EASY NOTES A New Way for Understanding

NUCLEAR
SCIENCE
By

Dr. SANJAY KUMAR SHUKLA

TYPEWRITTEN BY :- MOHD AZZAM REHMAN

BRANCH :- E.E.(2016)
 Preface

We are very happy to present this type of nuclear science notes. In this type of
typewritten notes we have attempted to include each and every topic as in least line as
possible so that the content should completely exist .
We have prepared this notes for B.Tech. 2nd year students. In this book cum
notes we have included some pictures, some diagrams and some formulas. Which will
help you to understand the topic very easily.
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contact Dr. Sanjay Kumar Shukla Sir and please also suggest us . You can contact us on
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 Syllabus
UNIT I ( Page No. 1-10)
Nucleus and Its Basic Features: Nuclear structure, Nuclear forces and their properties,
Nuclear binding energy, Nuclear stability, Nuclear radius and its measurement, Nuclear
spin, Nuclear magnetic and Electrical moments.
UNIT II ( Page No. 11-15)
Nuclear Models: Single particle model, Liquid drop model and Semi-Emperical mass
formula, Nuclear potential and Shell model, Collective model.
UNIT III
Nuclear Reaction: Nuclear reaction and Laws of conservation, Types of nuclear
reaction, Mechanism of nuclear reaction-Q value, Nuclear fission and their explanation
by liquid drop model, Nuclear fusion and its applications.
UNIT IV ( Page No. 16-22)
Radioactivity: Radioactive disintegration, Decay constant, Half life period and Mean
life, Alpha decay, Beta decay, Gamma decay, Interaction of nuclear radiation with
matter.
UNIT V ( Page No. 23-33)
Accelerators: Mass spectrograph: General principle, Aston’s Mass Spectrograph Van de
Graph Generator, Cyclotron, Synchrotron. Detectors: G M Counter, Scintillation counter,
cloud chamber, Bubble Chamber, production and detection of neutrons and Gamma-
photon. Application of Nuclear Techniques: Nuclear magnetic resonance, positron
emission topography, radiotracer techniques and applications in material science and
agriculture.
 NUCLEAR SCIENCE BY DR. SANJAY KUMAR SHUKLA , NOTES TYPEWRITTEN BY :- M.A. REHMAN (EE 2016)
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Nucleus And Its Basic Features
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SOME BASICS

1. Electron :- (a) Mass = 9.1 ∗ 10−31kg

(b) Charge= 1.6 ∗ 10−19 c
(c) Symbol= −10e
2. Proton :- (a) Mass = 1.67 ∗ 10−27 kg
(b) Charge= 1.6 ∗ 10−19 c
(c) Symbol= 11p
3. Neutron :- (a) Mass = 1.67 ∗ 10−27 kg
(b) Charge= 0 c
(c) Symbol= 10n
4. α-Particle :- (a) Mass = 4mp
(b) Charge= 2 ∗ 1.6 ∗ 10−19 c
(c) Symbol= 42He
5. β-Particle :- (a) Mass = me
(b) Charge= 1.6 ∗ 10−19 c
(c) Symbol= −10β , −10e
hν
6. γ-Photon :- (a) Mass = c2
(b) Speed= 3 ∗ 108 m/s

Isotopes:- The atoms having same atomic number but they have different atomic mass
number are called Isotopes.
Example:- H11 , H12 , H13 O16 17 18
8 , O8 , O8 C612 , C614 35
Cl17 37
, Cl17 ,
Isobar:- The atoms having same atomic mass number but different atomic number
are called as Isobar.
Example:- H13 , He32 Li73 , Be74
Isotones:- The atoms having same number of neutrons are called Isotones .
Example:- He32 , H11
Symbol Of Atom:- XzA
Where X= Element, Z= Atomic Number, A= Atomic Mass Number.

Z= No. of Protons = No. of Electrons , A= No. of Protons + No. of Neutrons

i.e. A – Z = No. of Neutrons ,

For Example:-
(i) H11 (ii) U92
235

Atomic No.( Z ) = 1 Atomic No.( Z ) = 92

Atomic Mass Number (A) = 1 Atomic Mass Number (A) = 235
No. Of Protons (p)= 1 No. Of Protons (p)= 92
No. Of Electrons= 1 No. Of Electrons= 92
No. Of Neutrons= 0 No. Of Neutrons= 143

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Mirror Nucleus:- The two nucleus are said to be mirror nucleus if :–
(i) Both have same mass number .&
(ii) Number of Neutrons in first nucleus is equals to number of
Protons in second nucleus.
Example:- (a) H1 ,
3
He32 (b) N715 , O15 8
p=1 p=2 p=7 p=8
n=2 n=1 n=8 n=7

Nucleus:- The smallest centre of atom in which entire positive charge and almost
entire mass is concentrated called Nucleus of atom .
Composition of nucleus:-

Electron proton theory:- Before the discovery of neutron it was believed that nucleus
contains electrons and protons inside it due to following facts:-
(a) The emission of Alpha (α) particle from radioactive nucleus confirm the existence
of proton inside the nucleus.
(b) The emission of Beta (β) particle from the nucleus confirm the existence of
electron inside the nucleus .
But electron - proton theory was failed due to following facts:-
(a) This theory could not explain neutrality of atom

For 6 C12 , Charge in Nucleus = 6(+e)+6(-e)=0

Charge on Orbital = 6(-e)= -6e
Total Charge on atom = 0+(-6e)=-6e

Hence according to this atom is not neutral but we know that total charge on
atom is zero
it means atom is neutral .
(b) According to Heisenberg principle it was proved that electron cannot exist
inside the nucleus,
from Heisenberg principle :-
ђ h
∆x . ∆p ≥ , {ђ = }
2 2π
h
∆x . ∆p ≥
4π
The Maximum uncertainty in position of electron inside the nucleus = diameter of
nucleus
∆xmax = 2 × radius of nucleus
∆xmax = 2 × 10−14 m
h
Hence ∆pmin = = 2.64 × 10−21 kgm/sec
4π∆xmax
(∆pmin )2
Now K. E. = = 23.9 Mev
2m

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Hence the minimum kinetic energy of electron to exist inside the nucleus is 24 MeV.
But was found that maximum kinetic energy of electron which is emitted from the
nucleus is 4 MeV hence electron cannot exist inside the nucleus

Proton neutron theory of nucleus:- This theory was introduced after the discovery of
neutron in 1932 by Chadwick, according to this theory protons and neutrons exist
inside the nucleus and on the basis of this theory all the nucleus normal can be
explained
(i) Electrical neutrality of atom :-

Charge on nucleus :- 6(+e)+6*0 => +6e

Charge on orbital electrons= 6(-e)
Total charge on atom :- +6e-6e = 0

(ii) Explanation of omission of Beta particle from the nucleus:-The electron

does not exist inside the nucleus but formed at the time of mission due to
interconversion of neutrons and protons according to following way:-
n → p + β0−1 + v̅
p → n + β0+1 + v

Properties of nucleus:-
(i) Radius of nucleus:- From α-scattering experiment it was found that the nucleus
has finite size and from scattering experiment with electron, proton and neutron
it was observed that volume of nucleus is directly proportional to atomic mass
number a number A of nucleons.
4
i.e. πR3 ∝ A
3
R3 ∝ A
1
R ∝ A3
R = R 0 A1/3 , where R 0 = 1.1 × 10−15 m , A = atomic mass no.

Question (i) :- Determine the radius of sodium atom.

𝟏
Question (ii) :- Determine the nucleus that have radius = 𝐨𝐟𝐎𝟐𝟖𝟗 𝐬
𝟑
Question (iii) :-A nucleus with A = 235 splits into two nuclear answer whose mass
number are in ratio 2:1 then determine radius of new neutron nucleus.

