Kohat University of Science and Technology

Level: MS. Linguistics

Course: Psycholinguistics

Assignment Topic: A Study of Interlanguage Fossilization in Second Language

Learning and Its Implications for Teaching

Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Mansoor Ali

Submitted by: Muhammad Jamshaid

Date of Submission: 31/12/2018

A Study of Interlanguage Fossilization in Second Language Learning and Its
Implications for Teaching

Introduction:
All human beings have the ability to learn a language in normal circumstances. The
circumstances can be both environmental and biological. Whereas acquisition of first language
(L1) is all the time successful, the success of learning Second language (L2) after adolescene
cannot be assured. Even if L2 may be mastered to a proficient level, learner can never attain
native-like competency in it. Jenaro A. Diaz-Ducca (2013)

There are two different views of second language acquisition (SLA). According to mentalist
view, learners acquire L2 in much the same way they acquire L1 because there is an innate
ability for language acquisition. While behaviorist view of SLA maintains that L1 interference
and environmental factors shape acquisition. Paul Butler-Tanaka (2000)

It is a widely held belief that for the majority of L2 learners the process of learning cease before
attaining native-like competence in the target language (TL). It can also happen in circumstances
where conditions for learning stay favorable i.e. the learners has sufficient motivational levels, he
possesses the ability to learn, and continually receive Target language input including corrective
feedback. Christo Moskovsky and Silvia Ratcheva (2014)

The idea of fossilization was first proposed by Selinker in 1972 in the paper Interlanguage. He
was of the observation that most of the L2 learners fail to achieve competence like that of native
speakers. Zhao Hong Han (2004). Selinker (1972) defined fossilization as the permanent stop of
Interlanguage learning before the learner attain TL norms at every level of linguistic structure
and in every discourse domains despite the learners’ motivation, positive ability or acculturation
into target language. (Selinker & Lamendella, 1978 as cited in Christo Moskovsky and Silvia
Ratcheva (2014))

While learning a language, L2 learners create a type of language that is dissimilar from both L1
and TL. It is assumed that the learners generate a unique and new system out of their available
linguistic data which is called Interlanguage (IL). IL can be observed as a continuum which is
made of L1 and L2 at either end, and the learners travel along this continuum while learning L2.
Zhaleh Ghasemi, (2003). According to Tollefson and Firn (1983 as cited in Zhaleh Ghasemi,
2003) all adult L2 learners fail in achieving native-like competency and tend to fossilize
somewhere along this continuum.

Second language acquisition’s researchers make a distinction between fossilization as process

and fossilization as product. Fossilization maybe viewed as product when it is defined in terms of
the second language learning grammar which contains deviant forms. Fossilization as process
deals with the mechanisms that produce a stop in SLA. The factors involved may be lack of self-
correction and self-monitoring, influence of first language and failure to attend to input. SLA
researchers also make distinction between fossilization at the level of performance and at the
level of knowledge. At the knowledge level, the learners are not able to reorganize or add
something to their knowledge. At the performance level, the speech production process becomes
automatized, and that well-rehearsed forms emerge in speech. Zhaleh Ghasemi, (2003)

Interlanguage fossilization is an inevitable and widely-present phenomenon in the course of

learning English in our country, which arouse the attention of language learners and educators.
This paper will introduce and classify fossilization and will try to find chief causes and suggest
some teaching methods to reduce its negative effects.

Literature Review:
Maryna Roodt (2017) conducted a quantitative study on Interlanguage fossilization from South
African perspective in which students had to do a grammatically judgment task. She included
various items in test including pluralisation, articles, present progressive tense, wrong
pronunciation which leads to wrong spelling, and redundant constructions. The results indicated
that these aspects of the learners’ Interlanguage appear to have fossilized. The reason can be
historical segregation in South Africa because most of the learners’ come from school where
they had not been taught by native or competent English speakers.

