Kinematics of Machines Module-I

Machine, Mechanism & Structure

A machine is a mechanism or combination of mechanisms which, apart from
imparting definite motion to its parts, also transmits and modifies the available form of
energy in to some useful work.
Examples: Internal combustion engine, Automobile transmission etc.
A mechanism is a combination of a number of bodies assembled in such a way that
the motion of one causes constrained and predictable motion of others.
Examples: Type writer, folding chair, wiper mechanism of automobiles etc.
A structure is an assemblage of a number of resistant bodies (known as members)
having no relative motion between them and meant for carrying loads having straining action.
A railway bridge, a roof truss, machine frames etc., are the examples of a structure.

Difference between a Machine and a Structure

Mechanism Machine Structure

There is relative motion Relative motion exists There is no relative motion

between the parts of a between parts of a between the members of a
mechanism machine. structure. It is rigid as a whole.

A mechanism modifies A machine consists of A structure does not transform

and transmits motion. one or more mechanisms motion.
and hence transforms
motion

A mechanism does not A machine modifies A structure does not do work.

transmit forces and does energy or do some work It only transmits forces.
not do work

Only the centre lines of The cross sections of Cross sections of members of a
parts need be considered parts also need be structure need be considered
in analysis and design of considered in analysis since they transmit forces.
a mechanism. and design of a machine.

Mechanisms are dealt Machines are dealt with Structures are dealt with in
with in kinematics. in kinetics. statics.

Rigid and Resistant bodies

A body is said to be rigid if under the action of forces, it does not suffer any
distortion. The distance between any two given points of a rigid body remains constant
regardless of external forces exerted on it.

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Resistant bodies are those which are rigid for the purposes they have to serve. A belt
is rigid when subjected to tensile forces. There for the belt drives act as a resistant body.
Similarly fluids can also acts as resistant bodies when compressed as in the case of hydraulic
press.

Link
A link is defined as a member or a combination of members of a mechanism,
connecting other members and having motion relative to them. Thus a link may consists of
one or more resistant bodies. A slider crank mechanism consists of four links: frame, slider,
connecting rod and crank. Frame is the link which does not have any relative motions.

Fig:1 Slider-Crank Mechanism

Types of Links

Links can be classified into binary, ternary and quaternary etc. depending upon their
ends on which revolute or turning pairs can be placed. There is no relative motion between
the joints within the link.

Fig: 2 Link Classifications

In order to transmit motion, the driver and the follower may be connected by the
following three types of links:
Rigid link. A rigid link is one which does not undergo any deformation while
transmitting motion. Strictly speaking, rigid links do not exist. However, as the deformation

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of a connecting rod, crank etc. of a reciprocating steam engine is not appreciable, they can be
considered as rigid links.
Flexible link. A flexible link is one which is partly deformed in a manner not to affect
the transmission of motion. For example, belts, ropes, chains and wires are flexible links and
transmit tensile forces only.
Fluid link. A fluid link is one which is formed by having a fluid in a receptacle and the
motion is transmitted through the fluid by pressure or compression only, as in the case of
hydraulic presses, jacks and brakes.

Types of Constraint Motion

1. Completely constrained motion
When the motion between a pair is limited to a definite direction irrespective of the
direction of force applied, then the motion is said to be a completely constrained motion. For
example, the piston and cylinder form a pair and the motion of the piston is limited to a
definite direction (i.e. it will only reciprocate) relative to the cylinder irrespective of the
direction of motion of the crank. The motion of a square bar in a square hole and the motion
of a shaft with collars at each end in a circular hole are examples of completely constrained
motion.

2. Incompletely constrained motion

When the motion between a pair can take place in more than one direction, then the
motion is called an incompletely constrained motion. The change in the direction of
impressed force may alter the direction of relative motion between the pair. A circular bar or
shaft in a circular hole is an example of an incompletely constrained motion as it may either
rotate or slide in a hole.

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3. Successfully constrained motion:

When the motion between the elements, forming a pair, is such that the constrained motion is
not completed by itself, but by some other means, then the motion is said to be successfully
constrained motion. Consider a shaft in a foot-step bearing. The shaft may rotate in a bearing
or it may move upwards. This is a case of incompletely constrained motion. But if the load is
placed on the shaft to prevent axial upward movement of the shaft, then the motion of the pair
is said to be successfully constrained motion. The motion of an I.C. engine valve (these are
kept on their seat by a spring) and the piston reciprocating inside an engine cylinder are also
the examples of successfully constrained motion.

