Civil305 Classnotes v1.4+ (Aug+13 Blank) PDF

Course notes for: CIVL 305
Introduction to Environmental Engineering

(Water and Cities)
Instructor: Pierre Bérubé

Department of Civil Engineering
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, BC, Canada
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CIVL 305 - Introduction to Environmental Engineering 2
Course Outline and Expectations

Calendar Description: Environmental legislation; risk assessment; urban water; mass
balance; water and wastewater treatment; environmental impact assessment.
Credit Value: 3 Credits (3-0-0)

Lectures: MWF 9am (MacMillan 166)
Learning Outcomes
The intent of the course is to introduce you to the field of Environmental Engineering as
it relates to Water.
By the end of this course you should be able to:

• identify that the analysis of many Environmental Engineering processes requires the
use of mass and/or energy balances,
• apply mass and/or energy balances to quantify water use and assess risk to humans
and the environment from water use, and
• explain how risk assessment is used to develop regulations to protect humans and
the environment.
Reference Textbook
• Mihelcic J.R. and Zimmermann J.B., Environmental Engineering – Fundamentals,
Sustainability, Design, Second Edition, Wiley Publishing
• Mines R.O. and Lackey L.W., Introduction to Environmental Engineering,
Pearson/Prentice Hall Publishing
Examinations
• There will be two quizzes. The subject area and dates of the quizzes will be
announced in class and posted on Canvas. The quizzes are closed book but the
use of a calculator is permitted. An equation sheet will be provided (posed on
Canvas)
• The final exam will be “closed book”, but the use of a calculator and a single one-
sided 8.5 x 11 ‘cheat-sheet’ will be permitted. An equation sheet will be provided
(posted on Canvas)
Problem Sets
There will be four to five problem sets. The problem sets will be posted on Canvas. The
problem sets will not be marked. However, you are expected to complete these
problem sets. Solutions will be posted on Canvas.
Course Notes
Partially completed course notes will be posted on Canvas. You are responsible for
downloading updated course notes and any other relevant handouts from Canvas.
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Marks Breakdown
The marks will be assigned as follows:
• Quizzes: 40%
• Final exam: 60%
o You must pass the final exam in order to pass the course. If you fail the
final exam your course mark will be the same as your final exam mark.
Professional Conduct
Common courtesy to those around you is expected. During quizzes/exam, students
cannot seek aid from others, give aid to others, or make use of unauthorized materials
or aids. If leaving a lecture early or arriving late, please do so quietly and quickly with
minimum disruption. Just because the class is large does not mean you are invisible or
inaudible. No use of laptops or cell phones permitted during lectures.
Teaching Assistants
TBA
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Table of Contents
1 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING ........................................................................6
2 CONTROL VOLUMES .............................................................................................8
3 MASS BALANCES ..................................................................................................9
4 WATER SYSTEMS ................................................................................................12
4.1 Tera Scale ................................................................................................................................ 12
4.2 Macro Scale ............................................................................................................................. 14

4.2.1 Inputs:................................................................................................................................... 15
4.2.2 Outputs: ................................................................................................................................ 16
4.2.3 Water Systems in BC ............................................................................................................ 17
4.3 Micro Scale .............................................................................................................................. 18
5 MASS BALANCE ON WATER SYSTEMS ............................................................19
6 WATER FOR USE..................................................................................................20
6.1 Sources.................................................................................................................................... 20
6.2 Variability................................................................................................................................. 23
6.2.1 Spatial variability ................................................................................................................... 23
6.2.2 Temporal variability ............................................................................................................... 24
6.2.3 Climate change ..................................................................................................................... 26
6.3 Raw water Quality ................................................................................................................... 27

6.3.1 Water Quality Parameters ..................................................................................................... 27
6.4 Demand.................................................................................................................................... 32
6.4.1 Demand by Sector ................................................................................................................ 32
6.4.2 Demand management ........................................................................................................... 39
6.4.3 Fire flow ................................................................................................................................ 40
6.4.4 Equalization .......................................................................................................................... 42
6.5 Required Water Quality ........................................................................................................... 45

6.5.1 Risk Based Approach............................................................................................................ 45
6.5.2 Regulations ........................................................................................................................... 59
6.6 Treatment ................................................................................................................................ 66

6.6.1 Transformations .................................................................................................................... 68
6.6.2 Reactors ............................................................................................................................... 72
6.6.3 Transformations in Reactors ................................................................................................. 77
6.6.4 Technologies ........................................................................................................................ 81
6.6.5 Expected Performance .......................................................................................................... 83
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6.6.6 Water Quality Advisories ....................................................................................................... 85
6.7 Value of Water ......................................................................................................................... 87
7 USED WATER (A.K.A. WASTEWATER) ..............................................................91