(ii) Mass of nucleus:- The mass of nucleus is expressed in terms of amu atomic
mass unit which is defined as:-
𝟏𝐚𝐦𝐮 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝐤𝐠
If atomic mass number of nucleus is A then :-
Mass of nucleus = A amu =A× 1. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝐤𝐠
(iii) Density of nucleus:-
Mass of Nucleus
ρ=
Volume of Nucleus

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−𝟐𝟕
A×1.𝟔𝟕×𝟏𝟎 𝐤𝐠
ρ= 4
πR3
3
A × 1. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕
ρ=
4 1/3 3
3 πR 0 (A )
3 × 1. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕
ρ= kg/m3
4π × (1.1 × 10−15 )3
ρ = 3 × 1017 kg/m3

(iv) Charge on nucleus:- If A nucleus contains Z number of protons then charge on

nucleus = +Ze
(v) Angular momentum:-
Spin angular momentum:- Each Proton and Neutron in the nucleus has angular
momentum due to spin about an Axis passing through its centre of mass this is known
as a spin angular momentum which is given by :-
|S⃗| = √s(s + 1)ђ
where is s=1/2 is called spin angular momentum quantum number.
Orbital angular momentum:- Each nucleon having an angular momentum due to its
orbital motion in the nucleus then this is known as orbital angular momentum and its
magnitude is given by :-
⃗ | = √l(l + 1)ђ
|L
where l = 0, 1, 2, 3 - - - -- - - - - is called orbital angular momentum quantum
number
Total angular momentum:-
The total angular momentum of a nucleon is the vector sum of its orbital and spin
angular momentum .
let ⃗L = Orbital angular momentum of nucleon
⃗S = Spin angular momentum of nucleon
then total angular momentum of nucleon is given = J = L ⃗ + S⃗
And Its magnitude is given by
1 3 5
|J| = √j(j + 1)ђ where , j = , , , − − − − −
2 2 2
is called total angular momentum quantum number
Total angular momentum of nucleus:- The total angular momentum of nucleus
is resultant of total angular momentum of all the nucleons in the nucleus and it is given
by |I| = √I(I + 1)ђ
Where I is called total angular momentum quantum number and which is known as
Nuclear Spin.
Case (1) :- For even - even nucleus :- For even even nucleus the value of I in a ground
state is always 0 .
Case (2) :- For Odd -Odd nucleus :- The value of I is integer multiple of ђ
ђ
Case (3) :- For even-odd even nucleus :- The value of I is integer multiple of
2

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Magnetic moment of nucleus:- Total magnetic moment of nucleus is the vector sum of
magnetic moment due to orbital and spin motion of protons and its is given by μ =
μN g N I .
μ = Nuclear Mgnaton
J
μN = 5.05 × 10−27
T
I= Nuclear Spin
Mass defect:- It was found that mass of stable nucleus is always less than the total
mass of its nucleons off list of the difference between mass of nucleons and the mass of
nucleus is called mass defect.
Mass Defect = Mass of Nucleons – Mass of Nucleus
p
∆m = Mz + (A − Z)Mn − M
Z= atomic no. (no. of protons)
A=atomic mass no.
(A-Z) = no. of nutrons

𝐌𝐧 = Mass of nucleus
Note 1 :- We know that 𝐌𝐩 ≈ 𝐌𝐧
p
∆m = Mz + (A − Z)Mn − M
∆m = Amp − M
p
Note 2 :- If atomic mass is ∆m = Mz + (A − Z)Mn − M
∆m = Z(Mp + Me ) + (A − Z)Mn − MzA
∆m = Z(MH ) + (A − Z)Mn − MzA

Packing factor:- It represent the difference of atomic mass from atomic mass number
per unit atomic mass number hence it is
MzA − A
f=
A
A
Mz = atomic mass
A=Atomic mass no.
Case 1:- f>0 , for stable nucleus .
Case 2 :- f<0 , for less stable nucleus .

Binding energy:- Required energy to be decompose a nucleus into its nucleons is

called binding energy and is given as
∆E = {ZMp + (A − Z)Mn − M}c 2
∆E = {Z(MH ) + (A − Z)Mn − MzA }c 2
Binding energy per nucleon:- Binding Energy per nucleon is defined as:-
∆E {ZMp + (A − Z)Mn − M}c 2
=
A A

∆E {Z(MH ) + (A − Z)Mn − MzA }c 2

=
A A

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Note:- Binding energy per nucleon is more important than binding energy and higher
value of binding energy per nucleon indicates that the nucleus is more stable.

Relation between binding energy per nucleon and atomic packing factor:-
∆E = ∆mc 2
∆E = {Z(MH ) + (A − Z)Mn − MzA }c 2
∆E Z Z MzA 2
= { (MH ) + (1 − ) Mn − }c
A A A A

MzA − A MzA
[Note: −if , f= then =1+f]
A A
∆E Z Z
Hence = { (MH ) + (1 − ) Mn − (1 + f)} c 2
A A A
Note 1:- If ∆M is in Kilogram then for binding energy we should have the formula :-
∆E = ∆mc 2
Note 2:- If ∆M is in amu then for binding energy we should have use- ∆E = ∆m ×
931 Mev

Binding energy curve and nucleus stability :-The graph between binding energy per
nucleon and atomic mass number is called binding energy per nucleon with the help of
binding energy curve we get following
results for different nucleus :-
(i) Binding energy per nucleon is very
less par for lighter Nucleus.
(ii) Binding energy per nucleon
increases rapidly up to mass no.20 and
there are peaks for nucleus𝐇𝐞𝟒𝟐 , 𝐁𝐞𝟖𝟒 ,
𝟖 which indicate that these
𝐂𝟔𝟏𝟐 , 𝐎𝟏𝟔
Nucleus are more stable than its
neighbouring and nucleus.
(iii) After mass number 20 the binding
energy per nucleon increases gradually
and for mass number between 40and
120 the curve is Flat and the average value of Binding energy per nucleon is in this
region is about 8.5 Mev and it is maximum for Fe5626 and it is 8.8 Mev .
(iv) After mass number 120 binding energy per nucleon decreases for the heavier
nucleus .
(v)The Binding Energy per nucleon give the measure of
(vi) nucleus stability greater the Binding energy per nucleonnucleus is more stable .

Nuclear force:- The nucleus of an atom is a small sphere of diameter metre and
protons and neutrons are placed inside it. Due to electrostatic introduction it will
protons there is strong repulsion Electricals electron force try to them apart where
gravitational force between nucleon so try to hold together .

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The gravitational force and electrical force between two protons is :-
1 q1 q 2
Fe =
4πε0 r 2
9
( 1.6 × 10−19 )2
Fe = 9 × 10 × … … . (i)
r2
M1 M2
FG = G 2
r
−11
( 1.67 × 10−27 )2
FG = 6.67 × 10 × … … . (ii)
r2
Fe 9 × 109 × ( 1.6 × 10−19 )2
=
FG 6.67 × 10−11 × ( 1.67 × 10−27 )2
Fe
= 1.238 × 1036
FG
Fe = 1036 FG
In Short range strong attractive force acting between nucleons (p-p , n-n, n-p )
which overcome the repulsive force between protons is called Nuclear Force .
The Nuclear forces can be given as :- FN ≈ 100Fe
Hence :- FG : Fe : FN = 1: 1036 ∶ 1038
Properties nuclear force:-
(i) Nuclear forces are strongest forces but effective for very short range (10−14 m).
(ii) Nuclear forces are charge independent i.e (Fp−p = Fn−n = Fp−n

(iii) Nuclear forces are spin dependent . It is observed that the force between two
nucleons having same spin is greater than the two nucleons having been anti
parallel spin . F↿↾ > F↿⇂
(iv) Nuclear forces or non central forces .
(v) Nuclear forces are saturated forces.
(vi) A nucleon inside the nucleus experiences the force due to its nearest
neighbouring Nucleon
(vii) Nuclear forces are exchange forces . In 1935 Yukawa propose that nuclear forces
between two nucleons is the result of exchange of π − meson.
p → n + π+
n → p + π−
p → p + π0
n → n + π0

Nuclear stability on the basis of neutron and proton the ratio:-

On the basis of neutron and proton model of nucleus .It is obvious that for stable
nucleus the strong nuclear force between nucleon dominate over the coulomb
repulsive force between protons. Therefore neutron Proton ratio has significant
role to determine stability of nucleus .
from graph between number of neutrons N and a number
of protons P. It is seen that the stability curve is straight line with

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N= Z for Z < 20 .
For heavier Nucleus (N>20 , Z>20) the curve bend
towards N axis. Because coulomb electrostatic repulsion
becomes important for range values of Z therefore to
compensate the repulsive force, the attractive force
between nucleons must increase. for this number of
neutrons must be greater than the number of protons
hence for heavy stable nucleus N/Z ratio will always
be greater than Unity .for maximum stability there
is an optimum ratio of N/Z and it is 1.5 .

