RELAY-

A relay is an electrically operated switch. It is used for light loads. A simple electromagnetic relay
consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core, an iron yoke which provides a
low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts
(there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked
to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-
energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit.
When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates the
armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks
(depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed
when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the
connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off,
the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its
relaxed position.
It has an NO (Normally Open) AND an NC (Normally Closed) contact arrangement. When the
power supply is flown through its power supply terminals, an electro-magnetic coil gets energized
and the electromagnet attracts the common contact which turns the NO arrangement into NC and
the NC arrangement is automatically turned into NO.
This position remains in the same condition till the power supply is removed from the power
supply terminal of the electromagnet. The main application of relay is to provide continuous power
supply to the load or output.

Relay coil
Relay: Internal structure
Using relays, we can perform different configurations of logics such as Inching, Holding, Locking,
Interlocking etc.
Contactor-

A contactor is an electrically controlled switch used for switching a power circuit, similar to
a relay except with higher current ratings. A contactor is controlled by a circuit which has a much
lower power level than the switched circuit. It is used for heavy loads.

Contactors come in many forms with varying capacities and features. Unlike a circuit breaker, a
contactor is not intended to interrupt a short circuit current. The physical size of contactors ranges
from a device small enough to pick up with one hand, to large devices approximately a meter on a
side.

Contactors are used to control electric motors, lighting, heating, capacitor banks, thermal
evaporators, and other electrical loads.
A contactor has three components. The contacts are the current carrying part of the contactor.
This includes power contacts, auxiliary contacts, and contact springs. The electromagnet (or
"coil") provides the driving force to close the contacts. The enclosure is a frame housing the
contact and the electromagnet. Enclosures are made of insulating materials like Bakelite, Nylon 6,
and thermosetting plastics to protect and insulate the contacts and to provide some measure of
protection against personnel touching the contacts. Open-frame contactors may have a further
enclosure to protect against dust, oil, explosion hazards and weather.
A basic contactor will have a coil input. The coil may be energized at the same voltage as a
motor the contactor is controlling, or may be separately controlled with a lower coil voltage better
suited to control by programmable controllers and lower-voltage pilot devices. Certain contactors
have series coils connected in the motor circuit; these are used, for example, for automatic
acceleration control, where the next stage of resistance is not cut out until the motor current has
dropped.

Unlike general-purpose relays, contactors are designed to be directly connected to high-current

load devices. Relays tend to be of lower capacity and are usually designed for both normally
closed and normally open applications. Devices switching more than 15 amperes or in circuits
rated more than a few kilowatts are usually called contactors. Apart from optional auxiliary low
current contacts, contactors are almost exclusively fitted with normally open contacts. Unlike
relays, contactors are designed with features to control and suppress the arc produced when
interrupting heavy motor currents.

When current passes through the electromagnet, a magnetic field is produced, which attracts the
moving core of the contactor. The electromagnet coil draws more current initially, until
its inductance increases when the metal core enters the coil. The moving contact is propelled by
the moving core; the force developed by the electromagnet holds the moving and fixed contacts
together. When the contactor coil is de-energized, gravity or a spring returns the electromagnet
core to its initial position and opens the contacts.

For contactors energized with alternating current, a small part of the core is surrounded with a
shading coil, which slightly delays the magnetic flux in the core. The effect is to average out the
alternating pull of the magnetic field and so prevent the core from buzzing at twice line frequency.

Because arcing and consequent damage occurs just as the contacts are opening or closing,
contactors are designed to open and close very rapidly; there is often an internal tipping point
mechanism to ensure rapid action.
We can use a normal contactor for either single phase power supply or for three phase power
supply.
For single phase power supply, the coil gets single phase power supply to energize and the power
supply passing through it is also a single phase supply.
For a load to be operated on three phase power supply, we pass the three phase power supply
from its three phase terminal and the coil is energized by single phase power supply.
 Connecting three phase motor with contactor.
MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)-
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical
circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault
condition and interrupt current flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be
replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in
varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to
large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.

Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the circuit;
some mechanically-stored energy (using springs or compressed air) contained within the breaker
is used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy required may be obtained from the
fault current itself. Small circuit breakers may be manually operated, larger units have solenoids to
trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs.

