrogen directly from the atmosphere, need adequate doses of
phosphorus. As said earlier, the nutrient needs vary not only from crop to crop but also from
soil to soil. It is essential, therefore, that the soil is tested and the required amounts of
nutrients supplied according to the needs of the crops. Generalised application of
commercially available fertiliser mixtures such as the one having nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium in the ratio of 120:60:40, is often quite wasteful and may even reduce yields. The
time and depth of application of fertilisers is also very important. Research has shown that
most farmers over-imgate their crops when water is available. Consequently, not only is
water, a precious input is wasted but the yields get depressed. Thus, crop management is as
important as the crop vanety in reallsing optimum yields.

19.6.3 Crop Protection

Several kinds of insects, diseases, weeds, rodents and birds cause imiense damage to crops
both in the field and in storage. Pests have been there long before man came into existence.
It is not possible to eliminate them entirely, either by developing varieties which resist
attacks of pests or by using potent pesticides, for pests are adept in their struggle for
existence and have always countered man's attempts to exterminate them. The best course
for us is to resort to what is called "integrated pest managementWthatkeeps the damage due
I to pests at the barest minimum. Inregrated pest management will be effective if we grow Food and Agriculture
t resistant varieties in regions where incidence of pests is severe, ensure that crops grown one
1 after another do not have common pests, instead of chemicals for pest control use biological
organisms that attack the pest, apply pesticides only when the pest population has reached its
i threshold value, and take co-ordinated community action on pest control in adjoining fields
I over the whole village or block.
I The war against pests is so long-drawn-out and difficult that farmers often use very high
I doses of pesticides at frequent intervals. This is a dangerous tendency. Excessive doses of
t
pesticides leave harmful residues (also see Unit 16, Section 16.2) which find their way into
the human body either directly from the consumed agricultural produce or through the milk
of animals that feed on plants. It is essential, therefore, that pesticides are applied only in
recommended doses that are harmless.

SAQ 3
Match the items of the first column with that of the second. Write the number of the
appropriate match in the bracket given in the first column.
- - -

Column I Column I1

a) Relay cropping system 1 1 i) require more nitrogen than

potassium and phosphorus
b) Crop protection , I I ii) compatible crops sown together in
a field
.c) Cereals [ I iii) consists of fixed amount of nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium
d) Mixed cropping [ 1 iv) integrated pest management
e) Commercially available v) crop sown before the
fertiliser mixture [ I preceding crop is harvested

So far, you have studied various aspects of agriculture dealing mainly with our crops. Now,
let us know something about our alternate food resources.

19.7 LIVESTOCK
Livestock provide us milk, meat, eggs, wool and skins, and other by-products. All these
contribute about Rs. 20,000 million a year to our national economy. Practically every family
in the village is involved with domestic animals, which are an important source of livelihood
and employment to the villagers. The number of cows, oxen, buffaloes, bulls, sheep, goats,
pigs or poultry is often an indication of the economic status of the rural family.
~ilestockare our mainstay for providing power needed for agricultural operations and
transport. Machines provide marginal power because of the small and scattered farms in our
villages. Still, inadequacy of power is a basic cause of our inability to improve the efficiency
of agriculture through timely operations.
India today has about 185 million cattle, 61 milli~nbuffaloes, 45 million sheep, 97 million
goats, one million horses and ponies, one million camels, about one million other livestock,
and 156 million poultry, fowls, ducks, quails, turkey-birds, etc. In 1984-85, they produced
40 million tonnes of milk, 13 million eggs, 39 million kilograms of wool and 958,000 metric
tonnes of meat.

19.7.1 Cattle
The humped, zebu cattle originated in India. The Brahman bull, a hardy, disease resistant
animal that quickly gains weight, is much in demand in the west for siring beef breeds. The
humpless tautus breeds of cattle are generally considered to have originated in Europe. But
there is evidence to show that humpless cattle were under domestication in India as early as
the Harappan period (also see Fig. 19.3).
Today we have several good milch, draught, and dual-purpose breeds. Milch breeds refers
to the milk producing animals; draught breeds are the animals that,are used as work animals;
and the dual purpose breeds include those animals that are used both for milk purposes as
~%(cullurc,Nutrition and well as for doing laborious work. Gir, Sahiwal. Red Sindhi and Deoni are our milch breeds.
Health
The draught breeds include Nagari, Kenkatha, Malvi, Hallikar, Amrit Mahal. Khillari,
Kangayam, Ponwar and Sin. Among the important dual purpose breeds are Hariana, Danji,
Rewati, Ongol and Tharparkar (or Kankrej).
Besides that, India has the best riverine (water) buffaloes in the world.'Some of them like
Murrah, Mehsana, Jaffarabadi. Surti. Nili-Ravi are imp~rtedby many countries for
developing animals, suiting to their requirements. Swamp buffaloes, that are common in
south-east Asian countries, are frequently found in the coastal and swampy regions of oul'
country. Since their milk yield is less, they are used as work animals in swampy regions to
which cattle are not suited.
Milk Production :Indian economy is village-based. In the absence of long-distance
transport and marketing facilities for milk, the selection of dairy animals over the centuries
was based on their ability to produce just enough milk for the family needs. Consequently,
the best of our milk yielding animals produce only a quarter of their counterparts in Europe,
although Indian cattle are hardier.

The country, today, has less than half a million good dairy cows and about 25 million
buffaloes that give a medium yield of 1,000 to 1,500 litres per lactation (the milk secreting
period after the birth of a calf). High-yielding breeds of cows such as the Holstein-Friesian,
Brown Swiss and Red Dane averaging 5,000 to 6,000 litres per lactation and Jersey cows
averaging 4,000 litres per lactation, were imported and used in crossbreeding programmes.
Their progenies yield, on an average, about 3,000 litres of milk. However, some of these
crossbreeds, are pot likely to be popular with village farmers who cannot provide intensive
feeding, management and health care.