Parity of nucleus:- The Parity is a fundamental of

nucleus. The Parity of an isolated system is a constant
and cannot be changed by an internal process .
But if the particle or radiation enters or leave then the
system does not remains isolated and then parity of system
may change .
Parity is a property of wave function , in Quantum Mechanics be physical
description of a nuclear particle described by wave function φ(x, y, z) .
If the φ of a function does not change by reflection of particle through origin a
parity of particle is said to be even function even but if the wave function changes
signed by reflections through origin by parity is said to be odd.
φ(x, y, z) = φ(−x, −y, −z) parity even
φ(x, y, z) = −φ(−x, −y, −z) parity odd
Determination of radius of nucleus by mirror nucleus method:- let us consider two
mirror nucleus XZA , YZ+1
A
.Having same mass number in which first nucleus contains Z-
protons while second nucleus contains (z+1) protons due to which there will be the
electrostatic energy difference between them.
The difference of electrostatic energy between two neighbouring mirror nucleus
is used to calculate the radius of nucleus :-
Let us assume that nucleus is analogous to uniformly charged sphere of radius R.
Charge on Nucleus = Ze
4
Volume of Nucleus = πR3
3
4
Charge density ρ =Ze⁄ πR3 … … … (i)
3
suppose we have a spherical core of radius r at any instant .
4
let a sphere of radius r then charge on it q1 = πr 3 ρ . If we bring it in a sphere shell of
3
radius r and thickness dr from infinity in a process of assembling the change. Then
charge on it = q2 = 4πr 2 drρ
Electrostatic energy of the system is :-

4 3 2
1 3 πr ρ × 4πr drρ
dE =
4πε0 r

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1 16 2 2 4
dE = π ρ r dr
4πε0 3
The electrostatic energy of a nucleus having energy are :-
1 16 2 2 R 4
E= π ρ ∫ r dr
4πε0 3 0
1 16 2 2 R5
E= π ρ
4πε0 3 5
1 16 4 2 R5
E= π2 (Ze⁄ πR3 )
4πε0 3 3 5
2
1 16 2 4 3 R5
E= π (Ze⁄ πR )
4πε0 3 3 5

1 3 Z 2 e2
E= … … … . (iii)
4πε0 5 R

Similarly electrostatic energy of a nucleus having (Z+1) protons :-

′
1 3 (Z + 1)2 e2
E = … … . . (iv)
4πε0 5 R
From equation (iii) and (iv) :- ∆E = E − E ′
1 3 e2 2
∆E = {Z − (Z + 1)2 }
4πε0 5 R
1 3 e2
∆E = (2z + 1)
4πε0 5 R
1 3 e2
∆E = (A)
4πε0 5 R
1 3 e2
∆E = (A)
4πε0 5 R 0 A1/3
1 3 e2 2/3
∆E = A
4πε0 5 R 0

Quadrupole moment of nucleus:-

To determine shape of nucleus electric quadrupole
moment is derive. for this let us consider the charge in
nucleus is not situated at the centre of nucleus but it is
located at point P.
a2 +r2 −a 2
In ∆OP ′ P , Cos α = 1
2ra
Hence a1 2 = a2 + r 2 − 2raCosα
The potential at P due to charge at P’ :-
1 e
φ=
4πϵ0 a1

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1 e
φ=
4πϵ0 (a2 + r 2 − 2raCosα)1/2
1 e
φ= 1/2
4πϵ0 r 2 2rCosα
a (1 + ( ) −
a a )
1 e r 2 2rCosα −1/2
φ= (1 + ( ) − )
4πϵ0 a a a
2
1 e 1 2r r2 1.3 2r r2
φ= {1 + ( cosα − 2 ) + ( cosα − 2 ) + ⋯ … … … … }
4πϵ0 a 2 a a 2.4 a a

1 e r r 2 3Cos 2 α 1
φ= {1 + cosα + 2 ( − ) + ⋯…………}
4πϵ0 a a a 2 2
2 2
1 e ercosα er 3Cos α 1
φ= { + + 3 ( − ) + ⋯ … … … … } … … (i)
4πϵ0 a a2 a 2 2
1
Form equation (i) :- Coefficient of = monopole strength
a
1
Coefficient of = z component ofdipole moment
a2
1
Coefficient of = z component ofquadrupole moment
a3
er2
Hence Quadrupole Moment :- Q= (3Cos2 α − 1)
2
er 2 z 2
Q= {3 ( ) − 1}
2 r
e
Q = {3z 2 − r 2 }
2
Case 1 :- If x=y=z , then 𝐫 = 𝟑𝐳 ,
𝟐 𝟐

hence Q=0 , In this condition Shape will be Spherical and Most Stable .
Case 2 :- If 𝟑𝐳 𝟐 > 𝐫 𝟐 ,
Hence 𝐐 = +𝐯𝐞 , In This Condition Shape will be Ellipse elongated
along z axis .
Case 2 :- If 𝟑𝐳 𝟐 < 𝐫 𝟐 ,
Hence 𝐐 = −𝐯𝐞 , In This Condition Shape will be Ellipse Contracted
along z axis .

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Nuclear Models
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Single article model (Alpha particle model)

This model is based on following facts-

Certain nucleus emits Alpha particle therefore it was proposed that nucleus can be
consists of α-particles.
a) The light nucleus contains equal number of protons and neutrons inside the
nucleus therefore it was considered that pairs of protons and neutrons combine
together inside a nucleus for very short time and Alpha particle are ejected.
b) The binding energy curve shows that the average value of binding energy per
nucleon of a nucleus Is 8 Mev .
while in case of Alpha particle is it is 7. 1 Mev.

on the basis of above argument single particle model was proposed and
according to this model:-
Even- even nucleus (even number of neutron and proton ) are assume to made of
α- particles which are closely packed within the nucleus and the major part of binding
energy is shared by α-particles and rest in the form of α- particle bonds.
This model explain emission of Alpha particle and ground state of even - even
nucleus up to few excited state.
Failure of Alpha particle model:- This model was failed due to following reasons:-
a) If we consider a nucleus of mass number A= 4n+ 2. Which may be described as ,
”consisting of an α- particle and two extra nucleons , or (n + 1) α- particle and two
holes then two alternative conjugations are different and actually different from
true conjugation.
b) This model is not capable to explain low energy α- particle scattering.
Hence this model was rejected

Liquid Drop model

In 1936, Niels Bohr suggested that the nucleus might be like a droplet of dense and
incompressible liquid composed of sub droplets of protons and neutrons which are
imagine to interact strongly with each other like the molecules in a drop of liquid .
Hence , nucleus is similar to a small droplets of liquid composed of molecules.

