Autism in The Classroom Computer-Aided Instruction

Autism In The Classroom Computer-Aided Instruction Page |
Autism In The Classroom

Computer-Aided Instruction
Overview
Computer-aided instruction (CAI) is focused on the use of computers to teach academic skills as
well as to promote communication and language development skills. In the academic domain,
the evidence-based research studies focused on vocabulary and grammar. Within the
communication domain, studies targeted communicative functions and initiations. CAI meets
evidence-based practice criteria within the elementary and middle/high school age groups. CAI
has been used successfully in school settings and with all age groups.
What is Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI)?
According to Goldsmith and Leblanc (2004), computers have been used to teach a variety of
skills and can help learners:
o recognize and predict emotions,
o enhance problem solving,
o improve vocabulary,
o advance generative spelling,
o enhance vocal imitation,
o increase play-related statements, and
o improve reading and communication skills.

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Within the evidence base for CAI, this practice can be used to successfully teach communication
skills and enhance academic learning. Specifically, CAI is an effective means for teaching
vocabulary and grammar (Massaro & Bosseler, 2006; Hetzroni & Tannous, 2004; Bosseler &
Massaro, 2003; Moore & Calvert, 2000). It also has been demonstrated to be an effective means
for teaching communicative functions and related communication skills to learners with ASD
(Hetzroni & Tannous, 2004). Furthermore, CAI can be used to teach persons with ASD to
recognize and predict emotions in others (Silver & Oakes, 2001). Due to ever-changing
computer technology and the rapid introduction of computer software into the educational
market, this module will focus only on the salient aspects of CAI and how to choose computer
software that has been shown to be effective with learners with ASD. This module will not
address computer hardware configurations because the available software determines the type of
computer and operating system to be used. Also, software changes from time to time. Module
readers are encouraged to seek the input of technology support staff when determining
computing needs for CAI.
Why Use CAI?
There are a number of reasons why CAI can be used with learners with ASD. First,
characteristics of learners with ASD often include strengths in visual processing and preferences
for visual learning (Mesibov, Shea, & Schopler, 2005; Quill, 1997; Grandin, 1995; Schuler,
1995). Both of these characteristics are skills that are necessary for effective use of CAI. Many
learners with ASD have difficulty interacting with others. For example, they have considerable
difficulty with social reciprocity and interactions (American Psychiatric Association, 2000;
National Research Council, 2001). Because of these characteristics as well as the increasing
prevalence of computers both in and out of the classroom and the high cost of individualized
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instruction, computers are being used for some aspects of instructional time for learners with
ASD. Aspects of CAI that make it desirable include multi-sensory approaches (i.e., those that use
multiple senses such as visual, auditory, and tactile) structured environments (i.e., settings that
have a clear purpose and are well defined either visually or functionally), interactive functions,
and individualization and independence of use (Hetzroni & Tannous, 2004). Although CAI is
most often used to teach specific academic and communication skills, some studies have found it
to be effective in increasing motivation and attention as well (Hetzroni & Tannous, 2004; Silver
& Oakes, 2001; Moore & Calvert, 2000).
Who Can Use CAI, Where Can It Be Used, and What Are the Challenges?
CAI can be used across a range of environments by professionals and non-professionals,
including teachers, therapists, paraprofessional educators, parents, siblings, and other family
members. Because of the overwhelming number of computer hardware and software options,
many factors must be taken into account when deciding to use CAI. They include:
o identifying the target of instruction (i.e., the skill or behavior being taught),
o becoming familiar with the variety of software options available,
o being technologically savvy enough to identify whether or not the software will work on
available computers and operating systems,
o making oneself familiar with the software chosen and the computer on which it will
operate prior to beginning instruction,
o identifying available technology support,

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o understanding how to introduce learners and those who support them to the specific CAI
chosen,
o knowing how to prompt successfully and fade prompting as necessary to promote
independent interactions between the learner and the CAI, and
o collecting and monitoring data regarding learners' use of the CAI and their progress
toward target skills and related goals.
This module provides guidelines for promoting successful use of CAI with learners with ASD by
focusing on these factors.
With What Ages is CAI Most Effective?
The evidence base for CAI includes studies conducted with learners ranging from 3 to 18 years
of age. Within the domain of communication skills, the research has shown success with early
childhood as well as middle and high school students. For the area of academics and cognition,
learners in all three age categories (early childhood, elementary, and secondary) were
successfully taught a variety of skills using CAI. In short, depending on the target skill and the
needs/preferences of the learner, CAI may be used with nearly any age.
Are Any Assessments Needed Before Implementing CAI?
If you are considering implementing CAI with learners with ASD, some assessments have likely
already been completed. These may include formal tests of intelligence and adaptive functioning
including social interactions and communication skills. It is important to supplement information
derived from these formal measures with informal assessments such as observation, record
review, and interviews with learners and/or those individuals who support them (e.g., teacher,
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parent, paraprofessional). For some learners, it will be important to work with an occupational
therapist to determine if learners have the manual dexterity and fine motor skills to utilize a
traditional computer keyboard and/or mouse, or if an alternative device will be needed.
Informal assessments also should include some trials with a variety of CAI software options and
hardware configurations. If you are in a school setting, ask teachers and other staff what software
they use and how their students have responded to it. It is helpful to ask the parents of the learner
what software programs they have found useful at home. It is possible, even likely, that software
that is appealing to typically developing learners will be enjoyed by learners with ASD. Other
options for locating CAI software include stores that sell computer software, educational product
companies, and internet stores. In the Citation and References section at the end of this module, a
brief sampling of some of these sources is provided. Please note that we are not endorsing them.
They are provided as a starting point as you integrate CAI into your educational routines.
Step-by-Step Instructions
The following steps for implementation are actually guidelines for the general use of computer
software for instructional purposes. Thus, the steps used with purchased software will vary
according to the instructions that accompany them. The general guidelines for implementing CAI
are described in the following section.
Step 1. Identifying the Target Instruction
Practitioners/adults:
o refer to a learner's IEP or IFSP to identify the learner's goals.
o discuss goals with IEP/IFSP team members, family, and learner.