7.1 Source ..................................................................................................................................... 91
7.1.1 From water that is used ......................................................................................................... 91
7.1.2 From Storm Water ................................................................................................................ 92
7.2 Used Water Quality ................................................................................................................. 95

7.2.1 Water Quality Parameters ..................................................................................................... 95
7.2.2 Typical Raw Used Water Quality ........................................................................................... 98
7.3 Production ............................................................................................................................... 99
7.4 Required Used Water Quality ............................................................................................... 100

7.4.1 Mixing of used water with receiving water body ................................................................... 101
7.4.2 Risk Based Approach.......................................................................................................... 106
7.4.3 Impact Based (Environment Impact Assessment) ................................................................ 107
7.4.4 Regulations ......................................................................................................................... 116
7.5 Treatment .............................................................................................................................. 119

7.5.1 Transformations .................................................................................................................. 121
7.5.2 Technologies ...................................................................................................................... 125
7.6 Value ...................................................................................................................................... 127

7.6.1 Local reuse ......................................................................................................................... 127
7.6.2 Sewer mining ...................................................................................................................... 128
7.6.3 Cascading ........................................................................................................................... 128
7.6.4 Heat Recovery (Energy Balance) ........................................................................................ 130
7.6.5 Energy from Organics ......................................................................................................... 135
7.6.6 Nutrient Recovery ............................................................................................................... 135
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1 Environmental Engineering
The field of Environmental Engineering is considered by many as a sub-set of Civil
Engineering. This is largely because civil engineers were originally involved with the
design of systems to convey water from sources to users (e.g. in cities and for
agriculture).
As cities continued to grow, it became apparent that the ‘used’ water had to not only be
conveyed away from urban areas, but also treated to remove contaminants. Because
civil engineers were already designing the infrastructure for conveyance of water, they
took on the responsibility of treating the wastewater.
As knowledge of water quality increased, it also became apparent that even ‘pristine’
raw water also contained contaminants and also needed to be treated before use as
potable water. Again, civil engineers took on the responsibility to treat the raw water.
As environmental engineering continued to grow, so did the contribution of other

engineering disciplines to the field. Today, environmental engineering is a broad
discipline that overlaps with many fields of engineering. Also, the discipline is no longer
limited to ‘water’. However, because of its importance for life, water remains at the core
of environmental engineering.
In Canada, both the Provincial and Federal Governments share jurisdiction over
• Water
• Environmental Protection
• Public health
Federally
• Fisheries Act: Protects fish and fish habitat
• Canadian Environmental Protection Act: requirements for use and
discharge of contaminants
Provincially
• Environment Management Act: requirements for discharge of waste to
environment
• Water Act: Diversions and use of water
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In CIVL 305
• we will explore the use of water with a focus on its use in cities
• however, we will also introduce other uses of water.
o We will use Metro Vancouver as a case example.
• CIVIL 305 will expand on some concepts learned in CIVIL 204
o e.g. rate kinetics for chemical and biological reactions
• develop concepts that you will further apply in CIVIL 406
o e.g. reactor design
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2 Control Volumes
Systems of interest can be very large (planet), or small (container – e.g. bottle). It is
important to delineate a system so that all inputs, outputs and changes of interest can
be considered. A system is generally defined using a control volume. The control
volume encompasses the ‘space’ occupied by all the activities of interest in a system.
In CIVL 305, we will often use the Greater Vancouver area as our control volume.
Control volumes are defined by boundaries.
When dealing with metropolitan areas, boundaries can be defined by:

1. Geography: Oceans, lakes, rivers, mountains,
2. Political/legal: borders,
3. Activities/zoning: residential, industrial, agricultural, and/or
4. Others?
Figure 2-1 Greater (Metro) Vancouver
When performing an analysis on a control volume (e.g. Greater Vancouver), it is

important to define the boundaries adequately. For example, in the above map, would
you define the boundary for Greater Vancouver similarly if you wanted to
include/exclude agricultural activities in the analysis?
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3 Mass Balances
We are generally interested in changes (or lack of change) in a system of interest.
Because of the principles of conservation of mass is conserved, we can use mass
balances (and energy balances – which will be discussed later) as a powerful tool to
investigate these changes and draw conclusions that impact engineering design.
Conceptually, mass balances can be defined as follows.