Similarity between nucleus and Liquid Drop:- There are following similarities
between nucleus and small drop of liquid-
a) Radius of nucleus ∝ 𝐴1/3 , (no. of nucleons)1/3
Similarly , Radius of liquid drop ∝ (no. of molecules)1/3
b) Density of nucleus as well as Liquid Drop is size-independent .
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c) Binding energy of nucleus is ∝ number of nucleons.
Similarly, The energy required to vaporize a Liquid Drop is also ∝ number of molecules
present in Liquid Drop.
d) Both , nucleons of a nucleus and molecules of a liquid drop interact with their
closest neighbours.
e) Shape of nucleus is maintained by binding energy. Similarly, shape of Liquid Drop
is maintained by surface tension.
f) Fission :-Nuclear fission , a heavier nucleus decompose into small nucleus point
similar to big liquid drop break into small droplets .
235 236
𝑈92 + 𝑛10 𝑈92 𝐵𝑎141 92 1
56 + 𝐾𝑟36 + 3𝑛0 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
g) Fusion :- Small nucleus are combined together to form a big nucleus . In the same
way , when small droplates of liquid are combined , then a big drop of liquid is
form .
Limitations of liquid drop model:-
a) This model couldn’t explain the number of protons and number of neutrons are
equal for lighter and unequal for heavier nucleus.
b) Failed to explain the isotopes of nucleus.
c) According to this model, the nucleus containing more neutrons in comparison to
protons are more stable. But in case of radioactive elements, rivers result are
observed.
Explanation of nuclear fission by Liquid Drop model :-
The first satisfactory description of nuclear fission is given by Niels Bohr and
wheeler in 1939 .
On the basis of Liquid Drop model of nucleus,
According to this nucleus behave like incompressible drop whose shape is decided by
nuclear force and electrostatic repulsive force and the nuclear force are symmetrical to
surface tension which tense to make drop is spherical in shape while the electrostatic
repulsive force tend to distort comma the spherical shape but nuclear forces are
stronger than electrostatic forces hands, the spherical shape of nucleus is maintained.
When energy is given to the nucleus by slow neutrons, the nucleus is excited and
oscillations are set up in the nucleus and spherical shape is distorted. When the
amplitude of oscillations becomes larger than the nucleus break into smaller nucleus
due to electrostatic repulsive force.
235 236 141 92
𝑈92 + 𝑛10 𝑈92 𝐵𝑎56 + 𝐾𝑟36 + 3𝑛10 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

Semi empirical mass formula

The nuclear mass can be expressed in the form of series of binding energy terms.
Then, this expression is known as “semi empirical mass formula ” which is partially
based on the theory and partially on empirical measurements.
We Know that ,
Binding Energy of Nucleons :-
∆𝐸 = {𝑍𝑀𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑀𝑛 − 𝑀}𝑐 2

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∆𝐸
= {𝑍𝑀𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑀𝑛 − 𝑀}
𝑐2
∆𝐸
𝑀 = 𝑍𝑀𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑀𝑛 − 2 … … (𝑖)
𝑐
In liquid Drop Model , the nucleus is treated as Liquid drop . Then the binding energy is
given by :-

∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑉 + 𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑆 + 𝐸𝑃 + 𝐸𝑄 … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
Where ,
𝐸𝑉 = 𝑎𝑉 𝐴 , Volume energy term is arises due to assembling of neutrons inside the
nucleus .
𝐸𝑆 = −𝑎𝑠 𝐴2/3 , Surface energy term due to surface area of nucleus , this increase the
binding energy .
𝑍(𝑍−1)2
𝐸𝐶 = −𝑎𝐶 1/3 , Coulomb energy term , arises due to mutual repulsion of protons
𝐴
inside the nucleus, this increases the binding energy.
(𝐴−2𝑍)2
𝐸𝑎 = −𝑎𝑎 , Asymmetric energy term , arises due to difference between number
𝐴
of protons and neutrons . this increases the binding energy.
+𝑎𝑝
𝐸𝑝 = 3/4 , For even – even nucleus , pairing energy terms arises due to grouping of
𝐴
protons and neutrons .
And = 0 ,for odd-even , even – odd nucleus .

−𝑎𝑝
= 3/4 , for odd-odd nucleus .
𝐴
Using the value of 𝐸𝑉 , 𝐸𝐶 , 𝐸𝑆 , 𝐸𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑄
2/3
𝑍(𝑍 − 1)2 𝑎𝑝
∆𝐸 = 𝑎𝑉 𝐴 −𝑎𝑠 𝐴 −𝑎𝐶 ±
𝐴1/3 𝐴3/4
Hence from the equation ,
1 𝑍(𝑍−1)2 𝑎𝑝
Mass of Nucleus , 𝑀 = 𝑍𝑀𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑀𝑛 − 2 {𝑎𝑉 𝐴 −𝑎𝑠 𝐴2/3 −𝑎𝐶 ± }
𝑐 𝐴 1/3 𝐴 3/4
Here,
𝑎𝑉 = 14.01 𝑀𝑒𝑣
𝑎𝑠 = 13 𝑀𝑒𝑣
𝑎𝑐 = 0.595 𝑀𝑒𝑣
𝑎𝑎 = 19 𝑀𝑒𝑣
𝑎𝑝 = 33.5 𝑀𝑒𝑣

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Nuclear shell model

This model was developed around 1949, which is based on Pauli principal and
magic numbers.
There are certain numbers of phenomena which shows the existence of excited state of
nucleus and Sharply defined nuclear energy levels. This is similar to atomic shell model,
which describe the distribution of electrons in different energy levels of an atom.

Magic numbers :- We know that the electrons in an atom are grouped into shells and
subshells and electrons distributed in Shell according to 2 n2 , where
n=1,2,3,4,5……..(2,8,18,32 …) .
These Shells completely filled and search items are stable. A Similar situation also
exist in nucleus. The nucleus having 2, 8, 20,28, 50, 82 and 126 . Nucleons have same
condition and most stable than the nucleus of neighbouring mass numbers. These
numbers are called magic numbers and this observation is based on following facts :-
a) 𝐻𝑒24 and 𝑂816 are most stable because they have Double magic numbers .
b) Calcium (Ca , z=20) and Tin (Sn, z=50) are most stable.
c) 𝑃𝑏82208
is most stable because it contains 82 protons and 126 neutrons.
d) It is found that electric quadrupole moment of the magic number nucleus is almost
zero. Hence, they have a spherical shape and status.
According to this model the nucleons in nucleus present in a square well potential
having rounded corners in which they have separate energy levels and nucleons are
assumed to be arrange in different shells.

Limitations of nuclear shell model :- The nuclear shell model has been very
successful to explaining number of nucleons phenomena but it was not capable to
provide complete description of nucleus it fails to explain –
a) The large quadrupole moment of non magic nucleus which shows departure of
nucleus from spherical shape.
b) The ground state of nucleus is in the range 150 to 190 and A >= 220.
c) The magnetic moment of some others nucleus Where deviations are not sufficient
d) The excited state of even - even nucleus, the probability of radioactive transition
and Nuclear coulomb excitation. Can also be not explain the by this model .

Collective model

Both Liquid Drop model and shell model of nucleus describe the nuclear properties
and many others nuclear phenomena but none of them are entirely correct .
Liquid Drop model and shell model provide collective model of nucleus which is
based on following facts :-
 The motion of entire nucleus with the nucleons is in ellipse Idol box that might
rotate deform itself by vibrations.

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 The nucleons move in a potential which is not spherically symmetric is
considered in a shell model by considering above 2 facts, most of the nucleus
phenomena can be explained successfully.:-
a) The electric quadrupole moment of all the nucleus can be determined by using this
model.
b) The ground state and excited state of different nucleus can be explained successfully.
c) Magnetic moment of different nucleus can also be calculated with perfect accuracy.