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o select a goal to be the target of instruction and ensure that the behavior is
observable and measurable.
The first step in implementing CAI is to identify the skills or behaviors that you want to teach via
the computer. The learner's Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) or Individualized
Education Program (IEP) will specify priorities and specific goals. From a review of the listed
goals, and discussion with learners, their families, and other team members, a specific skill (e.g.,
improved spelling, increased vocabulary) or behaviors (e.g., recognizing the emotions of other
people during conversations) should be identified as the target of instruction. It is important to
ensure that the behavior or skill is observable and measurable. For example, "Brendon will
increase his reading vocabulary by 50% across the school year, as measured by curriculum based
assessments."
Step 2. Collecting Baseline Data
Practitioners/adults collect baseline data appropriate for the targeted skill.
Once the specific skill has been identified and operationalized, baseline data are gathered on the
learner's use of the skill. Data may be gathered by multiple methods, depending on the skill or
behavior.
For example, if the target skill is to improve spelling, data may be gathered from permanent
products such as spelling tests, writing samples, and other written work. Another example of a
target skill could be to increase vocabulary. Again, data may be gathered from permanent
products such as writing samples or a vocabulary test that measures words in the learner's
vocabulary compared to a group sample and normed by age or grade. For target social skills,
such as recognizing and correctly interpreting the facial expressions of others, pre- and post-tests
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may be used that show pictures of people with a variety of facial expressions while asking
learners to identify simple emotions such as happy, sad, angry, or puzzled.
Practitioners/adults collect data on a minimum of three occasions to establish an accurate
baseline for the targeted skill.
Next, practitioners/adults collect an adequate amount of data on the target skill to establish an
accurate baseline. A good rule of thumb for baseline data is to collect it on a minimum of three
occasions to secure a measure of the target skill prior to instruction. If the data do not appear to
be stable (i.e., unchanging), consider collecting additional data until you have a typical estimate
of the learner's abilities. If the learner's performance of the target skill is erratic, it may take more
baseline data points to get a feel for how they engage in the skill over time. The importance of
collecting baseline data cannot be over-emphasized. Progress can be accurately measured only if
the starting point is well defined.
Many computer programs have built in data collection features that track learners' progress. For
example, most computer programs that teach and promote keyboarding skills automatically track
the user's progress on words per minutes and errors made. This is an excellent additional source
of information, but should not be relied upon for data collection. Nearly all skills or behaviors
that might be taught by computer are generalizable to natural settings. Therefore, it is important
to collect data using the measures that occur in natural environments. For example, while a
computer program may help learners increase vocabulary, the important outcome is how learners
use that vocabulary in written and oral communication tasks. Practitioners may collect data on
the learner's use of new vocabulary in classes and other settings across the school day. Written
vocabulary use may be measured via permanent products such as writing samples or vocabulary
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tests. Oral vocabulary may be measured by verbal reports and observation. Curriculum-based
assessments may also be used to assess a learner's use of a learned skill outside of the computer
program in which the learner is learning and practicing the skill.
Step 3. Identifying Technology Support
o identify technology support personnel in the school/program building.
o identify technology support personnel within the district.
o review district policies concerning the use of computer technology.
Before proceeding with the purchase of computer software, identify and contact persons in your
building who provide computer support. These individuals may be official technology support
persons or others who have different titles, but are experts on all things related to computers.
Include them in planning by sharing information such as your goals for the use of computers and
software. The information these individuals have is invaluable, and establishing a working
relationship with them is a great investment. In addition to identifying the persons who provide
technology support in your building, it is wise to know who supports computer use at the district
level. Familiarize yourself with any school policies concerning the use of computer technology.
Step 4. Identifying Available Computers for Use
o gather information about general computer specifications.

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o check schedules for computer availability for classroom, in media centers, or
libraries.
o develop a schedule for the learner's use of available computers and share with
others.
Prior to investing time, money, and effort in acquiring software that addresses the target of
instruction, identify and schedule times when learners can use computers within the
school/program. The following information may be helpful during this task:
o What type of computer (Mac or PC) is available?
o What type of operating system is on the computer (e.g., Windows XP or Vista for PCs,
OS X Leopard v 10.5 or later for Macs)?
o Where is the computer located (e.g., classroom, library, lab)?
o What types of drives does the computer have (e.g., CD, DVD, CD/DVD combination,
floppy, ISB Port)?
o Does the computer have internet access?
o Is the computer on a network (i.e., linked to other computers on the same server)?
o Does the computer have access to a printer and is it connected?
o Are the computer's keyboard and mouse in good working order?
o Does the computer have special adaptations (e.g., voice activated, large print monitor for
individuals with visual impairments)?

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Once you have gathered information about available computers, check classroom and school-
wide calendars to identify times that computers may be used by the learners. Create a schedule
for the learner's use of available computers and share this information with appropriate staff.
Step 5. Identify Appropriate Software
o check available software on existing accessible computers.
o ask school/program staff about their use of software.
o ask learners and their families about preferred software.
o inquire about appropriate software from vendors and retail stores, if necessary.
o review preview options and return policies prior to purchase.
CAI may be selected as an evidence-based instructional strategy because the learner already has
an interest in computers or because of the availability of software to teach the target skill or
behavior. If you are not aware of available software, the following suggestions might help:
o Check software already installed on accessible computers.
o Ask teachers and other staff (e.g., computer lab monitors, library staff) what software
they have or are familiar with and like.
o Ask learners, peers, and families what software they have or are familiar with and like.
o Visit a computer store that carries software and talk with sales people about popular titles
for the age of learners with whom you will be working. Ask for a demonstration of
software.
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o Conduct an internet search using the following keywords: computers, software, the age of
learner, autism or ASD, and the specific skill being targeted. You may also browse
popular internet stores that sell books and software. Many sites have search engines that
will allow you to browse by age, skill set, and so forth.
o Ask about software preview options and return policies before ordering software. It can
get expensive, not to mention discouraging, to purchase software, find out that it is not
exactly what is needed, and then learn that it cannot be returned.
Step 6. Selecting and Installing Software After you have identified software
options, choose the actual software to be purchased for use in CAI.
Practitioners/adults select software that:
◦explicitly teaches the target skill or behavior;
◦is age appropriate (for example, a Sesame Street program is appropriate for early childhood and
early elementary learners, but not for later elementary, middle, or high school age learners);
◦is compatible with the computer identified in Step 4; and
◦is user-friendly, meaning that it has a clear progression of steps, easy to follow on-screen
guides or menus, and readily identified help access (e.g., a button on every page that will take the
learner back to the main menu).