19.7.2 Sheep and Goats

Income from sheep and goats sustain 12-15 million people in India living in regions where
agricultural activities are restricted. The small muzzle and split-up upper lip help sheep to
nibble at tiny blades of vegetation which cannot be eaten by larger animals. India has the
sixth largest sheep population in the world. But large flocks of sheep like those seen in
Australia and New Zealand are not common in our country since we do not have extensive
grasslands and meadows. Though highly nutritious, lamb meat is not as popular in our
country as goat meat.
Our common breeds of sheep are: Kashmir, Gaddi, Chokla, Bhakarival, Magra, Kali,
Marwari, Bellary, Deccani and Nilgiri. They produce short wool suitable for making carpets.
For the production of wool suitable fir making clothes, there was need to improve our
breeds of sheep. For this purpose, the Merino and Suffolk breeds were imported.
Goat is considered the poor man's cow in India, It is a versatile animal, easy to maintain on
marginal lands. In Europe, it is called the 'wet nurse'. as it produces cheap and wholesome
milk. Its milk contains 4.5% fat, well-distributed in small globules, and is easily absorbed in
our digestive system. The milk-breeds of goat such as Toggenberg, Saanan, Alpore and
Nubian were introduced to develop better breeds that suit our conditions. Goat meat and skin
are in great demand in our country. Pashmina and Chegu breeds produce soft and warm
fibres used for making shawls and similar apparel. The Angora breed produces the valuable
textile hair called mohair. Jamunapari, Beetal, Barbari, Black Bengal, Deccan and Malabari
are other quality breeds of goat. One thing particular about goats is that they are fastidious
about cleanliness. They require clean and fresh food, put in clean containers when fed
indoors.
Goats qnd sheep do not compete with each other, since their feeding habits and requirements
are different. There is a misconception that goats denude the vegetation and contribute to the
'deterioration of the environment.. But the real culprit is man. who leaves goats in the open to
fend for themselves, not providing them even the minimum feed needed to keep them going.

19.7.3 Pigs
The pig is nature's protein factory on land. It has the capacity to turn most of its feed into
high-quality protein. Unlike cattle, sheep and goats, the pig has a one-chamber stomach. It
cannot eat and digest roughages like straw etc., but it canfeed on most celluiosic material,
including algae. Like the buffalo, the pig has very few sweat glands on its skin, and hence
needs water to keep the body' cool, particularly in summer.
 In India, pigs are kept by people who are so economically backward that they can scarcely'
give any attention to the animal. Hence pigs wallow in mud, eat all sorts of rubbish 'and
harbour many parasites. Consequently, the pig is considered dirty and despicable while it
could be an elegant, healthy. productive, and rapidly multiplying animal. In a country like
ours where protein malnutrition is rampant. pig rearing will be a boon to the poorer sections.
of the society. Hence, to improve the productivity of indigenous pigs. breeds like White
Yorkshire, Landrace, Tamworth and Berkshire have been introduced.

Animal Health Care: The type of climate, i.e. tropical and subtropical. that we have in our
country is conducive to a variety of animal diseases like finderpest. foot-and-mouth disease,
tabies, and tuberculosis. Health care and proper medication are both important to maintain
our animals in a fit and productive condition. But awareness about health care of our
animals is needed. Today, we in our country produce most of the required medicines and
vaccines of high quality that are required for health care of our livestock.

19.8 POULTRY
During the last two decades, our poultry industry has shown a phenomenal growth. The
value of our poultry products today is about Rs 9,000 million. The production in-the year
1984-85 was about 13,475 million eggs and about 51 million broilers. The growth of
production during the last decade is 400%. that is unmatched either by 'any branch of
agriculture or,industry. Some of our best broiler strains are: 4 77, JBL 80, IBB 83, ILI 80,
and ILI 82. Because of intensive research on poultry nutrition, we have been abie to d u c e
the fied requirement from 6 kg to about 2.2 kg for the production of one kilogram of live-
weight broiler or one dozen eggs. Today, we are self-sufficient in the production of all
medicines required for poultry health. Most of these medicines conform to the highest
standards of efficiency and potkncy.

Almost all the world's fowls trace their origin to the Red Jungle Fowl of India (Fig. 19.4). In
addition to our famous Assel breed, we have Kadaknath, short-legged Nicobari and large
number of diverse hardy breeds that have adapted themselves to our various ecological
regions. There is, however, a need to conserve and improve their type for future growth of
the poultry industry.

Ducks need more water than fowls, but it is wrong to presume that they require water for
swimming. Unlike fowls they can feed on water-borne organisms, and hence are popular in
swampy regions. They constitute about 10%of the total poultry population and deserve
hore attention than given at present.

19.9 FISHERIES
Marine and freshwater fish are an excellent source of animal protein. They grow rapidly,
feeding on plankton, weeds and other water-borne organisms, and convert them into food of
high biological value.

In 1984. we produced about 3 million tonnes of fish, ranking eighth in the fish-pducing
countries of the world. Our production can still be increased up to 12 million tonnes,
because we have a long coastline and a large adjoining area of water that can utilised for
fishing. Our inland freshwater spread is 1.6 million hectares, and brackish waters and
estuaries occupy about 2 million hectares.

'ill 19.9.1 Marine Fisheries

Our present catch from the seas is about 1.2 million tonnes. But there is a good prospect for
increasing the catch all along the Indian coast, particularly in the northeast and south-west
regions. Sophisticated techniques such as Remote-sensing and Satellite imageries are now
being used to locate concentrations of fish. Improved techniques have been devised for the
cultuq of mussels, pearl, oysters, shrimps, lobsters and seaweed. Mechanised fishing
boatsand vessels (see Fig. 19.8) have also been introduced, together with facilities for cold
Agriculture, Nutrltlon and
Health

Fig. 19.8: M.V. Saraswati, a modern vessel used by our fisheries.

19.9.2 Inlahd Fisheries

Inland fisheries are categorised as of 'capture' or 'culture' type. Capture fisheries refer to
the catch from rivers and reservoirs. On the other hand, in culture fisheries, the 'fish are first
grown in ponds, pools and swamps, and are caught when they are of the right size.
Pond culture of fish is conventional in our country, and the average production is about
600 kg per hectare in a year. However, if ponds are stocked with different types of fish that
feed at the bottom, middle level and surface of the pond, the fish do not compete with each
other, but utilise the food resources throughout the pond. Such a practice is also known as
composite fish culture. A yield up to I 1 tonnes per hectare in a year can be obtained,
although an average farmer obtains about 5 tonnes from such composite fish culture.
Integrated culture of compatible species of fish, prawp, frogs, ducks and useful plants is
even more profitable, as they will make a full use of the entire pond environment. Sw.amps
and derelict waters are suited to air-breathing fish which yield up to 15 tonnes per hectare in
a year. Their use could supplement our fish production.