The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must also
withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting (opening) the circuit. Contacts are made
of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys and other highly conductive materials. Service life of the
contacts is limited by the erosion of contact material due to arcing while interrupting the current.
Miniature and molded-case circuit breakers are usually discarded when the contacts have worn,
but power circuit breakers and high-voltage circuit breakers have replaceable contacts.
 Cross-Sectional Cut of a MCB
ELCB (Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker)-
An Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker is a safety device used in electrical installations with high earth
impedance to prevent shock. It detects small stray voltages on the metal enclosures of electrical
equipment, and interrupts the circuit if a dangerous voltage is detected. The main purpose of
earth leakage protectors is to prevent injury to humans and animals due to electric shock.

An ELCB is a specialized type of latching relay that has a building's incoming mains power
connected through its switching contacts so that the ELCB disconnects the power in an earth
leakage (unsafe) condition.

The ELCB detects fault currents from live to the earth (ground) wire within the installation it
protects. If sufficient voltage appears across the ELCB's sense coil, it will switch off the power,
and remain off until manually reset. A voltage-sensing ELCB does not sense fault currents from
live to any other earthed body.
 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
OLR (Overload Relay)-
Thermal overload relays are protective devices. They are designed to cut power if the motor
draws too much current for an extended period of time. To accomplish this, thermal overload
relays contain a normally closed (NC) relay. When excessive current flows through the motor
circuit, the relay opens due to increased motor temperature, relay temperature, or sensed
overload current, depending on the relay type.
Thermal overload relays are similar to circuit breakers in construction and use, but most circuit
breakers differ in that they interrupt the circuit if overload occurs even for an instant. Thermal
overload relays are conversely designed to measure a motor's heating profile; therefore, overload
must occur for an extended period before the circuit is interrupted.
ELECTRIC MOTOR-
Electric motor is an electric machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motor's magnetic
field and winding currents to generate force within the motor. In certain applications, such as in
the transportation industry with traction motors, electric motors can operate in both motoring
and generating or braking modes to also produce electrical energy from mechanical energy.

In applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household
appliances, power tools, and disk drives, electric motors can be powered by direct current
(DC) sources, such as from batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers, or by alternating current
(AC) sources, such as from the power grid, inverters or generators. Small motors may be found in
electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and
characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use. The largest of electric
motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with
ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type,
internal construction, application, type of motion output, and so on.

Devices such as magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers that convert electricity into motion but do
not generate usable mechanical power are respectively referred to as actuators and transducers.
Electric motors are used to produce linear force or torque.

AC MOTOR-

It commonly consists of two basic parts, an outside stationary stator having coils supplied with
alternating current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and an inside rotor attached to the output
shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field.

There are two main types of AC motors, depending on the type of rotor used. The first type is
the induction motor or asynchronous motor; this type relies on a small difference in speed
between the rotating magnetic field and the rotor to induce rotor current. The second type is
the synchronous motor, which does not rely on induction and as a result can rotate exactly at the
supply frequency or a sub-multiple of the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor is
either generated by current delivered through slip rings or by a permanent magnet. Other types of
motors include eddy current motors, and also AC/DC mechanically commutated machines in
which speed is dependent on voltage and winding connection.
There are many types of single phase motors depending upon their speed, controlling and
construction.
THREE PHASE AC MOTOR-
Three phase electric motors are heavy motors which operate on three phase power supply. These
motors are used in a number of industrial applications. Three phase motors are also categorized
in various types according to its different types.
MOTOR STARTERS-
Some heavy motors require extra power supply to start because the motor has to change its
position from static to dynamic. Initially the motor remains in static condition when power supply is
not fed to it. The moment when we feed the power supply to the motor, its winding gets energized
and the magnetic field is generated to give the starting torque to the motor. Initially the
requirement of power supply is more than the supply needed to run.
Starters are the arrangement to supply the more power initially which is required for the motor to
gain starting torque. Basically this extra amount of energy is consumed in turning the static state
of the motor into dynamic state.
In single phase motors which require starters, a capacitor is used as a common starter. The
easiest example of this is ceiling fan. Ceiling fans are single phase induction motors. By adding a
capacitor with it, the starting torque is produced easily and the motor starts.