Zia Tajeddin and Maryam Sadat Tabatabaeian (2017) carried out a study aiming to explore the
effects of noticing on fossilization. They utilized a mix-method approach. They selected sixty
Persian English learners to perform three spoken and two written tasks twice. The errors in both
performances were observed, classified and counted. Three main categories named lexical errors,
cohesive errors and grammatical errors were identified. Most of the errors were categorized in
grammatical errors. When investigation was made regarding learners’ ability in noticing their
errors, it was discovered that they could notice 37.4 % of their fossilized forms. Noticing has an
impact on the number of produced errors. If one become aware of his/her fossilized forms,
he/she will make fever fossilized forms.

Christo Moskovsky and Silvia Ratcheva (2014) conducted a study examining the question if
fossilization take place as a result of processing constraints or is a function of competence
deficiencies. They collected longitudinal data from an adult L2 learner of English. Error analysis
showed features of fossilization. Next the researchers administered a task to judge the subject’s
intuitions about the use of English article, alongside administering the same task to eight native
speakers. The analysis of the data depicted a mismatch between native speakers’ intuition and
the subject’s about article usage, which suggest that fossilization is a competence phenomenon.

Hulin Ren (2013) investigated the role of social factors that might influence the fossilization of
L2 learners’ Interlanguage. He concluded that social factors provide setting for L2 learning, and
thus has an influence on fossilization of learners’ second language acquisition. Social factors
variables i.e. sex, age, gender, ethnic identity and social class have a direct influence on the
motivation, attitudes and proficiency of L2 learners.
Jinan Wang (2011) conducted a qualitative study on the impacts of L2 classroom instruction on
Interlanguage fossilization. He concluded that fossilization is an unavoidable process in adult L2
learning. It needs attention from both educators and researchers. The discussion reveals that the
context of language learning also influences L2 learning. Learners will fossilize certain language
phenomena, if the teaching materials are not realistic or teachers explain them wrongly and ask
them to drill. Similarly, if the teaching materials put more emphasis on some parts while
ignoring others, they will be fossilized.

Zaleh Ghasemi, B.A. (2003) conducted a study on fossilization and the role of attention in adult
L2 learning. He founded that attention is a necessary thing for achieving higher accuracy.
Accuracy can be improved through attention when it is accompanied by good circumstances
such as familiarity with the subject, planning, discourse cohesion, no time pressure, and low
cognitive load. The study demonstrate that fossilization occur at the level of performance rather
at the level of competence.

Classification of Fossilization

Individual fossilization and group fossilization:

There are two types of IL fossilization according to Selinker (1978). They are group fossilization and
individual fossilization. Individual fossilization can further be categorized into two types: language
competence fossilization and error reappearance. Error reappearance refers to the improper IL structures
that persist to appear recurrently. It may originate in IL of beginners or those learners who have low
proficiency. Language competence fossilization indicates plateau in the improvement of second language
learners’ grammatical, phonological, pragmatic and lexical competence.

Group fossilization comes into existence when fossilized language competence gets persistent in a
community. Such persistence frequently results in the development of a new dialect e.g. Singapore
English and Indian English. Xueping Wei (2008)

Permanent fossilization and Temporary Fossilization

Fossilization has also been classified as permanent fossilization and temporary fossilization. Temporary
fossilization or stabilization signifies that the improvement of given target language feature are arrested
for shorter or maybe longer periods of time. Permanent fossilization occurs as a result of psychological,
interactive and social variables. Xueping Wei (2008)

Types of Fossilization:

Phonological fossilization: Different languages have different phonological systems. The

inaccurate acquisition of pronunciation of second language results in phonological fossilization
which is the repetition of phonological errors. There are particular pronunciations in English
which do not occur in other languages. For example, the sound () could not be found in chinese
so it is very hard for them to pronounce it. They are frequently heard to say “Thank (snk) you’’
instead of “ Thank () you”. Phonological fossilization occurs when errors like these are made
time and again and stay firm in the wrong manner. Xueping Wei (2008)

Morphological fossilization:

English language has got various grammatical morphemes. Inflectional morpheme, use of
preposition and article are the most common problems faced by L2 learners. Since many
linguistics phenomena do not exist in other languages, it leads students to misuse the form or
forget the transformation. The use of articles and prepositions are a headache for students. For
many learners even those with relatively high proficiency, it stays a mystery when and where to
put which preposition or article. Xueping Wei (2008)

Syntactic fossilization: Since different languages posses their different syntactic rules. The
higjly common syntactic fossilization which is faced by L2 learners is in tenses. It requires a lot
of time for L2 learners to choose the proper kind of tense. In various situations when they are
unable to make apparent distinction, they take help form their instinct and thus fossilization
occurs. Xueping Wei (2008)

Semantic Fossilization: It indicates incorrect use of target language forms that do not stand for
the meaning second language learners aim to convey in the context. For instance, the word
dragon is the symbol of power in china but represent evil in the western culture. Xueping Wei
(2008)

Pragmatic fossilization: As there is a close resemblence between semantics and pragmatics,

fossilization in these two is overlapping and interrelated. A pragmatic failure indicates the lack
of ability to comprehend what was meant by what was uttered. When language is used
inappropriately, it may cause embarrassment, misunderstanding, and even insult. Xueping Wei
(2008)

Major causes of Interlanguage Fossilization

According to Selinker, rules, items and subsystems in Interlanguage performance can be fossilized by the
way of the following processes, the combination of which creates completely fossilized Interlanguage
competence. These five processes are strategies of second language learning, language transfer, strategies
of second language communication, transfer of training, and overgeneralization of target language
linguistic material. (Ellis,1999 ).

1) Transfer of Language
According to Selinker (1972), various language rules in the learners’ Interlanguage are shifted
from his first language. The errors in the practice of second language occurs primarily form first
language, and the rationale for the occurrence of errors is the difference between the two
languages. That is reason the transfer of first language rules may lead to fossilization. Xueping
Wei (2008)
 Learners’ L1 may interfere in various areas mainly in pronunciation and structure. Thus L2
language competence becomes unchangeable and fossilization occurs.
2) Transfer of Training
Graham (1981) proposed that absence of formal instruction in English is the chief cause for
fossilization of inaccurate language forms. He claimed that L2 learning mere by contact leads to
Interlanguage with rules widely different from Standard English. Vallette (1991) declared
a distinction between school learners and street learners. Street learners had widespread
opportunity to communicate with incorrect syntactic patterns and lexical forms. Consequently,
these errors become systematized and it is not possible to root out them. Street learners never
correct themselves, nor do they are corrected. Inappropriate teaching methods can also be the
cause of fossilized Interlanguage. Xueping Wei (2008)
3) Strategy of Learning: The most common cause of IL fossilization is the adoption of inaccurate
learning strategies which may affect various features such as morphological, phonological,
lexical, socio-cultural, psycholinguistic, and lexical. If learning strategies are applied
appropriately, it may help in processing target language input and thus can improve the quality of
L2 learning. However, various learners may adopt inappropriate learning strategies such as
simplification, overgeneralization, insufficient declarative knowledge of L2 and incomplete rule
application. Sims (1989) proposed that the use of unsuccessful strategies repeatedly might hinder
a learners’ progress. Xueping Wei (2008)
4) Strategy of Communication: Communication strategy is a systematic skill that a speaker uses
when he/she faces difficulty in expression in order to maintain the communication channel open.
Unluckily, often such communication strategies will thwart acquisition. Also, the L2 learner
attempts to simplify the TL grammatical rules, for example, the use of plural forms, use of tenses
and articles etc. If the learner is neglecting the accuracy and paying much attention to the fluency,
many language errors are prone to be fossilized. Xueping Wei (2008)
5) Overgeneralization: According to Ellis (2000), include the use of prevailing second language
knowledge by expanding to new Interlanguage forms. It occurs when L2 learners apply a rule of
grammar across all areas of language without making the suitable exceptions. It indicates the
incomprehension of rule restrictions, involving lexical and semantic restrictions and others. For
example, when the learner use the -ed suffix in order to indicate past tense of verbs like “eat” and
“write”. Overgeneralization is significant in L2 learning because it result in failure in finding the
errors for L2 learners. Xueping Wei (2008)