Kinematic Pair
A kinematic pair is a joint of two links having relative motion between them. In a
slider crank mechanism (fig: 1) the crank rotates relative to the frame and constitutes a
revolute or turning pair. Similarly crank-connecting rod and connecting rod-slider constitute
turning pairs. The slider reciprocates relative to the frame and is a sliding pair.
Kinematic pair can be classified according to:
1. Nature of contact
2. Nature of mechanical constraint
3. Nature of relative motion
1. Classification according to Nature of Contact
a. Lower pair
A pair of links having surface area of contact between the members is known as a
lower pair. Example: nut turning on a screw, all pairs of a slider crank mechanism.
b. Higher pair
When a pair has a point or line of contact between the links, it is known as a higher
pair. Example: Cam and follower, tooth gears, ball and roller bearings.

2. Classification according to Nature of Mechanical Constraint

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a. Closed pair
When the elements of a pair are held mechanically, it is known as a closed pair. All
lower pairs and some higher pairs are closed pairs. Examples: A cam and follower shown in
Fig: 3a, screw pair.
b. Unclosed pair
When two links of a pair are in contact either due to force of gravity or some spring
action, they constitute an unclosed pair. Example: Cam and follower pair in Fig: 3b.

Fig: 3 Closed and Unclosed pair

3. Classification according to Nature of Relative Motion

a. Sliding Pair
If two links have sliding motion relative to each other, they form a sliding pair. A
rectangular rod in a rectangular hole in a prism is a sliding pair [Fig: 4a].
b. Turning Pair
When one link has a turning or revolving motion relative to other, they constitute a
turning or revolving pair. A circular shaft revolving inside a bearing is a turning pair [Fig:
4b]. In a slider crank mechanism all pairs except the slider and frame pair, are turning pairs.
c. Rolling Pair
When links of a pair have rolling motion relative to each other, they form a rolling
pair. Example: Ball or Roller Bearing [Fig: 4c].
d. Screw Pair (Helical Pair)
If two mating links have a turning as well as sliding motion between them, they form
a screw pair. This is achieved by cutting matching threads on the two links. The lead screw
and nut of a lathe is a screw pair [Fig: 4d].
e. Spherical Pair
When one link in the form of a sphere turns inside a fixed link, it is a spherical pair.
The ball and socket joint is a spherical pair [Fig: 4e].
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Fig: 4

Kinematic Chain
When the kinematic pairs are coupled in such a way that the last link is joined to the
first link to transmit definite motion (i.e. completely or successfully constrained motion), it is
called a kinematic chain.
For example, the crankshaft of an engine forms a kinematic pair with the bearings
which are fixed in a pair, the connecting rod with the crank forms a second kinematic pair,
the piston with the connecting rod forms a third pair and the piston with the cylinder forms a
fourth pair. The total combination of these links is a kinematic chain.
If each link is assumed to form two pairs with two adjacent links, then the relation
between the number of pairs  p  forming a kinematic chain and the number of links  l  may

be expressed in the form of an equation:

l  2p 4 ----------------------------------------- (1)

Another relation between the number of links  l  and the number of joints  j which

constitute a kinematic chain is given by the expression:

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j  l2 ----------------------------------------- (2)
2
The equations (1) and (2) are applicable only to kinematic chains, in which lower
pairs are used. These equations may also be applied to kinematic chains, in which higher

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pairs are used. In that case each higher pair may be taken as equivalent to two lower pairs
with an additional element or link.

Mechanism
When one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed, the chain is known as mechanism. It
may be used for transmitting or transforming motion e.g. engine indicators, typewriter etc.
A mechanism with four links is known as simple mechanism, and the mechanism with more
than four links is known as compound mechanism. When a mechanism is required to transmit
power or to do some particular type of work, it then becomes a machine. In such cases, the
various links or elements have to be designed to withstand the forces (both static and kinetic)
safely. A mechanism may be regarded as a machine in which each part is reduced to the
simplest form to transmit the required motion.

Grashof’s Law
Grashof’s law states that for a planar four bar linkage, the sum of the shortest and
largest link lengths cannot be greater than the sum of the remaining two link lengths if there
is to be continuous relative motion between two members. In a four bar mechanism the
longest link has length Land the shortest link has length S, the lengths of other two links are P
and Q. Then according to Grashof’s law,
S +L ≤ P + Q
If this inequality is not satisfied, no link makes complete revolution to another.

P
L

Degrees of Freedom
An unconstrained rigid body in space can describe the following independent motions
[Fig: 5]:
a) Translational motions along three mutually perpendicular axes x, y and z.
b) Rotational motions about these axes.