Capacitor as starter
Three types of starters are used for three phase motors as starters.
a. Direct Online Starter
b. Star Delta Starter
c. Autotransformer Starter

a. Direct Online (DOL) Starters- ( Maximum Load- 8 HP)

DOL starters have a maximum start current and maximum start torque. The Direct on Line Motor
Starter (DOL) consist a MCCB or Circuit Breaker, Contactor and an overload relay for protection.
Electromagnetic contactor which can be opened by the thermal overload relay under fault
conditions. The contactor will be controlled by separate start and stop buttons, and an auxiliary
contact on the contactor is used, across the start button, as a hold in contact. I.e. the contactor is
electrically latched closed while the motor is operating.
To start, the contactor is closed, applying full line voltage to the motor windings. The motor
will draw a very high inrush current for a very short time, the magnetic field in the iron, and
then the current will be limited to the Locked Rotor Current of the motor. The motor will
develop Locked Rotor Torque and begin to accelerate towards full speed.

As the motor accelerates, the current will begin to drop, but will not drop significantly until
the motor is at a high speed, typically about 85% of synchronous speed. The actual
starting current curve is a function of the motor design, and the terminal voltage, and is
totally independent of the motor load.

The motor load will affect the time taken for the motor to accelerate to full speed and
therefore the duration of the high starting current, but not the magnitude of the starting
current.

Provided the torque developed by the motor exceeds the load torque at all speeds during
the start cycle, the motor will reach full speed. If the torque delivered by the motor is less
than the torque of the load at any speed during the start cycle, the motor will stops
accelerating. If the starting torque with a DOL starter is insufficient for the load, the motor
must be replaced with a motor which can develop a higher starting torque.
The acceleration torque is the torque developed by the motor minus the load torque, and
will change as the motor accelerates due to the motor speed torque curve and the load
speed torque curve. The start time is dependent on the acceleration torque and the load
inertia.

Direct Online starter

b. Star-Delta starter- (Load ranges between 8 and 80 HP)

Most induction motors are started directly on line, but when very large motors are started
that way, they cause a disturbance of voltage on the supply lines due to large starting
current surges. To limit the starting current surge, large induction motors are started at
reduced voltage and then have full supply voltage reconnected when they run up to near
rotated speed. Two methods are used for reduction of starting voltage are star delta
starting and auto transformer stating.

This is the reduced voltage starting method. Voltage reduction during star-delta starting is
achieved by physically reconfiguring the motor windings as illustrated in the figure below.
During starting the motor windings are connected in star configuration and this reduces the
voltage across each winding 3. This also reduces the torque by a factor of three. After a
period of time the winding are reconfigured as delta and the motor runs normally.

Star/Delta starters are probably the most common reduced voltage starters. They are used
in an attempt to reduce the start current applied to the motor during start as a means of
reducing the disturbances and interference on the electrical supply.

Traditionally in many supply regions, there has been a requirement to fit a reduced voltage
starter on all motors greater than 5HP (4KW). The Star/Delta (or Wye/Delta) starter is one
of the lowest cost electromechanical reduced voltage starters that can be applied.

The Star/Delta starter is manufactured from three contactors, a timer and a thermal
overload. The contactors are smaller than the single contactor used in a Direct on Line
starter as they are controlling winding currents only. The currents through the winding are
1/root 3 (58%) of the current in the line.

There are two contactors that are close during run, often referred to as the main contractor
and the delta contactor. These are AC3 rated at 58% of the current rating of the motor.
The third contactor is the star contactor and that only carries star current while the motor is
connected in star. The current in star is one third of the current in delta, so this contactor
can be AC3 rated at one third (33%) of the motor rating.
 Star Delta Power Circuit Diagram

c. Autotransformer Starter-

An auto-transformer starter makes it possible to start squirrel-cage induction motors with

reduced starting current, as the voltage across the motor is reduced during starting.

In contrast to the star-delta connection, only three motor leads and terminals are required.
On starting, the motor is connected to the tappings of the auto-transformer; transformer
contactor K2M and star contactor K1M are closed.

Depending on the tapping and starting current ratio of the motor, the starting current lies
at (1 … 5). In contrast, the motor torque falls with the square of the voltage across the
windings. Auto-transformers usually have three available taps in each phase (for example 80
%, 65 %, 50 %), so that the motor starting characteristic can be adjusted to the load
conditions.
If the motor has reached 80 … 95 % of its rated speed (depending on the desired reduction
of the current surge after switching-over), the star contactor K1M on the transformer is
opened.
Now the transformer part-windings act as chokes. The motor voltage is only reduced by the
chokes below the supply voltage and the motor speed does not fall. The main contactor K3M
closes via auxiliary contacts of the star contactor and applies the full supply voltage to the
motor.
For its part, the main contactor K3M drops out the transformer contactor K2M.