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Practitioners/adults install software and make it accessible for learners.
When you have chosen a program and acquired it, be sure to read through installation
procedures and get assistance from your technology support persons, if needed. Install the
software, so that it is easily accessible for learners by placing the program icon on the computer
desktop or in a folder that is readily identified. Go through all of the installation steps and, if
required, restart your computer before moving on to the software tutorial.
Step 7. Learning the Software
o try out the program before introducing it to the learner.
o select a starting point that is a good match with the learner's interests and abilities.
If the program comes with a tutorial, proceed through it before trying to use the software or
introducing the learner or others to the program. Once you have completed the tutorial, spend
some time getting acquainted with the program by moving through various activities, games, or
levels and looking for places that the learner may have difficulties. If the software offers a
variety of levels and activities, take this opportunity to select one or two that you feel will be a
good match to the interests and abilities of the learner. As you begin to feel comfortable with the
program, you can move ahead to task analysis.
Step 8. Completing a Task Analysis
Practitioners/adults complete an analysis of the steps for accessing the software within
CAI, and provide it to the learner.

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Breaking down the task, or task analysis, is an important step in CAI, because it helps learners
use computers more independently. This task analysis is specific to how one launches and uses
the computer software that is installed and should not be confused with a task analysis of the
target skill. A task analysis for running and launching the computer software might include the
following steps:
o Sit at computer.
o Turn on computer (if it isn't already on).
o Open CD drive.
o Insert selected software.
o Close CD drive.
o Launch program via icon that pops up once CD loads.
o Use software for desired length of time.
o Exit program.
o Remove CD from drive.
o Place CD in case and put away.
o Close CD drive.
o Shut down computer.
Practitioners/adults create a troubleshooting guide for the computer software
and provide it to the learner.