- SAQ 4
Fill in the blanks choosing appropriate word or words from the list provided.
i) Majority of our farmers depend on their. . . . . . . . . . . . for the power needed for the
various agricultural operations.
ii) h o u r country, owing to not so well-developed ............ and . . . . . . ,. . . .
facilities, the dairy animals have been bred to produce just enough milk for the family
needs.
iii) Animals like . . . . . . . . . . . . and . . . . . . . . . . . . can be profitably reared in areas where
agricultural activites are restricted.
iv) The . . . . . . . . . . . . is also commonly called as the nature's protein factory.
v) In the last decade, the increase in production in our . . . . . . . . . . . . industry has been
tremendous, and is unmatched by any other branch of agriculture or industry.
vi) India presently ranks . . . . . . . . . . . in the fish-producing countries of the world, and
there is considerable scope in increasing production in both the ........... and
........... fisheries. I

(marine, pig, transport, livestock, goats, inland, marketing, poultry, sheep, eighth)
-

19.10 SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt

Ours is an agriculture-based country, and our agricult~fralproducts contribute
significantly to our economy.
Sunlight, soil and water are the basic resources for agriculture, besides the numerous
varieties of crops and animal breeds, and the labour input by the farmers. Our agricultural
production is affected if any of these factors is limited, or disturbed.
. We have about 20,000 plant species. A number of plants which'top the list of the most
useful plants were actually, the natives of this place and many plants were introduced in
our country from different parts of the world.
mode^ agriculture has come a long way since its early times. Several new, high-yielding '

and better varieties of crops have been produced by our scienrists. The higher yield of a
crop is ensured not only by the use of better, high-yielding seeds but also by factors like
cropping system, input of nutrients in the form of fe~ilisers,timely irrigation, and proper
plant protection measures.
The livestock constitutes our alternate food resource, and are also the source of a number
of other useful products such as wool, skin'etc. Today, we have highly improved breeds
of livestock. Some breeds are meant for milk production, some for labour and others for
both purposes, i.e. for milk as well as for labour. We still need attention in areas like
piggeries etc.
,
Our poultry industry is a fast growing industry. Its increase of production in the last
decade is unmatched by any other branch of agriculture or industry. Research conducted
in our country has enabled us to evolve better broiler strains. Also, we are now able to
produce more live-weight broiler or eggs from less of feed.
Fisheries, both marine and inland, still have tremendous scope for expansion. Its full
potential is yet to be tapped. Use of modem techniques has been of great help in
increasing the production. Awareness about various aspects of inland fisheries given to
farmers would not' only lead to better incomes but also'greater availability of food.

19.11 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) Write brief comments on the basic resources for agriculture.

2) a) Give at least rwo examples of the plants representing each of the following groups,
that are commonly gmwn in our country
Group Examples

i) Cereals and millets

ii) Pulses

iii) Oilseeds
-

iv) Sugar crops

V) Fibre crops

vi) Tuber crops

vii) Plantation crops

viii) Fruits and vegetables

b) Pick up any Wo of the examples that you have written above and write about
the unimproved and their correspondingly improved features in the table given
below :

Name of Features of unlmprovcd Features of lmprovcd

the plant plant plant

i ................ ii) ......................... ii) .................

iii) ........................ iii) .......................

ii ............... ii) ........................ ii) ...............

iii) ........................ iii) ..............

Write short answers for the following questions.

a) What are the salient features of mixed, and relay-cropping system?

b) What points should one keep in mind whilg :sing fertilisers?

. .

C) What is the ideal way of pest management?

a) List the alternate food resources.

b) Mention briefly, as to what advancements have been made in the pfoduction of the
following alternate foods.

....................................................................
. ,

ii) . fish
 iii) broiler

................................ ....................................
....................................................................
....................................................................
ik iv) eggs
...................................................................

19.12 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1) a) i) About 60.5% of the working people of India depend on agriculture in one'form
or the other.
ii) Nearly 53% of our land is utilised for agriccltural purposes.
iii) Various agricultural activities contribute to about 34.7% of the total net national
product.
b) i) south-west ii) half iii) nutrients iv) alluvial. v) twenty eight

2) i) soil, climate ii) India iii) rice, wheat iv) ideotypes v) seed variety
vi) nutrients, water supply, low vii) sugarbeet viii) Indian ix) multi-tier
X) seed tubers xi) drying, canning, extracting juices xii) Subabul. Casuarina,
Stylos, Eucalyptus
3) a [v] b [iv] c [i] d [ii] e [iii]

4) i) livestock ii) transport, marketing iii) sheep, goats iv) pig v) poultry
vi) eighth, marine, inland

Terminal Questions
1) a) Sunlight: It is available in plenty throughout the year. During monsoons, the clouds
cut down the incoming sunlight considerably. Plants can, however, make maximum
use of the sunlight if other factors like water, carbon dioxide and nuvjents are not
limiting.
b) Soil :A variety of soils are found in our count&, and each supports different types of
crops. Before growing crops in any of the soils, they should be checked for their
nutrients and other physical characteristics.
c) Water: Our agriculture depends mainly on monsoon for this resource. Rainfall,
however, is not uniform in our country. During rainfall, a considerable amount of
water seeps-intothe soil. The water in the top iayer is utilised by plants. The ground-
water can also be used for irrigation, after testing its quality.
2) a) i) rice, bajra
ii) pigeonpea, chickpea
iii) groundnut, brassica
iv) sugarcane, sugarbeet
V) cotton, jute
vi) potato, cassava
vii) tea, arecanut
viii) mango, brinjal
UNIT SCIENTIFIC POSSIBILITIES
AND SOCIAL REALITIES
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Agriculture in Special Areas
Arid zone
Drylands
Hills
Reclamation of Saline, Alkaline Soils
Problems Associated with Modem Agriculture
Mismatch Between Man's Scientific Ability to Produce and Social
Incapacity to Utilise
Biotechnology in Agriculture
Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

-
20.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit you have studied about food and agriculture. After studying that unit,
you might have realised that it was due to constant inputs from science and technology, that
we have had a number of breakthroughs in agricultural production. So, we presume by now
you have a good background on the subject. In this unit we intend to discuss with you
certain, rather specific, issues pertaining to agriculture. We also wish to impress upon you
that, though there has been considerable progress in this field, yet its benefits are not
available to a large section of our people. Even today, there are several million mouths that
are unfed. The challenge is far too big for us. Therefore, it is necessary that we know what is
it that hampers the benefits of our progress from reaching all sections of our people. And
also how the application of modem technology coupled with the changes brought about in
our social outlook can improve the prevailing situation.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to :
discuss how application of scientific knowledge has made better agriculture possible
under difficult conditions,
outline the problems associated with modem agriculture,
explain why there is a mismatch between man's scientific ability -to produce and social
incapacity to utilise,
realise the importance of biotechnology.