Autotransformer Starter
SENSORS
What is a Sensor?

A sensor is a device that detects events or changes in quantities and provides a

corresponding output, generally as an electrical or optical signal; for example,
a thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage. But a mercury-in-glass
thermometer is also a sensor; it converts the measured temperature into expansion and
contraction of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass tube.

A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the input
quantity being measured changes. For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves
1 cm when the temperature changes by 1 °C, the sensitivity is 1 cm/°C (it is basically the
slope Dy/Dx assuming a linear characteristic). Some sensors can also have an impact on
what they measure; for instance, a room temperature thermometer inserted into a hot cup
of liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats the thermometer. Sensors need to be
designed to have a small effect on what is measured; making the sensor smaller often
improves this and may introduce other advantages.

Classification of sensors-

Sensors are classified in various types on the basis of their property, power supply,
material used, primary input quality and their application.

Classification based on property-

1. Temperature- Thermistors, thermocouples, RTD’s, Pyrometers, etc.
2. Pressure - Fibre optic, vacuum, elastic liquid based manometers, LVDT.
3. Flow - Electromagnetic, differential pressure, positional displacement, thermal mass,
etc.
4. Level Sensors - Differential pressure, ultrasonic radio frequency, radar, thermal
displacement, etc.
5. Proximity and displacement - LVDT, photoelectric, capacitive, magnetic, ultrasonic.
6. Biosensors - Resonant mirror, electrochemical, surface Plasmon resonance, Light
addressable potentiometric.
7. Image - Charge coupled devices, CMOS.
8. Gas and chemical - Semiconductor, Infrared, Conductance, Electrochemical.
9. Acceleration - Gyroscopes, Accelerometers.
10. Others - Moisture, humidity sensor, Speed sensor, mass, Tilt sensor, force, viscosity.

Classification based on Application-

1. Industrial process control, measurement and automation.
2. Non-industrial use – Aircraft, Medical products, Automobiles, Consumer electronics,
other type of sensors.

Classification based on power or energy supply-

Active Sensor - Sensors that require power supply are called as Active Sensors. Example:
LiDAR (Light detection and ranging), photoconductive cell.

Passive Sensor - Sensors that do not require power supply are called as Passive Sensors.
Example: Radiometers, film photography.

1. Temperature Sensors-
This device collects information about temperature from a source and converts into a
form that is understandable by other device or person. The best illustration of a
temperature sensor is mercury in glass thermometer. The mercury in the glass
expands and contracts depending on the alterations in temperature. The outside
temperature is the source element for the temperature measurement. The position of
the mercury is observed by the viewer to measure the temperature. There are two
basic types of temperature sensors.

Contact Sensors – This type of sensor requires direct physical contact with the object
or media that is being sensed. They supervise the temperature of solids, liquids and
gases over a wide range of temperatures.

Non-contact Sensors – This type of sensor does not require any physical contact with
the object or media that is being sensed. They supervise non-reflective solids and liquids
but are not useful for gases due to natural transparency. These sensors use Plank’s Law
to measure temperature. This law deals with the heat radiated from the source of heat
to measure the temperature.

a. Thermocouple-

Thermocouple, an electrical device that responds to a difference in temperature by

producing an electric current. Thermocouples are used as measuring instruments and
as control devices. Thermocouples are simple and rugged, can be used over a wide
range of temperatures (from -200° C. to 1,600° C.), and permit great precision. For
these reasons thermocouples are used to measure temperatures inside furnaces and
jet engines and in laboratory experiments. In some gas appliances, thermocouples are
used as safety switches to control the gas supply.
The thermocouple is based on the Seebeck effect, named after its discoverer, Thomas
J. Seebeck. In its simplest form, the thermocouple consists of two wires of dissimilar
metals or alloys joined at their ends, with a potentiometer (or a voltmeter) connected in
one side of the circuit. The diagram shows such a thermocouple using wires of iron
and constantan (an alloy of 60 per cent copper and 40 per cent nickel).

The measuring junction is placed in the environment whose temperature is to be

measured. For precision work, the reference junction is kept at a fixed, known
temperature (for example, by being placed in an ice bath). If great precision is not
required, the reference junction may be left at room temperature, which is known only
approximately. The potential difference between the two junctions, as shown by the
potentiometer or voltmeter, is used to find the temperature of the heated junction,
usually from a table in a handbook.