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Learners may find it helpful to have a specific troubleshooting guide created for the particular
software. An example of this might include:
o If the software does not open when the CD is inserted in the drive, try double-clicking on
the (CD designated) drive. Once this opens, double click on the program launch icon.
o If you reach a level that is too difficult and want to go back, press the ESC key on the
computer keyboard. This key will take you back to the main menu of the software.
o If the software freezes during play, wait 30 seconds and try again. If it still does not work,
try pressing the ESC key. If it still does not work, ask an adult to assist you.
An example for a younger learner, a learner who does not read, or a learner who is not
technically oriented may include shorter phrases or key words, icons with words, or just icons to
represent the steps for troubleshooting. Clearly, this step must be individualized based on the
abilities and preferences of the learner using CAI.
Step 9. Teaching the Software to Others
o introduce the software to those who work with the learner at school and at home.
o link the use of the software to target skills.
o provide support persons with the task analysis for computer use.
o allow support persons time to try out the program and ask questions.
At this point, it is appropriate to introduce the software to those who work with and support the
learner. This may include other teachers, classroom assistants, peers, and family members.
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Explain how the program addresses or teaches target skills. Provide them with an overview of
the task analysis and of the computer program. Then allow them time to explore with the
software program and ask questions before they work with the learner.
Step 10. Teaching the Learner
Practitioners/adults provide opportunities for learners to practice basic computer skills.
This step may be completed at any time prior to introduction of the software and may not be
necessary for all learners. If the learner has limited experience with computers or is very young,
you will need to teach some basic computer skills. These may include:
o sitting at the computer;
o wearing headphones (often a necessity in public settings where multiple types of
instruction occur simultaneously);
o looking at, listening to, and responding to the computer screen;
o using a mouse and/or keyboard (and possibly other specialized equipment, such as a
touch pad or a touch screen);
o taking turns, if the computer software has multi-user options; or
o treating the computer equipment with care (e.g., not banging or throwing the mouse, not
hitting the keyboard or screen when frustrated, knowing how to turn the computer off and
on, and how to ask for help if difficulties ensue).
If learners are already expert computer users, you may skip this step entirely. If they have had
some experience with computers, these skills may be reviewed as you teach the task analysis and
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begin working with the new software. If learners have not had much experience with computers,
you may choose to teach these skills with a simple game or program that is already installed and
has a clear cause/effect action. For example, a game designed for preschool and early elementary
learners who have not used a mouse before plays happy music and shows bubbles floating across
the screen. Learners merely have to move the mouse over the bubbles to make them pop.
Learners can move to the next level once this motion is learned, where a click of the left mouse
button pops the bubbles.
If necessary, practitioners/adults identify additional reinforcers to pair with computer use
to promote learner engagement and to teach basic computer skills.
An additional task that may be useful with some learners (especially those who have little or no
experience with computers) is to identify reinforcers that can be paired with the computer
software to motivate them to engage in the program long enough to experience success.
Step 11. Introducing Learner to Software
o explain to the learner how the program will help them learn and practice target
skills.
o model the task analysis for accessing the program.
o demonstrate basic program functions, if necessary.
o give the learner time to try the program while providing feedback and assistance.
Having completed all of the prerequisite steps, now it is time to actually begin working with
learners and the new computer software program. Talk with learners about the target skills or
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behaviors that the software will help them to learn and practice. Sit with them at the computer
while you model the task analysis for accessing and starting the program. Once the program has
launched, demonstrate the basic functions of the program. You may want to give some learners
access to the program right away and just sit with them while they initially use it. For other
learners with less computer experience, you may have them observe you using the program and
then sit with and assist them as they move through various levels of the program. Regardless of
learners' abilities, it will be important to have someone who has had experience with the program
to be immediately available to answer questions or provide assistance.
Step 12. Multiple Opportunities to Practice
o explain to the learner how the program will help them learn and practice target
skills.
o model the task analysis for accessing the program.
o demonstrate basic program functions, if necessary.
o give the learner time to try the program while providing feedback and assistance.
Having completed all of the prerequisite steps, now it is time to actually begin working with
learners and the new computer software program. Talk with learners about the target skills or
behaviors that the software will help them to learn and practice. Sit with them at the computer
while you model the task analysis for accessing and starting the program. Once the program has
launched, demonstrate the basic functions of the program. You may want to give some learners
access to the program right away and just sit with them while they initially use it. For other
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learners with less computer experience, you may have them observe you using the program and
then sit with and assist them as they move through various levels of the program. Regardless of
learners' abilities, it will be important to have someone who has had experience with the program
to be immediately available to answer questions or provide assistance.
Step 13. Providing Ongoing Support
Practitioners/adults provide learners with access to staff persons for assistance and to
answer questions during CAI time.
As learners become more independent with the use of the computer and the specific software
program, you may find that they do not need on-going supervision or assistance. If that is the
case, celebrate! That is a wonderful thing. Regardless of how adept learners are in accessing and
engaging in CAI, it will be important that they know how to seek assistance from a staff member
or peer should they need help at any point.
Step 14. Collecting Data
o collect data on the target skill in a format similar to baseline data collection.
o use data to make instructional decisions regarding the target skill or behavior.
Be sure to collect data on the progress of the target skill during the use of CAI is as the initial
collection of baseline data is important. As mentioned in Step 2, you may find that the program
has a data collection mechanism. These data may prove useful for providing learners with
immediate feedback as they use the software and may also be useful information to share with
learners' families and others on their team. Again, do not rely on these data alone for monitoring
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learner progress toward goals. Using the same procedures that were used to collect data at
baseline, continue to collect data regularly on how the learner uses and generalizes the target
skill being taught or supported via CAI. That is, in addition to any information gathered by the
computer program, also assess the learner's use of the target skill or behavior in school and other
environments.
Next Steps
Once you have successfully implemented CAI with a learner in your setting, you will likely find
that other learners (and perhaps adults in the setting as well) will be interested in joining in. For
learners who are successful with CAI, additional opportunities for its use will likely emerge.
Next steps may include using CAI with small groups of learners, using CAI in the context of
Peer-Mediated Instruction and Interventions, or finding new topics of interest or skill sets with
which to use CAI. Some practitioners report that even when learners reach mastery level with
some CAI programs, they continue to enjoy using the program. In these situations, learners can
continue to use CAI to promote the use of learned skills or behaviors.
Case Study Examples
Three case study examples are provided to demonstrate how computer-aided instruction might be
used. Jessie is a 4-year-old in an inclusive kindergarten program in his neighborhood school. He
is working on readiness skills, and the CAI is designed to help him increase his ability to "sit" for
longer periods of time and also to teach "mouse" skills. Brady is an 11-year-old in a rural setting.
The CAI goal for Brady is to increase receptive and expressive language. Finally, Lorna is a 14-
year-old without optimal inclusive opportunities. As the adults plan for her transition language
and recreation skills have become a priority. CAI will be used to improve these skills.
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Jessie
Case Study: Jessie
Jessie is a four-year-old boy with PDD-NOS who spends his mornings in an inclusive
kindergarten (4-K) program in his neighborhood school. He spends afternoons in an early
childhood program for children with ASD that meets in a school across town. Jessie's goals this
school year are to develop his school readiness skills, continue to build on his verbal
communication skills, and increase his ability to endure the school day. Several times this year,
he has had to go home following morning kindergarten because of behavioral episodes. His
parents and teachers report that he tires easily and that the demands of 4-K have been
challenging for him. A therapist in the afternoon early childhood program has commented that
Jessie does better if he has some time away from the typical demands of the school day upon
arrival. While not wanting to give up precious instructional time, the team has decided to use
computer-aided instruction to give Jessie a break from interactions and task demands, while
providing him with opportunities to practice some school readiness skills.
Step 1. Identifying the Target of Instruction
Jessie has two specific goals that will be addressed with CAI. The first goal is for Jessie to
increase his ability to sit at and attend to the computer for 15 minutes at a time with minimal
adult assistance (i.e., two or fewer verbal reminders), four out of five times across two
consecutive weeks. The second goal is that Jessie will learn to use the mouse (i.e., manipulate it
across the table top to make the cursor move where he desires, and to use the left click to select
items or initiate actions) 100% of the time (with no banging or hitting of the mouse) for two
consecutive weeks.
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Observational baseline data show that Jessie is currently able to attend to computer programs that
others manipulate for up to seven minutes. Jessie sometimes gets excited about the program and
hit the keyboard or grab the mouse, but does not yet know how to use them appropriately.
Steps 3, 4, and 5. Identifying Technology Support, Identifying Available Computers for
Use, and Identifying Appropriate Software
The early childhood program has two computers in the classroom that are used with and by
children. Program-staff feel fairly confident in using software and have checked with district
technology support staff about installing new software. If Jessie does well with and enjoys the
software, the four-year old kindergarten teacher is willing to also have the program installed on a
computer that her class uses in the elementary school's computer lab. The team believes that
Jessie will do well with the software and may also quickly learn how to use other software at the
elementary school.
The team decides to purchase and use a Reader Rabbit Preschool TM software program. Jessie's
older sister (who is typically developing) enjoyed Reader Rabbit TM software at home when she
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was in preschool and kindergarten, and some of the teachers and therapists in the preschool
program have had experience with other Reader Rabbit TM software. The team discussed whether
or not to use the preschool or kindergarten software and decided to start with the preschool
version so Jessie is not overwhelmed. Another advantage of the preschool software is that it
teaches the use of the mouse in phases. Initially, the learner only has to move the mouse over the
icons to make something happen (thus establishing cause and effect). As learners progress, they
are introduced to using the left click button to initiate cause and effect. Remember, that the
primary use of CAI at this point is to help Jessie develop endurance for the school day. The team
wants him to readily master and enjoy the software before increasing demands. They agree that if
Jessie does well with the preschool version, they can easily acquire the kindergarten version.
Step 6 and 7. Selecting and Installing Software and Learning the Software
The Reader RabbitTM software is purchased online through a website that offers educator
discounts. In this instance, the software is not very expensive so the early childhood program is
willing to pay for the software out of their materials budget. They rationalize that the software
will likely be used by multiple learners. All school district computers must have an administrator
(i.e., someone from technology support) to install or download computer programs, so the early
childhood teacher contacts that person and he agrees to load the software on the classroom
computer. As soon as the software is loaded, the teacher and educational assistant (EA) spend
time learning the software and identify aspects that they believe Jessie will like, as well as areas
with which he might have trouble. In this instance, both the teacher and the EA feel that Jessie
can start anywhere in the program and do well. They decide to have him use the software with
them initially until he is familiar with the options and then they will allow him to choose the
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activities he most prefers during computer time. Because Jessie has little previous experience
with computers, they feel that the preschool program is a good match with his skills.
Step 8 and 9. Completing a Task analysis of Steps for Using Software and Teaching the
Software to Others Who Support the Learner
Because Jessie is only four, and other learners his age do not independently use the classroom
computers, the teacher decides to create a checklist for staff to use when launching the software
with Jessie. The team agrees that, with experience, Jessie can be instructed on more steps so that
he can use the software more independently. However, his focus for now should be on spending
time at the computer and using the mouse and keyboard appropriately. The checklist that the
teacher creates for herself and others to assist Jessie with using the software is as follows:
1. Turn on computer (if it is not already on)
2. Log-on to computer (if necessary)
3. Open CD drive and insert disk
4. Close CD drive
5. Have Jessie sit at computer
6. Using hand-over-hand physical guidance, help Jessie double click on the desktop icon for
the desired computer program.
7. While the software loads, stay with Jessie and remind him to not use the keyboard or the
mouse (i.e., point out the hourglass icon that means the software is loading). Place a
"stress" ball (i.e., fidget toy) near the keyboard so that Jessie can keep his hands busy, if
necessary.
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8. Once the software loads and the welcome or introductory screen is showing, help Jessie
choose a beginning activity (using hand-over-hand physical guidance to help him click on
the appropriate icon).
9. Initially, stay with Jessie and help him learn to use the program appropriately. This will
likely involve hand-over-hand physical prompting at first; however, prompts should be
faded quickly to a touch prompt, a gesture (visual) prompt, and then possibly no
prompting or an occasional verbal prompt. Once Jessie is able to interact with the
program with few mistakes or frustrations, stay near him to provide assistance if he
encounters difficulty in using the program.
10. Praise Jessie for the things he does well and encourage him as he increases his time at the
computer. The focus is on increasing his time at the computer skills and his enjoyment at
school while he has a break from academic task and social demands.
11. If Jessie begins to show signs of frustration or boredom with the software, help him
"Exit" the program, and allow him to move on to something else.
12. After Jessie has exited the program, eject the CD from the CD drive and put it in its case
for storage.
13. If appropriate, shut down the computer.
Step 10. Teaching the Learner Basic Computer Skills
Jessie's team decides not to spend a lot of time teaching Jessie multiple aspects of computer use.
They want him to have a good experience with this first software, and they feel that once he has
learned to use the computer successfully, additional computer skills can be added. The specific
25
computer skills that the team will focus on for Jessie include using the mouse and keyboard in
appropriate ways. If Jessie gets excited while using the program and begins banging either the
keyboard or the mouse, the adult helper will interrupt the behavior and implement hand-over-
hand guidance to use the tool appropriately, while gently reminding Jessie not to hit the mouse or
keyboard.
Step 11. Introducing the Learner to the Software
Using the task analysis generated in Step 9, the teacher, EA, or other adult helper introduce
Jessie to the Reader RabbitTM preschool software and support him throughout its use. Baseline
data indicated that Jessie could attend to the computer when others were using it for up to seven
minutes. Therefore, the initial goal for Jessie will be to stay at the computer for five minutes,
stopping before he becomes bored or frustrated. However, if Jessie indicates that he wants to
interact with the software for longer than five minutes, the adult helper can extend the time. The
important feature here is to stop before Jessie becomes bored or frustrated and follow computer
time with another desirable activity (such as snack time, or time in the swing - two of Jessie's
highly preferred activities).
Step 12 and 13. Providing Learner with Multiple Opportunities to Use Computer, and
Providing Ongoing Support to Learner during Software/Computer Use
Jessie initially uses the computer with the Reader RabbitTM software as soon as he arrives at the
early childhood program in the afternoon. Once he has become accustomed to the program and
when he requests access to it, he may be allowed to also use the software during free-choice time
toward the end of the school day. As noted in Steps 9 and 11, the adult helper will initially
remain with Jessie throughout his computer time. As Jessie becomes more adept at using the
26
software and experiences fewer frustrations with using the mouse and keyboard appropriately,
the adult may move away from him, but should remain available at all times in order to assist
him as needed.
Step 14. Collect Data on Acquisition of Target Skill
Adult helpers should continue to take data on how long Jessie uses the CAI software, as well as
his ability to intentionally and appropriately use the mouse and keyboard to interact with the
software. The example data sheets shown below demonstrate how baseline and progress
monitoring data were collected for Jessie.
Jessie's Computer Use
Goal 1:
Jessie will increase his ability to sit at and attend to the computer to 15 minutes at a time with
minimal adult assistance (2 or fewer verbal reminders), four out of five times across two
consecutive weeks.
27
Jessie's Computer Use
Goal 2:
Jessie will learn to use the mouse (i.e., manipulate it across the table top to make the cursor move
where he desires, and to use the left click to select items or initiate actions), 100% of the time
(with no banging or hitting of the mouse) for two consecutive weeks.
Next Steps for Jessie
Within the first two weeks of CAI use, Jessie looks forward to his computer time with Reader
RabbitTM each day after lunch. Staff feel CAI is helping Jessie transition from the K4 setting to
the EC setting, thus building his endurance for the school day. There have been fewer behavioral
incidents during the transition, supporting the belief that CAI is a helpful activity for Jessie. As
for the actual computer use, Jessie has increased the amount of time he can sit at the computer
28
and needs less physical guidance as he becomes more adept with using the mouse. He has made
progress toward both of his goals in this area. The plan is for Jessie to continue to have Reader
RabbitTM time each day upon his arrival to EC and to offer it as an option during free choice time
toward the end of the school day. Jessie's parents are interested in acquiring the program for him
to use at home on the weekends.
Brady
Case Study: Brady
Brady is an 11 year old student with a diagnosis of autism. He goes to school in a small rural
district that has a very inclusive program. Brady has a general goal of increasing his receptive
and expressive language skills for academic tasks. Currently, he is scheduled for language arts
and reading in the READ180 (copyright 1999, Scholastic Inc.) classroom at his school.
Brady's goal of increasing receptive and expressive language skills for academic tasks has
several related objectives. His team considers where Brady is at in the READ180 program and
decides to focus on the following objective: Brady will identify the use of figurative language,
such as, idiom, metaphor, and simile in sentence and paragraph level material and verbally
express a non-literal interpretation in 7 out of 10 opportunities.