Nuclear potential:- Since the expression of nuclear force is unknown so therefore to

describe different types of nuclear fission various potentials are used which are called
nuclear potential. A some of them are given below--

Infinite rectangular potential:-

0 , 𝑟 < 𝑟0
𝑉=[ ]
∞ , 𝑟 < 𝑟0

Harmonic potential:-
𝑉 = 𝑉0 [1 − (𝑟/𝑟0 )2 ]

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Radioactivity
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Natural Radioactivity:- In 1986 Henri becquerel discover the transformation of one
element into another by emission of some particle and electromagnetic radiation. This
process is called natural Radioactivity and the substance capable to emit such
radiations is called Radioactive substance .
Example :- Uranium , Thorium, polonium etc .
Law Of Radioactive Decay:- Rutherford and Soddy study the phenomenon of
radioactivity and formulated following law of radioactive decay:-
1. The radioactivity is an spontaneous process and we cannot predict to when an
particular nucleus of atom will disintegrate.
2. When are radioactive atom disintegrates either Alpha particle or beta particle is
emitted both the particle cannot emit simultaneously.
3. The emission of 1 𝛼particle by a radioactive atom results the daughter atom whose
atomic number is it 2 unit less and mass number is 4 unit less of the parent
nucleus.
𝑋𝑍𝐴 𝛼 𝐴−4
𝑋𝑍−2
4. The emission of 𝛽 particle from a radioactive atom results the daughter atom
whose atomic number is one unit more and mass number remains same as that of
parent atom .
𝑋𝑍𝐴 𝛼 𝐴
𝑋𝑍+1
5. Number of atom disintegrate from a radioactive material at any time is directly
proportional to the number of atom present at the time.
𝑑𝑁
− ∝𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑁
𝑁 𝑡
𝑑𝑁
∫ = − ∫ 𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑁0 𝑁 0
(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑁)𝑁0 = −𝜆(𝑡)𝑡0
𝑁

𝑁
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 = −𝜆𝑡
𝑁0
𝑁
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑁0
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
Where , 𝑁0 = no. of initial atoms
𝜆 = decay constant
𝑁 = no. of atoms present after t time

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Condition 1 :- At t=0 ;
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆 ×0
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 0
𝑁 = 𝑁0
Condition 2 :- At t= 1/𝜆 ;
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆 ×(1/𝜆)
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −1
𝑁
𝑁= 0
𝑒
Condition 3 :- At t= ∞;
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆 ×∞
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 ∞
𝑁=0

Decay Constant:- Decay constant is reciprocal of time in which number of atom is

reduced by 1/e times of its

initial value.
Half-Life :- The time interval , in which 50% nucleus of radioactive material
disintegrate, is called Half Life.
𝑁0
𝑁= 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑡 1/2
2 1
−𝜆 ×(𝑇 2 )
𝑁0 = 𝑁0 𝑒
1
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 2 = 𝜆 × (𝑇 2 )
0.6932
𝑇 1/2 =
𝜆
Condition 1:- After 1 Half Life ,
1 1
𝑁 = 𝑁0 ( )
2
Condition 2:- After 2 Half Life ,
1 2
𝑁 = 𝑁0 ( )
2

Condition 3:- After 3 Half Life ,

1 3
𝑁 = 𝑁0 ( )
2

Condition 4 :- n Half Life

1 𝑛
𝑁 = 𝑁0 ( )
2

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Average life or Mean life:- The mean life of radioactive material is equals to sum of
lifetime of all radioactive items divided by total number of atoms and it is reciprocal of
decay constant.
1
𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝜆

Activity of radioactive material :- The rate of disintegration of radioactive nucleus is

called activity.
𝑑𝑁
𝑅= −
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑅 = − (𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑅 = −𝑁0 (−𝜆)𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑅 = 𝑁0 𝜆𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑅0 = 𝑁0 𝜆
𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
Where , 𝜆= decay constant
R= activity
Units Of Activity :-
1. Becquerel (Bq) (Disintegration /sec)
2. Curie ( 1 Curie = 3.7 × 1010 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛/ 𝑠𝑒𝑐)
3. Rutherford (Rd) ( 1 Rutherford = 106 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛/ 𝑠𝑒𝑐)

Graphical method of determination of decay constant:-

𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑅 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑜(𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 )
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑅 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 )
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑅 = −𝜆𝑡 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑜 … … … (𝑖)
On Comparing with ( y=mx + c )
Slope of this curve is ( −𝜆)
Hence we can determine the value of decay constant plotting the graph between
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑅 and ‘t’ :-

log 𝑒 𝑅

𝜶 −Decay :-The 𝜶 particle is the doubly ionized Helium and properties of 𝜶 particles
are
(i) Charge :- q=+2e
(ii) Mass :- 4𝑚𝑝

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(iii) 𝜶 particle have integral spin .

(iv) These have higher ionization power and low penetration power.
(v) These are deflected from electric and magnetic field and also affect
photographic field.

The nucleus which contain more than those 210 nucleons are so large that the
nuclear force holding them together becomes insufficient to balance the electrostatic
repulsive force between protons such nucleons achieve greatest stability by emitting
𝜶 particles and 𝜶 particles have high binding energy 28 MeV . Therefore by emission
of 𝜶 particle nucleus achieve greatest stability.
Energy Relation in 𝜶 particle decay :-
For 𝑋𝑧𝐴 𝐴−4
𝑋𝑧−2 + 𝐻𝑒24 + 𝑄
𝑄 = {(𝑚𝑥 ) − (𝑚𝑦 + 𝑚𝛼 )}𝑐 2
𝑄 = [(𝑚𝑥 ) − (𝑚𝑦 + 𝑚𝛼 )] × 931.5𝑀𝑒𝑉

Conservation law in 𝜶 decay:-

Following quantities remains conserved in Alpha decay
1. Conservation of Linear Momentum:-
For 𝑋𝑧𝐴 𝐴−4
𝑌𝑧−2 + 𝐻𝑒24 + 𝑄
Let 𝑚𝑥 = Mass of Initial Nucleus
𝑚𝑦 = Mass of Product Nucleus
𝑚𝛼 = Mass of 𝜶 particles
𝑣𝑦 =Speed of Product Nucleus
𝑣𝛼 =Speed of 𝜶 particles
Speed of initial nucleus = 0
Hence,
𝑚𝑥 𝑥𝑜 = (𝑚𝑦 × 𝑣𝑦 ) + (𝑚𝛼 × 𝑣𝛼 )
𝑚𝑦 𝑣𝑦
𝑉𝛼 = −
𝑚𝛼

here negative sign shows that the daughter nuclei will require in the direction opposite
to the direction of 𝜶 particles
so that the net Momentum is still zero after emission.
2. Conservation of relativistic energy:-
For 𝑋𝑧𝐴 𝐴−4
𝑌𝑧−2 + 𝐻𝑒24 + 𝑄
Let 𝑘𝑦 = Relativistic kinetic energy of Product Nuclei
𝑘𝛼 = Relativistic kinetic energy of 𝜶 particle
Relativistic kinetic energy of Initial nuclei =0
Total Relativistic energy before emission of 𝛼 = Total Relativistic energy after emission
of 𝛼
𝐴𝑠, 𝐸 = 𝐸𝐾 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 (𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦)
𝐸𝑥= 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐸𝜶

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𝑂 + 𝑚𝑥 𝑐 = (𝑘𝑦 + 𝑚𝑦 𝑐 ) + (𝑘𝜶 + 𝑚𝜶 𝑐 )
𝑚𝑥 𝑐 2 = (𝑘𝑦 + 𝑘𝜶 ) + (𝑚𝜶 + 𝑚𝑦 )𝑐 2
(𝑚𝑥 − 𝑚𝜶 − 𝑚𝑦 )𝑐 2 = (𝑘𝑦 + 𝑘𝜶 )

3. Conservation of charge and nucleon number :- In 𝜶 decay process the total

charge before decay is equal to total charge after Decay.
In 𝜶 decay nucleon number before is equals to nucleon number after decay.
Range of 𝜶 - Particle and Gieger Nuttal Law :-
The distance travelled by 𝜶 particle after emission is called range of 𝜶 particle.
Beyond this range ionizing power, penetration power destroying capability for
photographic plate of 𝜶 particle disappears.
According to Gieger Nuttal Law , Different 𝜶 particle emitters emits 𝜶 particle of
different energy it was found that long life 𝜶 particle emitters emit low energetic 𝜶
particles and short life 𝜶 particle emits most energetic 𝜶 particles on the basis of
observation empirical relationship is given as below;
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜆 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑅
Where a and b are Constant
𝝀 = Decay Constant
R= Range of 𝜶 particles
And This Equation is Called Gieger Nuttal Law.
According to this relation , the curve between 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜆 and 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑅 is

log 𝜆

log 𝑅

Gamow's Theory of 𝜶 - decay:- According to this theory average kinetic energy of 𝜶