20.2 AGRICULTURE IN SPECIAL AREAS

--A

Ours is a country of diverse climates and varieties of.soi1, affording scope for diversity in
agriculture. All the year round, agricultural activities continue in one or the other part of the
country. Because of the increasing demand for food, the regions which were once
considered difficult, if not impossible for agricultural purposes, are now being brought under
cultivation. In such regions, some of the factors such as moisture, right temperature, etc.,
required for the usual crops, are not available. Therefore, plants that could withstand these
difficult conditions are grown here, and similarly, the hardy animals are reared in these
areas. In this section, we shall discuss three such special areas.
Agricukure, Nutrition and 20.2.1 Arid Zone
&alh
The chief arid areas of our country are confined to Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka
and Ladakh. They cover an area of about 400,000 square kilometers. Of this, Ladakh has a
cold desert spread over 70,000 square kilometres.
Here, aridity and low temperature limit the agricultural season to about five months in a
year. Therefore, crops which require a short period to mature and can withstand severe cold
are grown. These are some cereals, oilseeds and fodder crops. Amongst animals, the
Pashmina goats, whose hair are in great demand for producing shawls and apparel, can be
profitably reared in Ladakh. It is also the only place where the two-humped, Bactrian camel
occurs in our country. The animal is used for short-distance transport and it provides milk,
meat and wool in the cold desert. It, however, needs immediate protection and special efforts
to breed, because hardly 56 specimens are now in existence.
In the hot desert regions, of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana, there is abundance of sunshine
which causes high rate of evaporation. Many of these areas, however, have adequate
reserves of ground-water which need to be scientifically tapped. In these areas, the rainfall is
highly unpredictable and it varies from 100 to 450 mm. Nevertheless, many excellent breeds
of cattle, sheep andgoats are found in these regions. At many places, the cattle even
out-number human population. This region is alsocndowed with very well-adapted grasses
and trees, and the lands are amenable to management. While the population of grazing
animals is increasing every year, the area used for grazing is decreasing because more and
more of it is diverted for raising crops. There is a need to reverse this trend which is likely to
disturb the ecological balance. Now, let us see, how these areas can be utilised for growing
plants useful to us, and which plants are most suited for this place. In the arid zone, there is
also considerable scope for growing fruit-trees like ber and pomegranate and fuel-wood
yielding trees like Acacia (Kikar), Prosopis (Mosquite) and Eucalyptus (Safeda). In such
areas, large scale planting of shelter-belts will minimise soil erosion caused by wind. It will
also help in the establishment of pastures and grazing lands. Later on, this land can be used
for growing pearlmillet and mungbean.
Let us now discqss the other natural resources in this area. There is abundant sunlight in the
desert areas and it can be harnessed for heating, cooking and lighting purposes. By doing so,
the pressure to grow fuel-wood yietding trees can be considerably reduced. As said earlier,
there are a large number of cattle found in this area. Animal dung is mostly bumt as a fuel,
but its better use would be to mix it with the soil, so that the soil is enriched. Therefore, we
need to deviate from the traditional use of these resources. This would benefit our arid lands
and the people residing there, and the country in the long run. In the desert regions, solar
energy can be utilised in yet another way. Here, the water is generally saline. The
installation of solar stills can help us in the supply of clean drinking water, which would be a
boon to the people of the area.
In years, when rainfall is good in arid areas as wehave seen in 1988, a concerted effort
should be made to seed the land with grasses, shrubs a n dtrees that establish quickly when -
the soil is moist. We have Famine Codes that tell us how to minimise the suffering of people
and livestock when rains fail. It is time we prepared a Good Weather Code also, so that
people know what to do when the rainfall is good.

20.2.2 Drylands
Drylands are important to us, as they produce about 42% of our food. They supply us millets
and pulses, as well as cotton and groundnut, on which a'large proportion of our industry is
dependent.
Drylands constitute about 74% of our cultivated lands. These are entirely rain-dependent.
On these lands, crop fortunes are closely linked to the vagaries of the monsoon. Rains may
set in very early or very late, or may come on time but withdraw too soon. There may also
be large breaks between showers. When evaporation and loss of water by seeping in the soil
exceeds rainfall, these lands are plagued by drought, scarcity of drinking water, crop failure
and consequently unemployment and other human sufferings.
With the availability of good techniques of conserving water, and crops which grow quickly
with little water, there is considerable scope for stabilising crop yields from drylands.
Since water is a limiting factor in drylands, as much run-off as possible should be collected
:- *..rod --Ae <,- tho+ +ha ornnr oan hp nivpn life-cnvino irriontinn In rlrvlnnrlr
with red soil, deep ploughing helps in conserving water. In black soils, sowing two crops at Scientitic Possibilities and'
a time is possible with surface drainage and good water management. Leaves and crop Social Realitid

residues, when mixed with soil improve its texture, and water holding capacity. If crops like
pigeonpea and castor that have deep roots, are cultivated in these regions, the physical
condition of the soil improves further, as the roots of these crops add organic matter.
Now that varieties of sorghum, millets, sunflower, safflower, mustard, groundnut, various
pulses and cotton are available which grow within a shorter time and can withstand scarcity
of water, it is possible to diversify what grows in the drylands. A variety of crops and
cropping patterns allow the farmer to make a proper choice of what to grow in different
climates and soil types.

20.2.3 Hills
In the hilly regions of our country , tribals practise an age-old method of cultivation known
as jhum or slash-and-bum or podu cultivation. Under this system, a patch of land on the hills
is cleared of vegetation, and the plants are burnt. This ash eventually mixes with soil, which.
can support a crop of millet. This gives a modest yield to meet the immediate needs of the
tribal farmer. When the crop is harvested, the land is abandoned and the tribals shift to
adjoining areas, where the process is repeated. In about five years, the first piece of land put
under slash-and-bum cultivation, by and large, recovers its natural fertility and supports
shrub vegetation. The tribals come back to this land and start their primitive method once
again. All this sounds very good, but actually it is not so. This system worked well, in the
days when the population was small and shrub jungles were plentiful. Today, the tribals do
not have much land to shift to, with the result that they cultivate the same piece of land again
and again. Since practically no manure is applied, and the soils are given no time to r e ~ o u p
their nutrient losses in the natural way, their yields decline year after year. Soil erosion
further aggravates the problem.