29
Baseline data were collected via READ180 rSkills tests (curriculum-based assessment) and
showed that Brady is not at grade level for the interpretation or use of figurative language. These
data were confirmed with an informal verbal assessment in which the teacher read seven
sentences and three short paragraphs that included a variety of idioms, metaphors, and similes
and then asked Brady, "What did that mean?" or "What do you think the author was saying?"
Brady was able to identify only three of the examples of figurative language correctly.
Steps 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. Identifying Technology Support, Identifying Available Computers
for Use, Identifying Appropriate Software, Selecting and Installing Software and Learning
the Software
These five steps do not have to be addressed in this situation as the READ180 curriculum had
already been purchased and adopted by the district. Thus, technology support has already
installed the related software on classroom computers and the teachers using the program with
learners have already been through a workshop on its use that is offered as part of the price of the
curriculum.
Step 8, 9, and 10. Completing a Task analysis of Steps for Using Software, Teaching the
Software to Others Who Support the Learner, and Teaching the Learner Basic Computer
Skills
As with Steps 3 - 7 above, Step 9 only needs to be done for staff who were unable to participate
in the initial training offered by the makers of READ180. This particular curriculum offers an
online training option for those who are unable to attend the initial two day workshop. Steps 8
and 10 may be individualized for Brady using materials provided with the curriculum. In Brady's
30
case, he has worked on computers both at home and at school in the past and has demonstrated
competence in basic computer skills.
Steps 11, 12, and 13. Introducing Learner to the Software, Providing Learner with
Multiple Opportunities to Use Computer, and Providing Ongoing Support to Learner
during Software/Computer Use
Brady is introduced to the software with the rest of the class during the whole group time and
subsequent small group rotations, one aspect of which is engagement with the READ180
software. This curriculum package, like many others that include computer aided instruction
comes with complete instructions on engaging and supporting learners in the use of the
materials. Brady has more questions than his classmates the first few times he interacts with the
software and has a tendency to spend too long on practicing and recording words and phrases, so
the educational assistant who works with him during the class stays close during his computer
time.
Step 14. Collecting Data on Acquisition of Target Skill
Brady's progress in READ180 is monitored through the program's included curriculum-based
assessments. His case manager, speech and language therapist, and educational assistant also
informally assess his understanding and use related to figurative language every week by reading
sentences, phrases, and paragraphs similar to the ones used in baseline that illustrate idioms,
metaphors, and similes and questioning him on what they mean or what he thinks the author
means with their use.