particle is the order of 4 to 9 MeV while binding energy of 𝜶 particle is the order of 25
to 30 MeV hence classically it is impossible to explain how an 𝜶 particle having
insufficient energy will came out from nucleus.
In 1928 Gamow explained that emission of 𝜶 particle by using quantum mechanics
which is based on following assumptions :-
1. An 𝜶 particle does not exist inside the nucleus but form just at the time of Mission
by combination of two protons and 2 neutrons
2𝐻11 + 2𝑛10 𝐻𝑒24
2. The 𝜶 particle moves with constant speed 107 metre/second inside the nucleus
and the nucleus have radius about 10−14 m . Hence collision made by 𝜶 - particle
107
on the boundary of nucleus per second :- = 1021 .
2×10−14
Hence,
There is large probability that 𝜶 particle came out from nucleus having
insufficient energy.
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𝜷- decay:- The 𝛽- decay is radioactive decay in which 𝛽-particle either electron or
positron is emitted since electron or positron cannot exist inside the nucleus hence we
assume that the electron positron is created at the time of emission there are following
three mechanism involved in 𝛽- decay.
1. 𝜷 − decay ( 𝒆− emission) :-This mechanism takes place when neutron is
converted into Proton due to which atomic number of daughter nucleus is
increased by 1 while mass number remains unchanged.
0
𝑋𝑍𝐴 𝐴
𝑌𝑍+1 + 𝛽−1 + 𝜈̅(𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑜)

2. 𝜷 + decay ( positron emission) :- This mechanism takes place when a Proton is

converted into neutron due to which atomic number of daughter nucleus will be
less than 1 unit of para nucleus while atomic mass remains unchanged
0
𝑋𝑍𝐴 𝐴
𝑌𝑍−1 + 𝛽+1 + 𝜈 (𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑜)
3. Electron Capture:- In this mechanism A nucleus decay by capturing an electron
from K- Orbit in which the electron disappear and its mass is converted into
energy.
𝑜
𝑋𝑍𝐴 𝑒−1 𝐴
𝑌𝑍−1 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Energy conditions in 𝜷- decay :-
𝑜
𝑋𝑍𝐴 𝐴
𝑌𝑍−1 + 𝛽−1 + 𝜈̅
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠,
𝑄 = [𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 − (𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 + 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝛽)]𝑐 2
𝑄 = [𝑚𝑥 − (𝑚𝑦 + 𝑚𝛽 )]𝑐 2
𝑄 = [𝑚𝑥 − (𝑚𝑦 + 𝑚𝛽 )] × 931.5𝑀𝑒𝑣
Properties of 𝜷 particle:-
(i) Symbol:- (a) 𝛽−1 𝑜
or 𝑒−1
𝑜
(electron)
(b) 𝛽+1 or 𝑒+1 (positron)
𝑜 𝑜

(ii) 𝛽- particle travels with the speed of light

(iii) 𝛽- article has large penetration power and small ionizing power in comparison
to Alpha particle
(iv) 𝛽-particles are deflected by electric and magnetic field
(v) 𝛽- particle effect photographic plate
(vi) Produce florescence in substances like zinc sulphide ZnS .

𝜸 − decay:- The emission of 𝛼 , 𝛽 particle from parent nucleus leaves the daughter
nucleus is in the excited state of higher energy . The excited daughter nucleus than
returns to ground state by a emitting one or more, photons.

Example 1:- The parent nucleus 𝑅𝑎86

226
emit 𝛼 particle and resultant daughter nucleus
𝑅𝑛86 and after Gamma Photon emission (0.19 MeV) reached in ground state.
222

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226
𝑅𝑎86
𝛼
222
𝑅𝑛86
𝛾
222
𝑅𝑛86

Example 2:- The parent nucleus 𝐶𝑜27 60

Emit 𝛽 particle and resultant daughter nucleus
𝑁𝑖28 , after to transition daughter nucleus reach in ground state with emission of 2
60

gamma photons having energy 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV

60
𝐶𝑜27
𝛽
60∗
𝑁𝑖28
𝛾
60∗
𝑁𝑖27
𝛾
60
𝑁𝑖26

Interaction of radiation Gamma Photon with matter:-

The gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation having wavelength
10 𝑡𝑜 10−1 𝐴𝑜 and very high
−3

frequency .
following three phenomena are possible when Gamma radiation interact with matter
(i) Photoelectric effect
(ii) Compton scattering
(iii) Electron positron pair production .

1. Photoelectric effect:- In this process the gum of photon interact with an atom of
materials in such a way that all of its energy is absorbed by Bond electron of atom
and then electron is ejected who is kinetic energy is given by
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝜈 − 𝜑
Where 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Maximum Kinetic energy of ejected electron.
ℎ𝜈= Energy of Photon
𝜑 = Work Function
2. Compton scattering:- In this process incoming Photon collide with free electrons of
the atoms and recoil with some scattered Photon having small energy but increased
wavelength the difference in wavelength of scattered a photon and the incident of
photon is called Compton shift which is given by.
ℎ
∆𝜆 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐
Where ∅ = Scattering Angle
C= Speed of Light , 𝑚𝑜 = rest mass of electron
3. Electron positron pair production:- In this process the incoming Gamma Photon is
absorbed by atom then energy is released in the form of electron positron pair this
process occurs only when incoming a photon has energy at least 1.02 MeV.

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Accelerator And Detector
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Mass spectrograph

The spectrograph are used to determine the isotopic masses of all the atoms of
periodic table.
Essentials of mass spectrograph
(i) Ion source:- All the Spectrograph start with an Ion source which are
produced by electron or heating of
suitable coated filaments.
(ii) Energy, Momentum and velocity filters:-
The positive energy ions are given energy by accelerated through a
potential difference so that their energy is much greater than the initial energy
to have been of same Momentum and Mass. The ions are then passed through
electric and magnetic field which acts as Momentum and Velocity filters.
(iii) Vacuum Chambers:- This chamber provides the path to Ion beam to be
detected.
(iv) Detector:- It may use photographic plate or an electro metre.

Aston’s mass spectrograph

Aston’s was first to design a mass spectrograph with high accuracy and large
sensitivity . The analysist isotopes can be done if they are converted into ionic beam
normally known as positive rays . This is done by removing outer electron from the
isotopic atoms .
Principle :- The mass spectrograph work on a simple principle and is based on the fact
that charge particle experience a force in both electric and magnetic field.
Construction And Working :-
As the Apparatus shown in the figure : The stream of positive Ion enter through
electric field maintain by Slit P1 and P2 via slit S1 and S2. Due to the electric field this
Ion beam deviated by an angle 𝜃as well as dispersed by an angle 𝑑𝜃 .

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𝑚𝑎1 = 𝑞𝐸

𝑞𝐸
𝑎1 =
𝑚
1
𝑙1 = 𝑎1 𝑡1 2
2
1 𝑞𝐸 𝐿1 2
𝑙1 = ( ) 𝐿 1
2𝑚 𝑉 𝜃
𝑙1 𝑙 1

𝜃=
𝐿1
1 𝑞𝐸 𝐿1 2 1
𝜃= ( )
2 𝑚 𝑉 𝐿1
1 𝑞𝐸 𝐿1
𝜃= … … . (𝑖)
2 𝑚 𝑉2
Now Differentiating equation (i) with respect to V :-
𝑞𝐸 𝐿1
𝑑𝜃 = − 𝑑𝑉 … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑚 𝑉3
𝑑𝜃 2𝑑𝑉
=− … … … (𝑎)
𝜃 𝑉
Now This deviated and dispersed Beam of Ion is now passed through magnetic field B
via Slate S3 so that this is again deviated by an angle 𝜑 and converged by an angle 𝑑𝜑
And reaches to the photographic plate S.
𝑚𝑎2 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵
𝑞𝐸
𝑎1 =
𝑚
𝐿2
𝑡2 = 𝑙2
𝑣 𝐿2
1
𝑙2 = 𝑎2 𝑡2 2
2
1 𝑞𝐵 𝐿2 2
𝑙2 =
2𝑚 𝑉
𝑙2 1 𝑞𝐵 𝐿2
𝜑= =
𝐿2 2 𝑚 𝑉
1 𝐿2
𝑑𝜑 = − 𝑞𝐵 2 𝑑𝑉
2 𝑉
𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝑉
=− … … … (𝑎)
𝜑 𝑉
BY Equation (a) and (b) :-
𝑑𝜃 2𝑑𝜑
=
𝜃 𝜑
𝒅𝜽 𝟐𝜽
=
𝒅𝝋 𝝋
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆, (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝒅𝜽 = 𝒃𝒅𝝋

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𝒃 𝟐𝜽
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝒂 (𝝋 − 𝟐𝜽)
Advantages :-
(i) All the particles having Q/m ratio are focused at single point adverse to the
other Mass Spectrograph.
(ii) The Intensity of a line obtained on the photo plate is proportional to the total
number of particles of that mass.