You might be wondering whether there is a so!ution to the agricultural problem of our hilly
regions. Yes, there is. Based on a study of the slope and depth of the soil, and availability of
water, scientists have devised an interesting agricultural system (see Fig. 20.1) which
-requires low inputs, and puts the land to a most productive use, without disturbing the
ecosystem.

Fig. 20.1: Model land use, alternative to

slash-and-burn Uhum) cultivation, in Meghalaya .
Under this system, the upper reaches of the hills are devoted to forestry. The next zone is
developed for growing fruit trees, perennial fodder grass and legumes. The roots of legumes
fix nitrogen and improve the soil. In the third zone, a mix of crops are raised on terraces
constructed with low-cost implements. Earthen dams are constructed with locally available
material. These collect enough water to be utilised for irrigation and fish culture. Poultry,
.piggery, bee-keeping, mushroom cultivation and related activities create a self-sustaining,
complete farming system that perfectly blends with the ecosystem.

So far, you have studied how the advancements in our knowledge have enabled us to
practice agriculture in difficult areas. Now, we shall take up a rather specific problem, that is
of degraded.soils. The saline and alkaline soils pose a lot of problems to our farmers. Let us .
nnw 9ee hnw thew are kin^ dealt with
kgrkulture, Nutrition end
Henlth

Saline and alkaline soils are the result of centuries of neglect and mismanagement of our
soils. About 7 million hectares of land is thus affected. These unproductive soils cover about
2.5 million hectares in arid Rajasthan and Gujarat, 1.4 million hectares in the black-soil
region, and 2.1 million hectares in the coastal regions. Alkaline soils contain high amounts
of carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium. Saline soils contain chloiides and sulphates of
. sodium, calcium and magnesium. In both the above types of soils, salts are present in
quantities large enough to interfere with crop growth.

As a result of research conducted since 1968, it is now possible to reclaim alkaline soils with
the cultivation of fodder grasses like Brachiaria rnutica (Para ghas), Panicum antidotale
(Neelon ghas) and Cynodon dacrylon (Doob), and tree species like Prosopis chidensis
(Vilayati khejri),,Acacia nilotica (Kikar) and hybrid Eucalyprus. The trees establish quickly
if they are planted in small holes filled with manure to which a little gypsum is added. In the
very first year after reclamation with grasses, this soil can be used for planting other crops.
Here, special varieties of rice can be grown as kharif, and wheat as rabi crop. T'hese crops
have been found to give excellent results.
The crucial factor in the management of saline soils is drainage. Saline soils have a high
water-table. Drainage channels one metre deep and 30 metres apart effectively bring down
the water table and help in reducing soil salinity. Drainage costs are no doubt high, but we
should itot forget our lessons from history. Increasing salinjsation caused by improper
drainage forced Mesopotamia to completely abandon wheat cultivation, and saline soils
played an important part in the break-up of Sumerian civilisation.

In the soils reclaimed in the above manner, sorghum, maize and wheat which can tolerate
salinity of soil can profitably be raised. Thoughearlier, that is, before reclamation, such soils
would not have supported any plant growth.

SAQ 1
Fill in the blank spaces choosing appropriate word or words from the list given below:
i) The areas that were considered difficult for agriculture were so because of
non-availability of right kind of. ........... and............
ii) For the cold deserts. the ............ and ............ varieties are the most
appropriate for cultivation.
iii) Fuel-wood yielding trees like. ........................and. ........... can
be profitably grown in the arid zones.
iv) ............ is the limiting factor in drylands, and this difficulty can be overcome
b:l suitable. ....................... techniques.
w) Crops like. ........... and. ........... when grown in the drylands can
considerably improve the condition of soil.
vi) The ............ method of cultivation is one of the important causes for the
d a m t i o n of the quality of. ........... in the hilly regions.
vii) Alkalinity of soils is mainly due to the pesence of high amounts of. ...........
and.. .......... of sodium.
viii) Saline soils consist of. ........... and ............ of sodium, calcium and
magnesium in excessive amounts.
ix) ............ is one of the important factors in the management of saline soils.
x) Now it is possible to reclaim alkaline soils by the cultivation of. ........... and
several ............ species, the latter are planted in small holes filled with manure
and ............

(castor, cold resistant, bicarbonates, fodder grasses, temperature, safeda, pigeonpea,

tree,chlorides, drainage, early maturing, gypsum, sulphates, carbonates, water
management, moisture, kikar, slash-and-burn, mesquite, soil, water)
 Sclentlflc Possibllitles and
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH MODERN Social Realitk
AGRICULTURE

Modem agriculture aims at producing the maximum amount of food in the minimum
amount of time, space and energy so that our increasing population may have ample food
and other agricultural products.

A study conducted in the mid-1950s showed that Asian and African farmers required 2.5 to
10 working days to produce one quintal (=I00kg) of grain. The time required to produce the
same amount of grain was 3 hours in pans of France, and just 6 -12 minutes in parts of the
USA. This fact is responsible for the difference in earnings, purchasing-power and life styles
which exists between the developing and the developed countries.

On the other hand, the US farmer spends 65,0@ kilocalories of energy to produce 1 kg of
beef protein, and 2,860 kilocalories to produce 1 kg of wheat protein. He mostly uses
cKemicals derived from natural oil resources, and machines which again run on petrol,
kerosene or diesel. All these are non-renewable natural resources. In contrast, the Asian
farmer spends only 286 kilocalories of energy to produce 1 kg of rice protein. He mostly
uses renewable, agro-based and organic substances for energy, in addition to human and
animal energy. His technology is energy-thrifty, but it is labour intensive and time
consuming.