When used as a control device in a gas appliance, the thermocouple is mounted so

that its measuring junction is heated by a pilot light. The electric current generated is
sent through an electromagnet. As long as the current flows, the electromagnet holds
open a valve that allows gas to reach the appliance. If the pilot light goes out, the
measuring junction cools off, no current flows, and the electromagnet releases the
valve, shutting off the gas.

A number of thermocouples connected in series make up a thermopile. Thermopiles

are more sensitive than individual thermocouples (some thermopiles can measure
temperature differences as small as a millionth of a degree). Thermopiles are used for
measuring the temperature of radiation from stars, for detecting the amount of heat
produced by living tissues, and in other situations where highly sensitive temperature-
measuring devices are required.
 Seebeck Effect

b. Thermistor-
Thermistors are thermally sensitive resistors whose prime function is to exhibit a large,
predictable and precise change in electrical resistance when subjected to a
corresponding change in body temperature. Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC)
thermistors exhibit a decrease in electrical resistance when subjected to an increase in
body temperature and Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) thermistors exhibit an
increase in electrical resistance when subjected to an increase in body temperature.
Most of Sensor produces thermistors capable of operating over the temperature range
of -100° to over +600° Fahrenheit. Because of their very predictable characteristics
and their excellent long term stability, thermistors are generally accepted to be the
most advantageous sensor for many applications including temperature measurement
and control.
A thermistor's change in electrical resistance due to a corresponding temperature
change is evident whether the thermistor's body temperature is changed as a result of
conduction or radiation from the surrounding environment or due to "self-heating"
brought about by power dissipation within the device.

When a thermistor is used in a circuit where the power dissipated within the device is
not sufficient to cause "self-heating", the thermistor's body temperature will follow that
of the environment. Thermistors are not "self-heated" for use in applications such as
temperature measurement, temperature control or temperature compensation.
When a thermistor is used in a circuit where the power dissipated within the device is
sufficient to cause "self-heating", the thermistor's body temperature will be dependent
upon the thermal conductivity of its environment as well as its temperature.
Thermistors are "self-heated" for use in application such as liquid level detection, air
flow detection and thermal conductivity measurement.

c. RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)-

An RTD is a temperature sensor which measures temperature using the principle

that the resistance of a metal changes with temperature. In practice, an electrical
current is transmitted through a piece of metal (the RTD element or resistor)
located in proximity to the area where temperature is to be measured. The
resistance value of the RTD element is then measured by an instrument. This
resistance value is then correlated to temperature based upon the known
resistance characteristics of the RTD element.

RTDs work on a basic correlation between metals and temperature. As the

temperature of a metal increases, the metal's resistance to the flow of electricity
increases. Similarly, as the temperature of the RTD resistance element increases,
the electrical resistance, measured in ohms (Ω), increases. RTD elements are
commonly specified according to their resistance in ohms at zero degrees Celsius
(0° C). The most common RTD specification is 100 Ω, which means that at 0° C
the RTD element should demonstrate 100 Ω of resistance.

Platinum is the most commonly used metal for RTD elements due to a number of
factors, including its (1) chemical inertness, (2) nearly linear temperature versus
resistance relationship, (3) temperature coefficient of resistance that is large
enough to give readily measurable resistance changes with temperature and (4)
stability (in that its temperature resistance does not drastically change with time).

Other metals that are less frequently used as the resistor elements in an RTD
include nickel and copper.

RTD elements are typically in one of three configurations: (1) a platinum or metal
glass slurry film deposited or screened onto a small flat ceramic substrate known
as "thin film" RTD elements, and (2) platinum or metal wire wound on a glass or
ceramic bobbin and sealed with a coating of molten glass known as "wire wound"
RTD elements. (3) A partially supported wound element which is a small coil of
wire inserted into a hole in a ceramic insulator and attached along one side of that
hole. Of the three RTD elements, the thin film is most rugged and has become
increasingly more accurate over time.

Pressure Sensors-
Pressure sensors are usually used to sense the pressure of either liquid or gas
materials in the industry. There are three types of pressure measurement and
depending upon the types of measurement the sensors are also of three types.