31
Next Steps for Brady
Brady is enjoying his participation in all aspects of the READ180 program, particularly the
individualized instruction he receives during the computer time. His teachers feel that he is
making progress in his understanding and use of figurative language, among other things. As the
program is available and will continue to be available for him through this and the next school
year, they decide to link all of the objectives for his goal of increasing his receptive and
expressive language skills in academic tasks to the program. They also feel, however, that it is
important to assess his understanding and use of language in other settings across the day as
well, both academically and socially to be sure that what he is learning in language arts and
reading is generalizing to other subjects and settings and that Brady's language use is functional
and successful.
Lorna
Case Study: Lorna
Lorna is a 14-year-old girl with autistic disorder (i.e., classic autism). While she is verbal, Lorna
does not initiate interactions and needs to be encouraged to use complete sentences and to make
varied word choices. Lorna attends school in a district that values inclusion, but has had
difficulties in supporting learners of varying abilities across all environments. Thus, Lorna
spends about a third of her day in a resource setting so that she can focus on math and language
arts. In addition to goals for social skills and career development, Lorna has a language arts (LA)
goal of increasing her vocabulary (both written and verbally). As Lorna's team has begun
thinking about her transition to adult life, they have prioritized vocabulary that is functional (i.e.,
32
words that she needs to recognize and use for independent functioning). She also has a recreation
goal that is focused on teaching her what to do with her down time other than watching
television or videos.
Lorna's LA goal is to increase her vocabulary by 25 words and to use new words in written and
spoken format. Specifically, Lorna will add two to four new words a week to her vocabulary and
use them in written language arts activities. She also will practice using the words during
interactions with others at least three times a week.
Baseline data indicate that Lorna is not at age level for receptive. She scored four years younger
than her actual age level on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. In expressive language use,
Lorna's teachers and parents describe her as being very quiet, with few initiations. She uses one
or two word phrases to make requests (e.g., "More please," "Done now,") and often responds to
initiations of others with short, one word answers (e.g., "Yes," "No," "Goodbye"). All team
members agree that Lorna's receptive vocabulary is more important for independent functioning
(e.g., being able to follow directions, identify materials), but her parents would like to see her
using verbal language in social contexts as well.