Some observers believe that the agricultural production of the industrialised nations relies so
heavily on non-renewable resources, that there is a clear danger of the oil and coal resources
of the earth running out, bringing mankind to ruin. If we modemised agriculture to the same
level as in the west, we could produce all we need, with perhaps a tenth of thetmanpower
engaged in agriculture. The question is, what would the rest do? Would they be pnemployed,
if so, how will they buy what agriculture would produce? Yes, low energy input agriculture
of the developing countries keeps nations precariously at the subsistence level, with
development retarded, and malnutrition rampant, but moving to the other extreme of
copying the industrialised countries could also be disastrous. The best course is probably the
middle path. We should use modem science and modem ideas to minimise the use of non-
renewable materials and energy, to use better seeds and cropping practices, and to reduce
wastes of all kinds, be it land, water or even leaves and stems of plants.
'Some enthusiasts contend that we should curtail the use of chemical fertilisers. But actually
in our country the consumption of chemical fertilisers is one of the lowest in the world, a
fraction of what it is in Japan or Europe. Field experiments have shown that chemical
fertilisers are superior to bulky organic manures, in some ways but they are energy intensive
and have to be uskd with due caution. Excessive use of fertilisers leads to a good deal of it
being washed away by irrigation or rain water, which then pollutes rivers and ponds. A
judicious combination of chemical fertilisers and organic manures is k i n g recommended by
our scientists. The challenge before our scientists is to retain the strength of traditional
agriculture while meeting the needs of changing times.

About 87,000 tonnes of atmosphere is above each hectare, and about 70% of it is nitrogen
that plants need. We must tap this abundant source by growing on a more extensive scale
plants such as the various pulses, beans and peas. You already know the significant role
played by such plants in fixing atmospheric nitrogen, and thus increasing the fertility of the
soil.

As in the case of fertilisers, the average consumption of pesticides in our country is so small
that there does notexist a situation similar to that prevailing in developed countries. The
high-yielding varieties recently introduced put up such a luxuriant growth that pests are
attracted to them much as we are attracted to tasty food. Plant-protection chemicals are safe
when used strictly according to scientific recommendations. Indiscriminate and excessive
use may, however, leave harmful residues, which may again pollute the environment
particularly our water resources. Research on biological control of pests is urgently needed.

There has been a lot of discussion in the country about recent agricultural developments
which have led to large tracts of land to be planted with high yielding varieties of wheat and
rice, most of which need fertilisers and a well-defined routine of watering. Rich, large fields
Agriculture, Nutrition and of the same crop attract more pests, and therefore pesticides are necessary. Fertilisers and
Health
pesticides require, not only energy to produce them but also technology which has a large
import component and hence needs foreign exchange. The result is that we have a Green
Revolution and much greater agricultural production, but at the same time, greater
dependence on other countries.
The other dilemma is that such agriculture, with chemical inputs and strict regimes for
watering and protection of crops, can be managed much better by farmers with large fields.
Much of the land in our country belongs to small holders who cannot benefit from the recent
developments in equal measure. Hence-thisagriculture has, amongst other things previously
mentioned, led to the rich in rural areas becoming richer, and poor becoming relatively
poorer.
There is also a view that there was no alternative to increasing of total agricultural
production. And that the modem technology is neutral to the scale of farming, provided
proper practices are adopted by the small farmers too. This seems to be a rather difficult
thing in practice, with the prevailing poverty and ignorance amongst the poor.

In a vast country like ours, a 10% decrease in production creates a scare of starvation deaths,
and a similar increase in output brings in its wake problems of storage, grain-roSting,glut in
the market and distress sale by farmers. The problems are more acute in the production of
perishable commodities like vegetables, fruits, eggs, fish, milk and their products. The only
way to tackle this problem is by providing a minimum guarantee price to farmers based on
cost of production and ensuring that there are adequate facilities for efficient transport,
processing and packaging so that the product is available at the doorstep of the consumer. .
Once again if processing and packaging can be done with our own technology developed by
our research institutions, it would be excellent. Furthermore, if some of the food stuffs
processed by foreign (or shared) companies are exported, we would deprive our people of
the much needed foodstuffs like dried vegbables, fruit pulps and juices, and fish protein etc.
Prices, in the Indian market, of these items would also go up. Thus you see that science can
provide a package of practices for increasing production, and for meeting the needs of our
people. It can sustain a dynamic agricultural growth only if accompanied by a package of
appropriate public policies.

20.5 MISMATCH BETWEEN MAN'S SCIENTIFIC

ABILITY TO PRODUCE AND SOCIAL
INCAPACITY TO UTILISE
We now have the scientific and technological know-how to produce what our country needs.
But lot of our people are poor, as they do not have gainful employment. Thus food is not
available to them at the prices they can afford. Unless our scientific and technological skill
is suitably backed by a political and administrative will to implement the right kind of rural
and urban development programmes, poverty and malnutrition will continue to threaten us.

About 55.5 million people (22.7%) in our country are agricultural labourers who have
neither land to cultivate nor farm animals to keep. They are willing to work hard, and expect
to be paid by the evening, since they lead a hand to mouth existence. A vigorous
employment-generation drive alone can improve their lot. For a number of historical
reasons, however, employment generation is equated in our country with distributing doles,
and a job-seeker is treated as if he is a burden to the society when he is actually offering his
services, however modest, for his own benefit and the benefit of the country, At every level
from the policy-maker to the village-level worker, there is a need for an overhaul of our
social structure and outlook. Creation of job opportunities should be treated as a priority
item of national service. Employment can be generated through (i) developmental
programmes of the Government and (ii) group action backed by bank finance and village
cooperatives. Marketing, storage, transport, distribution, processing and customer service
are beyond the capacity of individual villagers. These can only be ensured by village
cooperatives, which, in turn, should be connected to the national marketing grid.

The Government can take up massive programmes dealing with irrigation, supply bf
drinking water and construction of permanent roads and well-planned houses in the
countryside. These permanent national assets will generate the much-needed employment Scientific Possibilities and
Social Realities
and provide purchasing power to villagers.

With the help of banks and insurance agencies, village cooperatives should pay special
attention to problems of national importance that can be solved only through coordinated
group action.

The twin problems of rapidly decreasing forest resources and extensive soil erosion can be
effectively checked by large-scale plantations on our cultivable wastelands and along
roadside in villages. Thisj s of utmost importance, since we are presently cutting off ten trees
for every one tree planted. Our duty is not over by just planting trees, but we should take
care of them till they reach a stage, when they can grow on their own.

Composite fish culture (also see Unit 19, Sub-section 19.9.2) and the cultivation of high-
value vegetable and fruits are highly remunerative professions. But our farmers are wary of
bulk production because they think that it would lead to a glut in village markets and result
in lowering the prices. A national chain of village cooperatives that attend to marketing,
storage and distribution,ne&ork will benefit both the producer and the consumer.