Van De Graff Generator

Van De Graaff developed an electrostatic generator capable of generating very

high potential of the order of 5 × 106 Volt. Which was used in accelerating charged
particle for nuclear reaction.
Principle :- It is based on following to Electrostatic phenomena:-
1. The electric discharge takes place in air or gases
at pointed conductors.
2. If a hollow conductor is in contact with an another
conductor then charge is supply to the conductor then
hollow conductor will continuously except the charge
so that large potential is developed and all the charges
shifted to outer surface of hollow conductor.
Construction:- The Van De Graaff generator consists a large
hollow metallic sphere is mounted on two insulating
columns C1 and C2.An endless belt of an isolating material
is made to run on two Pulley P1 and P2 with the help of an
electric motor and a mutual comb ( C ) is held nearly
lowest end of belt width extra high tension source and
another metalcomb C is placed nearly upper end of belt.
Working:- The metallic comb C is kept at very high
voltage (104 volt) which produces ions the positive ions
moves through belt and collected by comb C and these
collected a positive ions for the move only outer surface
of hollow Sphere in this way high potential is generated which was used to accelerate
the positive ions through a long tube which was used in nuclear reaction.

Cyclotron

It is used to accelerate have a charged particle. It is based on principle that

positive Ion acquire large energy with small and alternating voltage and magnetic field
When It Move along a closed path.

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Construction:- It consists of two D shaped hollow semi circular metal chamber D1 and
D2 these Chambers are called Dees . These Dees placed
horizontally with a small gap between them.
In magnetic poles and connected with high
frequency electric field. The positive ions are
produced in gap between Dees by ionization
of gas.
Working:- Consider a positive ion is produced
at the centre of GAP at that time, when D1 is
positive and D2 is negative then the positive Ion
will move from the one to the two normal to the
magnetic field due to this magnetic field provide
centripetal Force to the positive ions and it is deflected along a circular path after
moving along the semi circular path inside the D2 the positive ions reach in the gap
between the Dees at this stage the polarity of these just reversed due to alternating
voltage or D1 becomes negative and D2 will become positive. Then ions moves from
D2 to D1 and so on .
Radius of Path :-
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜃 = 900
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵
𝑚𝑣 2
= 𝑞𝑣𝐵
𝑟
𝑚𝑣
= 𝑞𝐵
𝑟
𝑚𝑣
𝑟=
𝑞𝐵
2𝜋𝑟
Time Period :- 𝑇 =
𝑣
2𝜋 𝑚𝑣
𝑇=
𝑣 𝑞𝐵
2𝜋𝑚
𝑇=
𝑞𝐵
Frequency :-
𝜂 = 1/𝑇
𝑞𝐵
𝜂=
2𝜋𝑚
Angular Frequency :- 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑛
𝑞𝐵
𝜔 = 2𝜋
2𝜋𝑚
𝑞𝐵
𝜔=
𝑚

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Maximum Energy of Positive Ion :-

𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
= 𝑞𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐵
𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑞𝐵𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑚
1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1 𝑞𝐵𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝐸 = 𝑚( )
2 𝑚
1 𝑞 2 𝐵2 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝐸=
2 𝑚
Limitations Of Cyclotron :-
(i) The Energy of Particle accelerating in cyclotron is limited due to variation of
mass with velocity.
𝑚0
𝑚=
2
√1 − 𝑣 2
𝑐
Hence maximum K.E. of Ion is
1 𝑞 2 𝐵2 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2 𝑚
1 𝑞 𝐵 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
2 2
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚0
2
2
√1 − 𝑣 2
𝑐
1 𝑞 2 𝐵2 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 𝑣2
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √1 −
2 𝑚0 𝑐2
Hence Increase in v energy of particle decreased this problem is overcome in following
ways :-
𝑣2 𝑣2
(i)(a) As 𝑣 increases √1 − 2
decrease , so B is increase in such a way that 𝐵√1 − is
𝑐 𝑐2
constant , Such a Cyclotron in which Magnetic field increase to overcome this problem
is called Synchrotron.
(b) If frequency of electric field is adjusted to be always equal to the frequency of
revolution of charge particle . Then such a cyclotron is called Sychro-Cyclotron or
Frequency Modulated Synchrotron.
(ii) Uncharged particle like neutron cannot be accelerated by cyclotron .
(iii) Only heavy charge particle like proton and 𝛼- particle can be accelerated by
cychlotron and electron cannot be accelerated by cyclotron .
Advantage :-
(i) Cyclotron requires very low voltage for producing very high energy charge
particle .

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(ii) Accelerated charge particle produced by cyclotron are used for producing high
energy neutrons .
(iii) The accelerated charge particle produce by cyclotron are used in artificial
transmutation of element .

Detectors

Nuclear radiation such as 𝛼, 𝛽 & 𝛾 rays cannot observe directly they are detected
by secondary effect which they produced in the material through which they are
passed. There are following three effects and a number of detecting instruments which
are based upon them.
1. Ionization:- A charged particle like 𝛼, 𝛽 & proton passing through material
produce ions by collision with the molecules of material. This ionisation is basic of
many detecting instruments. The various instruments differ in the material in
which organisation is produced.
Eg 1:- In ionization chamber and diesel Muller counter the ionization is produced
in a gas and the positive ions and electrons are separated by electrostatic field.
Eg 2 :- In cloud chamber the ionization is produced in a gas which is Sulphur
saturated with some vapour and the track of ions is made visible by condensation
of vapour.
2. Effect on photographic plate:- Nuclear particle made track if they travel through
the emulsion of special photographic plate. The track produced on them becomes
clear when the photographic plate is developed.
3. Fluorescence:- Nuclear radiation produce the flash of light when they fall Upon A
screen coated with fluorescent material like ZnS.

GM Counter

Gieger Muller counter is more efficient and accurate useful device to detect
particles like 𝛼, 𝛽 & X-rays.
Construction:- GM Counter consist metallic cylindrical cathode and closed in a glass
envelope. A fine tungsten wire is stretched along the axis of tube which acts as an order
these cylindrical cathode tube have a thin my car Window for entrance of particles .

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The tube contains monoatomic gas like organ or Neon at pressure of 10 cm of