Other Factors:

(1) Learners’ age: It has been proved that the age of L2 learners can greatly affect L2 acquisition.
Language can be quickly and effectively acquired during the critical period. After that period, L2
learning becomes difficult which may lead to fossilization. Hongping Chen, Bo Zhao (2013)
(2) Learners’ motivation: In L2 learning, learners are influenced by various emotional factors such
as self-confidence, anxiety, and motivation. If these factors negatively influence the L2 learner,
fossilization will result in the early stage of learning. Hongping Chen, Bo Zhao (2013)
(3) Scarcity of learning opportunity: If L2 learner is unable to get enough opportunity for
language input and contact, it can lead to fossilization. Hongping Chen, Bo Zhao (2013)
 (4) Lack of instruction, absence of corrective feedback, lack of written input, false
automatization, end of sensitivity of language data

Implications:

Reduction of Fossilization

1) Adopting appropriate learning strategies: Successful L2 learners use strategies more often
such as for vocabulary learning, memory strategies are adopted. These learners pay attention to
form and meaning both. They deal with language as a system and make successful cross-lingual
comparisons and analyze the target language. Various strategies can contribute to various aspect
of second language proficiency. Strategies involving formal practice can play a role in the
promotion of linguistic competence, while strategies which involve functional practice may help
in the progression of communicative competence. Second language learners are required to select
appropriate strategies for conducting a particular learning task. Xueping Wei (2008)
2) Reducing negative transfer of first language: In the beginning, L2 learners do not have
sufficient knowledge of the TL, as a result they rely on their L1. Krashen (1983) proposed that
the L2 learners should not use the TL too early until their oral competence is assisted with enough
input so that they do not have to rely on their L1 to forms structures. Otherwise, it will cause
some incorrect expression to fossilize. Corder (1978) highlighted that the learners’ L1 present
various hypotheses about the TL but the only way to lessen the negative effects of L1 is through
abundant input of L2. As context is much significant in mastering vocabulary, L2 learners should
not made to read articles/ paragraphs and to examine the usage of words or the grammar in each
sentence. Xueping Wei (2008)
3) Exposure to target language and target language culture: It has been proposed that L2
learners should be exposed to target language in natural setting as it will help them in overcoming
fossilization. One way to do this is to allow them to stay abroad for a period of time in native
environment. However, this is impossible for majority of second language learners, they should
try other ways. The learners should use multimedia instruments most frequently because it
reflects target culture and standard pronunciation. Furthermore, L2 learners should adopt original
texts written by native authors. The expression and way of thinking will help second language
learners in better understanding and mastering the TL. Xueping Wei (2008)

Teaching Implications: It is important to discuss how to avoid/ reduce fossilization in L2

teaching.

(1) Choosing suitable learning strategies: It is of crucial importance that learners adopt
appropriate learning strategies which will help them in discovering their own deficiencies
and they will be able to make huge progress in improving L2 competence. Hongping
Chen, Bo Zhao (2013)
 (2) Designing suitable teaching strategies: For preventing IL fossilization, teachers must
adopt the corresponding teaching strategies in various phases of L2 learning according to
their students. For instance, at the initial stage of L2 learners should be guided to pay
attention to the various features of TL and strive for accuracy. Teachers need to
encourage advanced L2 learners to make use of novel and advanced expressions. In the
process, teachers must acquaint the learners with the TL society and culture. In this way,
fossilization may be reduced to a great extent. Hongping Chen, Bo Zhao (2013)

Conclusions:
Fossilization has significant influence in L2 learning and it is an inevitable state. In all aspects of
language, we should strive to solve fossilization problems through research and by giving it proper
attention in L2 teaching. This is the only way to improve the level of learning and teaching.

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