The precariously low amounts of protein and fat in our diet is a matter of great concern. A
well-organised marketing and processing network has a tremendous potential to increase the
cultivation of the protein-rich soybean which will prove a boon to our malnourished people.
Likewise, an all-out 'effort is needed to devote more attention to oilseed crops, including
oilpalm. We are now importing a lot of edible oil. In rich nations, excessive intake of fat is
discouraged as it would aggravate the problem of heart diseases. But in our country,
inclusion of more fat in the diet, barring that of a few affluent people, is not only desirable,
but is necessary because fats are not only a concentrated source of food calories but act as
important vehicle for some vitamins.

The low per head availability of cloth is another alarming trend. Even in our best cotton
tracts, the average yield of cotton is only about 370 kg per hectare compared with 700 kg per
hectare in Egypt, where cotton cultivation is managed co-operatively without infringing on
the rights of individual owners. In the management of pests of cotton, rice, groundnut,
sugarcane and plantation crops, as well as the control of the contagious diseases of cattle,
individual attention is futile and a community action of the entire village or block only, will
prove effective. Efficiently run cooperatives with adequate facilities for health care of plants
and animals is the immediate need of our villages. Conservation of runoff water in ponds,
proper utilisation of groundwater resources, finding uses of agricultural wastes, use of solar,
and wind energies and installation of bio-gas plants are areas in which village cooperatives
can play an exemplary role, create an abundance of employment opportunities, and usher in
an "antyodaya" of Mahatma Gandhi's dreams.

It would be a paradox if we produce enough food to eat but the majority of our people have
not enough money to buy it with.

20.6 BIOTECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE

Production of enough food to meet the demands of an ever-increasing population in the
world is a major task and a challenge to agricultural scientists. The conventional agricultural
methods can no longer cope with the situation. In recent years, biotechnology has emerged
as an important discipline which may offer solutions to many problems presently being
faced by agriculture. Before we proceed any further, let us first understand what we mean by
biotechnology. It deals with the use of biological systems or their products in large-scale
industrial processes.

Today, agricultural biot&hnology has progressed to a stage that plants with several
improved characters can be produced. The examples of these improved characters are high
yields, resistance to diseases, improved nutritional quality, and adaptation to adverse
environmental conditions. An important aspect in the production of improved piants, is the
breeding process. This enables one to combine, one or more, favourable characters of the
parents to be passed on to their progeny. For this purpose, scientists use several methods for
raising the plants. The most common methods are: (i) the traditional method, in which seeds
and root stocks have been used as basic materials for raising plants, (ii) the other method
that makes use of the important quality of plant cells. &at is, any plant cell can give rise to a
Agriculture, Nutritbn and complete plant. Based on this fact, any cell or a group of cells, or part of a plant such as a
Health piece of stem, leaf etc. can be grown on a nutrient medium under suitably controlled
bonditions in the laboratory. This method is commonly known as tissue culture. It, however,
enables us to get true breeding types without going through the stages of flowering,
production of seeds and their germination. This technique has a great potential in our crop
improvement programmes, and it has already been used in the improvement of varieties of
wheat, rice, com and several other plants. This method is useful not only for the
improvement of present-day crops, but also for the creation of novel plants and new crops,
which are of short duration, high-yielding-type,and resistant to diseases and other adverse
environmental conditions. One of the problems faced by the agricultural scientists engaged
in crop improvement is that the embryos of many new crops developed abort, i.e., they do
not survive in nature. Therefore, one is not able to obtain their adult plants. This difficulty,
however, has been overcome by the application of tissue culture, whereby, these embryos
are grown on a nutrient medium, under controlled conditions in the laborato,g and later
planted in the field. - -.
., ,-*-
In the recent years, another technique known as genetic engineering has held the attention of
theagricultural scientists. It involves the alteration of genetic material of a particular plant,
by the substitution or addition of new genetic material from some other plants. You are
-already familiarwi& tIie'leguminous plants and their nitrogen fixing property. Presently, the
scientists, are trying to transfer this genetic material. that enables legumes to fix nitrogen, to
various economically important plants. If this is achieved, it would be a milestone in
agriculture.
If we apply the principles of biotechnology and raise orchards, the fruit trees will be of
desired, manageable height and form. The fruits will be of uniform size, shape, colour and
weight. They will have the same flavour and nutritional value, andwill ripen at the same
time. This will make harvesting, storage, packing, transport, canning and processing easy.
So far, we have discussed some applications of biotechnology in plant improvement.
Similarly, biotechnology, also offers a wide scope for the improvement of our animal
breeds. The embryo-transfer technology offers great scope to produce pedigree animals on a
mass scale within a short time. For this purpose, a cow of a good breed is induced to
produce many eggs through hormonal treatment. After they are fertilised, the embryos are
taken and planted in healthy cows, known as surrogate mothers. Ultimately we can get
many calves of a superior breed in a short time.
The new vistas opened up by biotechnology have attracted the attention of big business
houses, who have started pouring money into new projects. Some people even apprehend
that multinational companies may soon monopolise 'factory farming' and mass-production
of food articles at prices so cheap that the traditional farmers of developing countries may go
out of competition and become bankrupt. However, with international cooperation,joint
venture and adequate teehnology transfer, biotechnology will prove to be a boon to all
futuristic global agricultural strategies.
SAQ 2
Fill in the blank spaces choosing appropriate word or words from the list provided.
i) One of the foremost problem associated with modem agriculture is that of

ii) It is believed that the agricultural technology used by developed nations is

............. intensive, whereas that of the developing nations is ............
intensive.
iii) The use of. ........... has become an integral component of modem agriculture,
and some of the problems arising due to their excessive usage can be considerably
avoided by using them in combination with the organic . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iv) Various ............ chemicals should be used strictly according to scientific
recommendations, as many of them leave harmful ............ in the environment.
v) We can minimise many difficulties associated with modem agriculture by the use of
............ resources for energy, better .........................
practices and by reducing ............ of all kinds.
vi) In order to make best utilisation of the high production of perishable goods, we must
have adequate facilities for efficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :............... and
............ so that they are readily available to the consumer.
vii) There is not only a need to increase our agricultural ............ but also to
overhaul our. ........... stnrcture and outlook.
viii) All individual villager is unable to organise the ..........................
......................... and ............ of his produce. This however,
can be ensured by certain village ............ which in turn should be connected
to the national grid.
ix) For the plant improvwent programmes, young plantlets can be taised from
......................... or by the use of. . . . . . . . . . . technique.
X) ............ technology, that involves the transplantation of. ........... from a
healthy mother to. ........... mothers, is a faster way of producing several calves
of the same type.