33
Steps 3, 4, 5 and 6. Identifying Technology Support, Identifying Available Computers for
Use, Identifying Appropriate Software, and Selecting and Installing Software
The high school that Lorna is transitioning into has computers in numerous areas including the
library, a computer lab, a learning center, and in some classrooms. Lorna's case manager has
spoken with the technology support staff at the high school and they have identified computers in
three settings that Lorna can use throughout her school day (either by assignment or by choice).
The LA teacher and case manager conducted an internet search and identified a software
program called, "Concentrate! On Words and Concepts" (copyright 2003, Laureate Learning
Systems, Inc.), that teaches vocabulary (word categorization, word association, and word
association by function) in a memory game format. The software can be used by one or two
persons, emphasizing cooperative learning, short-term memory enhancement, and vocabulary
building. The software is designed for recreational use as well. While Lorna's vocabulary is
several years below age level, because of her age and the desire of her team to focus on
functional language, the team chooses to buy Level III of the software, which focuses on higher
level nouns. They contact the seller of the software and learn that there is a 60-day money back
34
option (minus shipping and handling). If the software does not turn out to be a good match, it can
be returned. They also learn that the software can only be installed on one computer, so they
choose to have it installed on a computer in the computer lab. The lab is accessible to Lorna at
any time during the school day.
Step 7. Learning the Software
Once the software program is installed, Lorna's case manager, LA teacher, and educational
assistant (EA) become familiar with the program. They are pleased with the level of vocabulary
in the program, believing it will allow Lorna to increase her functional vocabulary without
overwhelming her. They also like that the software can be used in a recreational format either
alone or with a partner. The LA teacher will encourage Lorna to ask a peer in her LA class to
play the game with her (once she is familiar and competent with the program).
35
Step 8, 9, and 10. Completing a Task analysis of Steps for Using Software, Teaching the
Software to Others Who Support the Learner, and Teaching the Learner Basic Computer
Skills
Lorna has used computers for a variety of school and recreational activities in the past and has
demonstrated competency with basic computer functions. However, she often needs to be
reminded to ask for help if she experiences a problem. Based on this, the team does not feel that
they need to teach Lorna basic computer skills, but instead will provide her with a visual
checklist of steps for accessing the program and handling problems that she encounters. An
example of Lorna's checklist appears to the right.
Lorna's support staff learned the computer program together in Step 7 and feel that the software
is intuitive enough for Lorna's peers and the various adults who work as computer lab monitors
to use. Thus, they do not feel the need to teach the software to others at this point. Due to the cost
of the software (over $100.00), it is unlikely that Lorna's family will want to purchase it for
home use.
Step 11. Introducing Learner to the Software
Now that the software has been purchased and installed, staff have familiarized themselves with
the program, and Lorna's visual checklist is in place (in her LA notebook since she shares the
computer with others in the lab), the case manager uses resource room time to introduce Lorna to
the program. As a precursor to using the software, the teacher reminds Lorna how to use the
computer by demonstrating how to sit at the computer, how to use the mouse and keyboard, and
what to do if she has a problem. This is followed by an introduction to the visual checklist and a
practice round of "Concentrate! On Words and Concepts." Once Lorna is comfortable with the
36
format, the teacher steps back, allowing her to interact with the program for a few minutes, but
staying close to answer questions or provide assistance as needed.
Step 12 and 13. Providing Learner with Multiple Opportunities to Use Computer, and
Providing Ongoing Support to Learner during Software/Computer Use
The LA teacher and case manager have arranged for Lorna to use 20 minutes of her regular LA
class time to go to the computer lab and use the "Concentrate! On Words and Concepts"
software. After Lorna has reviewed her homework at the end of the day and gathered materials
for going home, Lorna may choose to go to the computer lab again and use the software. As soon
as she has become comfortable with the software, Lorna will be encouraged to ask a classmate to
participate with her in the computer game during LA. With success, Lorna may go to the
computer lab during LA and Resource on her own. Until then, the case manager arranges for an
adult to be readily available during Lorna's computer use so that she can get assistance quickly if
she encounters a problem while using the computer.
Step 14. Collecting Data on Acquisition of Target Skill
The LA teacher, case manager, and EA continue to collect data on Lorna's use of newly acquired
vocabulary. When they previewed the software, the case manager and LA teacher made a list of
the vocabulary included in the software. The EA uses adapted worksheets (which highlight the
words from the program) to monitor Lorna's written vocabulary use. The case manager, who
serves as Lorna's resource teacher, spends time each week (three times) in conversations with
Lorna that focus on using the new vocabulary words. In this way, Lorna's goals of adding two to
four new words a week to her vocabulary (used in language arts activities) and using the words
in interactions with others at least three times a week may be met.

37
Next Steps for Lorna
Lorna learns to use the software fairly quickly and enjoys the memory game format. She
especially enjoys playing the two player version with a classmate or adult when she can. In
addition, Lorna is using the software game feature as a leisure activity in place of more television
watching. Unfortunately, she has learned all of the vocabulary offered in the software and there
is not a next level. From here, Lorna's team would like to see her begin to use computer
programs that are available to all students in the computer lab and online. When looking for
software to start Lorna with, her case manager and LA teacher found many websites that offer a
variety of vocabulary activities and games, often organized by grade and/or topic. To promote
vocabulary and language use to other settings (e.g., community, home), the team is turning their
attention to peer-mediated instruction and intervention.
Summary
Computer-aided instruction (CAI) is an intervention whose time has come. Technology is an
ever-increasing part of our daily lives and both hardware and software are increasingly
affordable for the average consumer. Learners with ASD who enjoy using computers may find
CAI a helpful tool for skills acquisition. Teachers also may find it useful for instruction. Parents
and other caregivers may find it an appealing teaching activity in the home setting. While CAI
should be implemented with forethought and care, its use can be an important and enjoyable part
of the instructional day. Those wishing to use CAI should communicate with available
technology support experts and use the support offered with many software packages from the
companies that produce and market them.

38
Citation and References

Collet-Klingenberg, L. (2010). Computer-aided instruction (CAI) for children with autism
spectrum disorders. (Madison, WI: The National Professional Development Center on
Autism Spectrum Disorders, The Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin.) In Ohio
Center for Autism and Low Incidence (OCALI), Autism Internet Modules,
www.autisminternetmodules.org. Columbus, OH: OCALI.
References
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (4th ed.- text revision). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Bosseler, A., & Massaro, D. W. (2003). Development and evaluation of a computer-

animated tutor for vocabulary and language learning in children with autism. Journal of
Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33(6), 653-672.
Goldsmith, T. R., & Leblanc, L. A. (2004). Use of technology in interventions for children
with autism. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention, 1(2), 166-178.
Grandin, T. (1995).Thinking in pictures. New York: Doubleday.
Hetzroni, O. E., & Shalem, U. (2005). From logos to orthographic symbols: A multilevel
fading computer program for teaching nonverbal children with autism. Focus on Autism
and Other Developmental Disabilities, 20(4), 201-212.
Hetzroni, O. E., & Tannous, J. (2004). Effects of a computer-based intervention program

on the communicative functions of children with autism. Journal of Autism and
Developmental Disorders, 34(2),95-113.
Massaro, D. W., & Bosseler, A. (2006). Read my lips: The importance of the face in a
computer-animated tutor for vocabulary learning by children with autism. Autism, 10(5),
495-510.
Mesibov, G. B,, Shea, V., & Schopler, E. (2005). The approach to autismspectrum
disorders. NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Moore, M., & Calvert, S. (2000). Brief report: Vocabulary acquisition for children with
autism: Teacher or computer instruction. Journal of Autism and Developmental
Disorders, 30(4), 359-362.
39
National Research Council (2001).Educating children with autism. Washington,DC:

National Academy Press.
Quill, K. (1997). Instructional considerations for young children with autism: The
Rationale for visually cued instructions. Journal of Autism and Developmental

Disorders, 21, 697-714.
Schuler, A. L. (1995). Thinking in autism: Differences in learning and development. In K.