Equation 3-1
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡(𝑠)
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡(𝑠) ⎡ ⎤ 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑠)
⎢ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ⎥
! 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 4 = !𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑜 4 − ⎢ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ⎥ ± ! 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 4
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙
⎢ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 ⎥
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ⎣ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ⎦ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
For the analysis, we delineate the system of interest with a control volume.
For the control volume, we identify all inputs, outputs, transformations and changes.
Example 3-1 Mass balance (2 streams mixing)
-Define control Volume, inputs and outputs, expected

‘transformations’
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If we assume that water is conserved (i.e. water is not transformed to another form (i.e.
vapour or ice), the above equation becomes.
Equation 3-2
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡(𝑠) ⎡ ⎤
! 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 4 = !𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑜 4 − ⎢ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ⎥
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ⎣ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ⎦
The mass of water is

Equation 3-3
𝑉 ∗ 𝜌G
where V is the volume of water [volume] and is the density of water

[mass/volume]
Expressed in terms of flow

Equation 3-4
𝑄 ∗ 𝜌G
where Q is the flow of water [volume/time] and t is time [time]
The change of mass of water in the control volume can be expressed as

Equation 3-5
𝑑𝑉 ⁄𝑑𝑡 ∗ 𝜌G
Combining into the above equation yields

Equation 3-6
K 𝜌L 𝑑𝑉 ⁄𝑑𝑡 = K 𝑄M 𝜌G − K 𝑄N 𝜌G
If the density of water does not change much (i.e. if the temperature does not change
substantially), then we can divide all terms by density, yielding.
Equation 3-7
K 𝑑𝑉 ⁄𝑑𝑡 = K 𝑄M − K 𝑄N
If we have steady state conditions (inflows and outflows are constant)

Equation 3-8
K 𝑄M − K 𝑄N
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Example 3-2 Mixing of 2 Streams
Flow of stream 1: 184 m3/s

O PQ TMU TW
Flow of stream 2: 58,560,000 =16 m3/s
PQ RSTMU RSV XSSSSSSO
𝑄N = K 𝑄M
𝑄N =184 m3/s + 16 m3/s
Total flow: 200m3/s
We will expand on the above simple mass balance concept

throughout the course.
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4 Water Systems
To investigate a water system, the control volume, inputs, outputs, and transformations
that could impact a mass balance need to be identified.
4.1 Tera Scale

Water continuously cycles above (atmosphere), near (lakes, rivers, oceans, ice) and
below (groundwater) the ground surface. The total mass of water on the planet is
relatively constant, but the portioning of the water changes over time.
Figure 4-1 Water Cycle (Tera Scale)
The amount of water present in liquid form is highly impacted by climate, and as a
consequence, water levels in the oceans are highly impacted by climate. Ocean water
levels are of great importance because a large fraction of the world’s population live in
coastal cities. As the Earth has cycles through warmer/colder cycles, the elevation of
water in the oceans has varied by +/- 5 to 5 m.
Water in the atmosphere tends to cycle between ‘mediums’ quite rapidly, while water in
the ground does not cycle rapidly.
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Average residence times in a medium range from days to millennia

• Atmosphere: 9 days
• Rivers: 2-6 months
• Seasonal snow: 2-6 months
• Glaciers: 20-100 years
• Lakes: 50-100 years
• Shallow groundwater: 100-200 years
• Oceans: 3,000 years
• Deep groundwater: 10,000years
• Antarctic Ice Cap: 20,000 years
What are implications of above to contaminant migration?

Only approximately 2.5% of the water is ‘freshwater’ (3.5x107km3). Of this fraction,
almost 70% is present in glaciers. Most of the remaining freshwater is below the ground
(~30%). Lakes/rivers only account for ~0.25% of the available freshwater.
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4.2 Macro Scale

In many applications, we are interested in the water cycle on a smaller scale
• Region
• City
• Town
If we again consider Metro Vancouver, we can identify the major water inputs into and
outputs out of a control volume that defines the region
Figure 4-2 Greater (Metro) Vancouver
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4.2.1 Inputs:
1. Precipitation directly onto control volume (i.e. catchment area)
2. Precipitation onto neighboring catchments – water brought into control volume via:
• Rivers, inlets
Figure 4-3 Fraser River Catchment
• Lakes/reservoirs
Figure 4-4 Capilano, Seymour and Coquitlam reservoir catchments
3. Ocean (i.e. Georgia Straight)