1. Absolute Pressure Measurement: Pressure measured relative to

perfect vacuum is termed as absolute pressure. Perfect vacuum is a condition
where there is no matter present in the atmosphere and hence, nil air pressure
exists in that region. Absolute pressure sensors have limited usage because it
is impossible to attain a state of perfect vacuum. Hence, sensors based on
absolute pressure measurement require strict specifications for precise
outputs. Sensors based on this type of measurement are used in barometric
or altitude related pressure measurements.

2. Differential Pressure Measurement: In differential pressure

measurement, pressures of two distinct positions are compared. For example,
pressure difference calculated by measuring it at different floors of a tall
building will give us differential pressure. Differential pressure measurements,
typically taken in pound per square inch differential (psid), are applied when
high amount of pressure is to be measured. These types of measurements are
used for feed pressure monitoring purposes where the pressure with which the
fluid is flowing in a medium is monitored, so that homogeneity in the flow can
be maintained.
Differential pressure measurements find an important application in monitoring
filters in various types of purification systems. They take the reference of the
normal pressure with which the filters clean the fluid. Whenever the filters face
the problem of clogging due to contaminants, these pressure sensors give a
reading relative to the normal pressure. This helps in keeping the filter clean
and operational.

3. Gauge Pressure Measurement: It can be defined as a subtype of

differential pressure measurement where we compare pressure at any point to
the current atmospheric pressure. Gauge pressure measurement is used in
applications like tire pressure or blood pressure measurement. There is no
consistency in gauge pressure measurements because atmospheric pressure
does vary with altitude and hence its applications are limited to non-critical
measurements.

Pressure Sensor Diagram

Infra-Red Sensor-

An infrared sensor is an electronic device that emits and/or detects infrared

radiation in order to sense some aspect of its surroundings. Infrared sensors can
measure the heat of an object, as well as detect motion. Many of these types of
sensors only measure infrared radiation, rather than emitting it, and thus are known
as passive infrared (PIR) sensors.

All objects emit some form of thermal radiation, usually in the infrared spectrum. This
radiation is invisible to our eyes, but can be detected by an infrared sensor that
accepts and interprets it. In a typical infrared sensor like a motion detector, radiation
enters the front and reaches the sensor itself at the center of the device. This part
may be composed of more than one individual sensor, each of them being made
from pyro electric materials, whether natural or artificial. These are materials that
generate an electrical voltage when heated or cooled.

These pyro electric materials are integrated into a small circuit board. They are wired
in such a way so that when the sensor detects an increase in the heat of a small part
of its field of view, it will trigger the motion detector's alarm. It is very common for an
infrared sensor to be integrated into motion detectors like those used as part of a
residential or commercial security system.

An infrared sensor can be thought of as a camera that briefly remembers how an

area's infrared radiation appears. A sudden change in one area of the field of view,
especially one that moves, will change the way electricity goes from the pyroelectric
materials through the rest of the circuit. This will trigger the motion detector to
activate an alarm. If the whole field of view changes temperature, this will not trigger
the device. This makes it so that sudden flashes of light and natural changes in
temperature do not activate the sensor and cause false alarms.

Infrared Sensor Operation

Infrared motion detectors used in residential security systems are also desensitized
somewhat, with the goal of preventing false alarms. Typically, a motion detector like
these will not register movement by any object weighing less than 40 pounds (18
kg). With this modification, household pets will be able to move freely around the
house without their owners needing to worry about a false alarm. For households
with large pets, sensors with an 80-pound (36 kg) allowance are also made.
Proximity Sensor-

A proximity sensor can detect metal targets approaching the sensor, without
physical contact with the target. Proximity sensors are roughly classified into the
following three types according to the operating principle: the high-frequency
oscillation type using electromagnetic induction, the magnetic type using a magnet,
and the capacitance type using the change of capacitance.
KEYENCE proximity sensors are of the high-frequency oscillation type.

A high-frequency magnetic field is generated by coil L in the oscillation circuit.

When a target approaches the magnetic field, an induction current (eddy current)
flows in the target due to electromagnetic induction. As the target approaches the
sensor, the induction current flow increases, which causes the load on the
oscillation circuit to increase. Then, oscillation attenuates or stops. The sensor
detects this change in the oscillation status with the amplitude detecting circuit, and
outputs a detection signal.

Generally, the frequency of high-frequency, oscillation type proximity sensors tend

to change when a nonferrous metal is placed near it. The aluminum proximity
sensor detects any changes in oscillating frequency.