A. Quill (Ed.), Teaching children with autism: Strategies to enhance communication and
socialization, (pp 11-32). NY: Delmar.
Silver, M., & Oakes, P. (2001). Evaluation of a new computer intervention to teach
people with autism or Asperger syndrome to recognize and predict emotions in others.
Autism, 5(3), 299-316.
Additional References
Blischak, D. M., & Schlosser, R. W. (2003). Use of technology to support independent
spelling by students with autism. Topics in Language Disorders, 23(4), 293-304.
Heinmann, M., Nelson, K., Tjus, T., & Gillberg, C. (1995). Increasing reading and
communication skills in children with autism through an interactive multimedia computer
program. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 25(5), 459-580.
Lahm, E. A. (1996). Software that engaged young children with disabilities: A study of
design features. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 11(2), 115-125.
Light, J. C., Roberts, D. B., Dimarco, R., & Greiner, N. (1998). Augmentative and
alternative communication to support receptive and expressive communication for
people with autism. Journal of Communication Disorders, 31, 153-178.
Mirenda, P, Wilk, D., & Carson, P. (2000). A Retrospective analysis of technology use
patterns of students with autism over a five-year period. Journal of Special Education
Technology, 15, 5-16.
Panyan, M. V. (1984) Computer technology for autistic students. Journal of Autism and
Developmental Disorders, 14(4), 275-382.
Schlosser, R.. W., Blischak, D. M., & Belfiore, P. J. (1998). Effects of synthetic speech
output and orthographic feedback on spelling in a student with autism: A preliminary
study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 28(4), 309-319.
40
Tjus, T., Heimann, M., & Nelson, K. E. (2001). Interaction patterns between children and
their teachers when using a specific multimedia and communication strategy. Autism,
5(2), 175-187.
Williams, C., Wright, B., Callaghan, G., & Coughlan, B. (2002). Do children with autism
learn to read more readily by computer assisted instruction or traditional book
methods?: A pilot study. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice,
6(1), 71-91.
Additional Resources
Internet Resources
http://animatedspeech.com/Research/research.html.This site is the home of Baldi (see

evidence-based article by Massaro & Bosseler, 2007). Includes tools for learning
speech and language skills.
http://www.broderbund.com/store/broder/DisplayHomePage. This company website

markets/sells Reader Rabbit and other educational software.
http://www.laureatelearning.com/. This company website offers information about

Concentrate! On Words and Concepts and other software for CAI and learners with
special needs.
http://teacher.scholastic.com/products/Read 180/. This company website markets/sells

READ 180 and other educational software. TM & Scholastic Inc. All rights reserved.
http://www.zacbrowser.com/ . This free internet browser designed for young learners

with ASD (early childhood through elementary ages); View this YouTube video for more
info on ZacBrowser:
Videos
Associated Press (2009, February 25). Zacbrowser [Video file] Video posted to
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJGncJatGUg&feature=PlayList&p=4A3B71861FAAF
FAB&index=23
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ArUT7XF7_Ss&feature=related. This website offers a

video of a young boy usingReader Rabbit software
41
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mtWhPLkgRjQ&feature=PlayList&p=4A3B71861FAA
FFAB&index=10. This links to a video of a boy and assistant using CAI with additional
visual supports.
Quiz
42
1. When collecting baseline data for CAI, data should be gathered on:
The learner’s general computer knowledge
The learner’s use of the intended software
The learner’s current level of skill or knowledge related to the target of instruction
2. Before using CAI, it is important to:

Identify technology support personnel in the building or the district
Review school district policies concerning the use of computer technology
Identify available computers and check their schedules for use by others
3. Practitioners should never use the same CAI software with multiple learners.
True
False
4. When using new CAI software, the teacher/practitioner should:

Have learner try the software on their own before the teacher provides instruction
Learn the software alongside the learners
Try out the software and find a good starting point, before engaging the learner
5. Since many software programs used with CAI have built in data-collection, the
teacher/practitioner does not need to collect data beyond baseline.
True
False

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Autism In The Classroom

What is Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI)?

skills and can help learners:

o recognize and predict emotions,

o enhance problem solving,

o advance generative spelling,

o enhance vocal imitation,

o increase play-related statements, and

o improve reading and communication skills.

computing needs for CAI.

Why Use CAI?

& Oakes, 2001; Moore & Calvert, 2000).

CAI can be used across a range of environments by professionals and non-professionals,

o becoming familiar with the variety of software options available,

available computers and operating systems,

operate prior to beginning instruction,

o identifying available technology support,

o knowing how to prompt successfully and fade prompting as necessary to promote

independent interactions between the learner and the CAI, and

toward target skills and related goals.

focusing on these factors.

With What Ages is CAI Most Effective?

Are Any Assessments Needed Before Implementing CAI?

including social interactions and communication skills. It is important to supplement information

traditional computer keyboard and/or mouse, or if an alternative device will be needed.

are described in the following section.

Step 1. Identifying the Target Instruction

o refer to a learner's IEP or IFSP to identify the learner's goals.

o discuss goals with IEP/IFSP team members, family, and learner.

observable and measurable.

people during conversations) should be identified as the target of instruction. It is important to

Step 2. Collecting Baseline Data

Practitioners/adults collect baseline data appropriate for the targeted skill.

learners to identify simple emotions such as happy, sad, angry, or puzzled.

Practitioners/adults collect data on a minimum of three occasions to establish an accurate

baseline for the targeted skill.

the starting point is well defined.

program in which the learner is learning and practicing the skill.

Step 3. Identifying Technology Support

o identify technology support personnel in the school/program building.

o identify technology support personnel within the district.

o review district policies concerning the use of computer technology.

Step 4. Identifying Available Computers for Use

o gather information about general computer specifications.

o check schedules for computer availability for classroom, in media centers, or

school/program. The following information may be helpful during this task:

o What type of computer (Mac or PC) is available?

OS X Leopard v 10.5 or later for Macs)?

o Where is the computer located (e.g., classroom, library, lab)?

floppy, ISB Port)?

o Does the computer have internet access?

o Does the computer have access to a printer and is it connected?

o Are the computer's keyboard and mouse in good working order?

individuals with visual impairments)?

Step 5. Identify Appropriate Software

o check available software on existing accessible computers.

o ask school/program staff about their use of software.

o ask learners and their families about preferred software.

o review preview options and return policies prior to purchase.

o Check software already installed on accessible computers.

they have or are familiar with and like.

will allow you to browse by age, skill set, and so forth.