Mercury HG with the small amount of halogen gas such as chlorine bromine (quenching
agents). A potential difference of 700 volt is applied in between anode and cathode.
Working:- When Ionizing particle 𝛼, 𝛽 , x ray enter in the GM counter, these particles
ionizes some of organ atoms then positive ions and free electron is produced because
shape of electrode is cylindrical hands electrostatic field is radial and is very strong
nearly and order and free electron in this reason are rapidly accelerate and create
further ionization. This process is further on and a large amount of electrons are
produced.
Beside this some of free electron collide with organ atom and create photons pointer
if a photon is observed by another excited itam. The item is then ionized and releasing a
more electron. Since photons are charge less, hence they can go in any direction. Hence
this process is further on to the entire volume of cube and amplification is as high as
104 Is reached then the electrons are collected by anode creating a pulse of current.
After amplification of Pulsar it is finally passed through rate metre 2 calculator average
rate at which particles enters in the tube.
Characteristics of GM counter:- for low voltage most energetic particle produced
detectable Pulsar as the voltage increases the accounting rate is also increased in the
region the magnitude of pulse depend upon
the energy of incident particle. Beyond it’s a
certain voltage the counter rate is almost
constant in this region all the pulses are of
the same magnitude pointer of energy of
incidental particle is recorded this is right
range of potential difference in which GM
counter must be operated above this region
GM counter go into continuous discharge
and damage .
Advantages of GM counter:-
(i) It is very sensitive for detecting
charged particle like 𝛼 & 𝛽.
(ii) It produces a large Pulsar of current.
(iii) It produces constant output pulse which
is independent of initial ionization.
Drawbacks of GM Counter :-
(i) GM tube have very short life due to decomposition
of organic paper and the threshold voltage of
Counter is increases.
(ii) It is less sensitive to detect and charged particle.
(iii) The GM counter remain insensitive for long time after each recording.
(iv) It does not give information about energy of incident particle .
Quenching process :- When a GM tube operates in working region, the secondary
electrons increase the current pulse by for the ionization of gas molecules the object of
Counter is to produce a single pulse due to entry of a single particle the process of
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prohibiting the undesirable secondary pulse is called coaching. There are two methods
of quenching known as internal and external coaching which are described as follows:-
1. Internal Quenching:- In this method a suitable polyatomic vapour known as
quenching gas such as at hill alcohol or hydrogen gas is introduced along with the
inert gas filled in Counter tube . The coaching action gas must have the ionisation
potential lower than that of inert gas. If the coaching action may be understood as
follows: the ionisation potential of alcohol 11.3 EV is lower than that of organ
15.7 volt as a result the inert gas ions get neutralized by transferring there charge
2 alcohol sensor during their long path towards cathode. The alcohol is produced
, capture electrons from the cathode and are neutralized. Hence there is no
multiple pulsing and the discharge is quenched soon after the initial organisation.
The alcohol ions dissociate after being a neutralized and after….. Accounts the
amount of alcohol in the counter is exhausted, resulting in a poor characteristics
of GM tube. The cathode is coated with graphite to avoid chemical attack.
2. External quenching:- In this method are larger series resistance is used in the
counting circuit. Due to secondary emission of electrons are larger current pulse
is produced. This current produced is a large voltage drop across are, thus
lowering the potential difference between the electrodes of the counter, so that
the further guess ionization is avoided. This technique is not usually employed as
it requires large recovery time for the tube to operate for next count.

Wilson cloud chamber

It is used to detect radioactive particles to measure their energy it consists of

dust free year with saturated vapour of
water and any other liquid like alcohol
or eat her with a crystal in chamber.
When 𝛼 𝑜𝑟 𝛽 particle enters in the
chamber ,it produces ions by ionizing
air molecules on its path. Suddenly the
piston is dropped to reduce the
temperature by which air is cooled and
water vapour is supersaturated in
this way the vapour will condenser in
the form of drops on the iron along
the path of particles are these path is
recorded by camera.
Different type of ionizing particles produces
different parts the track of Alpha particle is thick ,shot and continuous I'm on the other
hand track of 𝛽particle is thin dotted and longer. Hence the particle can we differentiate
by its track.

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Bubble chamber

Principle :- The basic principle of bubble chamber is superheating of liquid and

Bubbles form in process of boiling point the ions formed by the charged particles
travelling in the liquid, form
local heat centre in which
Bubbles are formed and grow
Whose track can be recorded
by camera.
Construction and working:-
The bubble chamber consists of
a box with thick glass walls ,
filled with a liquid , connected
to a pressure system and then
heated to some temperature.
The higher energy charged
particle enter in the liquid then
sudden release of pressure valve and
that time camera is opened and parts of particle is recorded.

Scintillation counter

It is very sensitive for detecting high energy nuclear radiations by flow sensor
produced by certain materials called Scintillent.
Construction:- The scientist encounter consists of.
1. The scintillant material which produce flash of light photons. When charged
particle passed through it.
2. The photomultiplier which is used to convert flash of light into electrical Pulsar.
3. Electronic circuits which records and count electrical pulse.

Working:-
When radiation enters into
scientillent material it produce
flash of light for Town. The
photons Travels through
transparent photosensitive layer
( photocathode ) and eject
photoelectrons. The tube have
several electrode called diamonds
on which increasing positive
potentials are applied.
The photoelectrons are attracted
by dinod the one from which secondary
electrons are emitted. These electrons are attracted by
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D2 from where more electrons are produced and this process is further going on and
finally amplifier electrical pulse is generated which is recorded by electronic counter.
Types of scientillant material:-
1. Zinc Sulphate ( used for alpha particle )
2. Anthracene (used for beta particle )
3. Cesium Diodide ( used for gamma rays )
Advantage of scintillation counter:-
1. In this pulse height is directly proportional to the energy of incident ray.
2. Death time of scintillation counter is very small.
3. Pulse duration is very short hands resolution power is high.
4. It is used for detecting gamma rays.

Production of neutrons

Neutrons can be produced by following method:-

1. From radioactive source
2. From photo neutron source
3. From accelerated charged particles.
4. From nuclear reactor

1 . From radioactive source:- in this neutron source consists of our target material
with some radioactive material which supply radiation for production if neutron. The
Alpha particle emitted from radioactive material generally have energy 5 M TV since
only those nucleus can be used as target which have Alpha neutron radiation within
this energy range.
Some of radioactive source are :-
(i) Pollonium Baudium ( 𝛼 neutron sources )
(ii) Radium Berrylium (𝛼 , 𝑛 sources)
(iii) Plutonium Barium (𝛼 , 𝑛 sources)

2 . From photo neutron sources:- Photon can cause neutron emission from nucleus
provided at the energy greater than a neutron binding energy. For this purpose
beryllium dutron is used.

3 . From accelerated charged particle sources:- by using accelerator we accelerate

charged particles and the charger price particles is incident on target material which
produce neutron like :
(a) 𝛼 −neutron reaction
(b) 𝑝 − neutron reaction
(c) 𝑑 − neutron reaction

NUCLEAR SCIENCE BY DR. SANJAY KUMAR SHUKLA , NOTES TYPEWRITTEN BY :- M.A. REHMAN (EE 2016)(32)
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 NUCLEAR SCIENCE BY DR. SANJAY KUMAR SHUKLA , NOTES TYPEWRITTEN BY :- M.A. REHMAN (EE 2016)
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4 . Nuclear reactor:- the most useful source of neutron is nuclear reactor. They are
capable of giving very high number of nucleons of order of 1014 per cm2 sec .

Detection of neutrons

Neutrons are and charged particles and do not produce ionization. Hence they
cannot detect directly from the counters. Hence the detection of neutrons will depend
on secondary effect. Cause buy neutron as a result of collision with target nucleus some
process of neutron detections are
1. Neutron induced nuclear reaction gives charge particle as a product such as
𝛼 & 𝛽 particle .
2. Induced fission in certain heavy element .
3. Elastic collision between neutron and hyduoge nucleus .
4. Capture of nucleus by certain stable isotopes which are converted into
radioactive isotopes with emission of 𝛼 & 𝛽 particle

Production of Gamma photons

Gamma photos can be produced by number of methods:-

1. Radioactive decay
60 60 60∗
𝐶𝑜87 𝑁𝑖28 𝛾(1.17𝑀𝑒𝑣) 𝑁𝑖28

2. Nuclear reaction
3. Neutron Gama reaction
238 239
(i) 𝑈92 + 𝑛10 𝑈92 𝛾
27 29
(ii) 𝐴𝑙13 + 𝑛10 𝐴𝑙13 𝛾
(iii) Proton - 𝛾 reaction
(i) 𝐿𝑖37 + 𝐻11 𝐵𝑒48 𝛾
(ii) 𝐴𝑙1327
+ 𝐻11 28
𝑆𝑖14 γ
4. Pair annihilation
e− + e− γ+γ

Detection of Gamma photons

Gamma photons cannot detect directly due to being neutral but they can detect
by ionization produced by them hence they are detected by GM counter.

NUCLEAR SCIENCE BY DR. SANJAY KUMAR SHUKLA , NOTES TYPEWRITTEN BY :- M.A. REHMAN (EE 2016) (33)
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