(social, renewable, surrogate, transport, marketing, production, seeds, chemical

fertilisers, wastage, embryos, root stocks, seeds, embryo transfer, storage, processing,
residues, manures, energy, labour, cropping, packaging, transport, tissue culture,
distribution, cooperatives, plant protection, energy, processing)

SUMMARY
Today we are able to profitably use the areas like the arid zones, drylands and hillv
regions for agricultural purposes. This has been possible because of the use of vmeties of
crops and breeds of animals that are most suited for these regions. We can further make
these areas more productive by slight changes in our traditional practices.
A considerable portion of our agricultural lands are affecied by the problem of alkalinity
and salinity of soils. In such soils, salts are present in large enough quantities that they
interfere with crop growth. Alkaline soils can be used as well as improved, by growing
suitable trees, and grasses. Later, alkali-resistant varieties of rice or wheat can be grown.
The key factor in the management of saline soils is drainage. If such lands are well-
drained, saline-resistant varieties of sorghum, maize and wheat can be profitably grown.
Modem agriculture aims at pnxlllcing maximum amount of food with the minimum
amount of time, space and energy. There are number of problems associated with the
present day agriculture. The foremost is that of energy. There is considerable dependence
on our non-renewable resources. These resources being finite, would soon get depleted.
We should, however, achieve our targets of high production by ~~ppl:cation of modern
science to minimise the use of non-renewable materials, using better :ecds and cropping
practices, and by the utilisation of chemical fertilisers and in combination with organic
manures in judicious quantities. The other main prohlenl IS the producrion
output. If it is less, there would be starvation deaths. Excessive output too has other set of
proolems. There is, a need to provide a minimum guarantee price to farmers based on
cost of production. Also, adequate facilities for efficient transportation, processing, and
packaging would help in making the products easily available to the consumers.
Today we have the'know-how. and technology to produce what our country needs, but
still a majority of people do not get food as they lack the purchasing power. A vigorous
employment generation drive can help in improving the situation. Besides that;a chain of
village cooperatives would attend to other problems of farmers such as marketing,
storage and distribution.
Biotechnology is fast emerging as an important discipline that offers new vistas in
agriculture.

20.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) Comment briefly on agriculture in the following special areas:

i) arid zone
.......................................................................
 .......................................................................
ii) drylands

......................................................... U.............

iii) hilly regions

........................................................................

2) Mention in points, the salient problems associated with modem agriculhlre.

........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
3) Thereis a mismatch between man's scientific ability to produce and social incapacity to Scientific Possibilities and
Soeial Realities
utilise'. Analyse the statement.

.........................................................................
........................................................................

4) In what ways can biotechnology play an important part in agriculture?

20.9 ANSWERS.

Self Assessment Questions

1) i) temperature, moisture
ii) early maturing, cold resistant
iii) kikar, mosquite, safeda
iv) water, water management
V) castor, pigeonpea
vi) slash-and-bum, soil
vii) carbonates, bicarbonates
viii) chlorides, sulphates
ix) drainage
X) fodder grasses, tree, gypsum
2) i) energy
ii) energy, labour
iii) chemical fertilisers, manures
iv) plant protection, residues
vj renewable, seeds, cropping, wastage
vi) transport, processing, packaging
vii) production, social
viii) marketing, storage, transport, distribution, processing, cooperatives
 ix) seeds. root stocks, tissue culture
X) embryo transfer, embryos. surrogate

Terminai Questions
1) i) In the arid zones, where the temperatures are low and there is scarcity of water,
those crops that mature faster and can withstand cold are grown. Also, hardy I

animals like goats, camels etc. are reared in-these regions. In places where
temperatures are high, suitable grasses and trees that yield fruits or fuel-wood are
grown. Excellent breeds of cattle. sheep and goats can be reared in such regions.
1'
ii) These areas are dependent on rains for their water supply. The recently developed
techniques for conserving water, make such areas suitable for agriculture. Such
varieties of crops that require less amount of sater are grown here. Crops like
sorghum, sunflower, safflower, mustard, groundnut, cotton and various pulses are
well suited for such areas. Due to the addition of organic matter from the crops,
the water holding capacity of such soils is increased.

iii) For a long time, in some parts of the hilly regions and even today, jhum
cultivation has been the only way of cultivation. This practice, however, has
caused considerable damage to the soil. Presently, a modem system of cultivation
is being practised in many areas, and is proving very useful. Under this system,
the upper mches of hills are devoted to forestry. In the next zone fruit-trees,
grasses and legumes are grown. In the third zone, a mix of crops are raised on
terraces. Provision for storage of water is made. Fish culture, bee-keeping etc.
make it a complete farming system.

2) i) Source of energy presently considerable pressure is on non-renewable resources.

that are feared to run out in the neat future.

ii) Too much mechanisation would no doubt increase production, but would also
result in unemployment and poverty, hence people would lack purchasing power
to buy food.
iii) Much of the technologies and methods used are quite wasteful. Some wastes such
as chemical fertilisers and pesticides build up in the environment causing long
term hannful effects.

iv) Many of the modem technologies can be applied to large fields. But most of our
farmers are small land holders and they cannot benefit from these recent
developments.
V) In developing countries like ours even a 10%increase in production poses
problem of storage, glut in the market and distress sale. The problem becomes
acute, if these are perishable commodities.
I

3) i) Though we have the scientific and technological know-how to produce what

country needs, but most of our people are poor and cannot make use of it. A large
number of people do not have enough money to buy even food.

ii) About 22.7% of our people are agricultural labourers and have no land, and they
have hand to mouth existence.
iii) Facilities for marketing, storage, transport. distribution, processing and customer
service are beyond the capacity of individual farmers more particularly the ones
with small land holdings.

4) Biotechnology can help tremendously in the production of improvcd varieties of plants

and animals. New techniques such as tissue culture, not only enable us to grow novel
plants. but also enables one to mass-produce plants in a shorter time wifhout going
through the steps of flowering, production of seeds, and their germination. By the
application of principles of genetic engineering, plants can be produced with desired
qualities. If we apply biotechnology to raise orchards, the fruits produced will be of
uniform siik, shape. weight etc. This makes their harvesting, storage, packing,
transport, canning and processing easier. The embryo transfer technology would
enable us to produce many copies of a good animal breeds faster.