• Depends on currents/tides
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4.2.2 Outputs:
1. Evapotranspiration, infiltration and runoff
• Highly impacted by land use type and practices
Figure 4-5Evapotranspiration, Infiltration and Runoff in Cities
i) Evaporation
o Highly impacted by temperature
ii) Infiltration
o Tends to be limited in cities
iii) Runoff
o Diffuse (from land directly into water bodies: rivers, ocean, etc.)
§ Tends to be limited in cities
o Point source collected in sewers (i.e. piped)
§ Separate pipes
• Direct transport to receiving water body (out of control volume)
o Generally without treatment
§ Combined pipes
• Direct transport to wastewater treatment plant
• During storm, capacity is overwhelmed
o Discharge of rainwater and untreated
sewage into receiving water body without
treatment
o Will further discuss later…
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2. Rivers
3. Ocean (i.e. Georgia Straight)
4. Pipes (wastewater)
• Generally discharged to receiving water body post treatment
4.2.3 Water Systems in BC
There are over 5,000 water systems in BC providing water to users. A water system is
defined as a network providing water to 3 or more ‘users’ (e.g. connections to homes).
In terms of volume provided, the largest systems are in large communities (Vancouver,
Victoria, Kelowna, Kamloops…). However, in terms of number of systems, the largest
number are very small systems, providing water to less than 5000 homes.
Of the ~5,000 water systems in BC

• ~225 serve more than 300 connections
• ~1000 serve between 15-300 connections
• ~3600 serve fewer than 15 connections
Many of the small communities are First Nation Communities
• ~600 communities ranging from 50 to 10,000 on reserve
population
• ~780 water systems
• ~15,000 wells
• ~500 wastewater systems
• ~42,000 septic systems (~50% of homes on reserves)
• ~13,500 cisterns (i.e. water is trucked in)
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4.3 Micro Scale

In some applications, we are interested in a water cycle at a system scale.
• Farm
o Cattle farm
o Fish farm
• Industry
o Process
Figure – Control volume surrounding a process with inputs, outputs and a reaction
(i.e. transformation)
C
QiCi QeCe
r V
Figure 4-6 Sample process (Fish Farm)
(Source: Wikipedia.org)
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5 Mass Balance on Water Systems

CIVL 305, we will focus on Macro-Scale Water systems and use a mass balance
approach
i) Road map and
o Will consider inputs (i.e. water for use), outputs (used water), and
transformations of these
Equation 5-1
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡(𝑠) 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑠) ⎡ ⎤ 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑠)
𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒔
!𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑜 4 ± ! 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 4 = ⎢ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ⎥ ± ! 4
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝒕𝒐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ⎣ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ⎦ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
[Chapter 6] = [Chapter 7]
ii) Analysis tool
o To assess and design ‘engineering systems’
Although CIVL 305 focuses on water systems, similar analyses can be done for
materials and energy
Table 5-1 ‘Other’ Material and Energy Inputs, Outputs and Transformations in
Cities
Material Energy
Inputs Inputs
• Food • Natural gas
• Consumer material (clothes) • Gasoline
• Industrial products (car • Electricity
parts) • Solar radiation
• Raw materials (metals) • Heat in water
Outputs Outputs
• Trash • Heat
• Consumer products • Radiation
Transformations Transformations
• Manufacturing • Chemical to thermal
• Composting • Water to vapour
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6 Water for Use

6.1 Sources
A number of sources are possible for cities. However, in general, because of the high
demand, most cities use surface water from lakes/rivers because it can be extracted at
a high rate. However, when surface water from lakes/rivers is not possible, other
sources must be considered. Below is a list summarizing the main characteristics of
different water sources
Note: BC has 25% of all fresh flowing water in Canada (~1.7% of

world)! But it is not necessarily accessible!!!
i) Surface water (lakes and rivers)
• High flows,
• Surface activities can contaminate the water
o Watershed protection ideal
• Impacted by climatic conditions (e.g. runoff from rain carries high amounts of
suspended solids, turbidity, and pathogens).
ii) Groundwater (confined)

• Lower flows – so may not be feasible for large cities (more common in smaller
communities)
• Natural filtering capacity of soil tends to remove suspended solids, turbidity and
pathogens.
• May be high in dissolved material including manganese, calcium, magnesium, iron
leached from the soil.
• Difficult to ‘clean-up’ after contaminated (renewal times can be very long).
iii) Groundwater (unconfined)

• GUDI (Groundwater Under Direct Influence of Surface)
• Characteristics of both surface and groundwater
iv) Seawater
• Energy intensive to desalinate
• Generates a concentrated brine solution that must be disposed.
• Generally only considered when no freshwater available.
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v) Reclaimed/reused
• Direct reuse of treated wastewater as potable water rare (but increasing)
o Singapore (NewWater)
• Indirect reuse of treated wastewater as potable water common place
o Discharge and use from same surface water
§ North Las Vegas
§ Lake Ontario?
§ Fraser River?
o Groundwater recharge increasing
• Reuse within industries is very common. Often limited by location (i.e. source and
sink not close to each other)
vi) Rainwater capture

• Seasonally available
• Quality variable
o ‘First flush’ can be of low quality
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For Metro Vancouver, water comes from

1. 3 reservoirs
• Over 90% of water used in Metro Vancouver
• Reservoirs are in protected watersheds
2. Some groundwater in southern portion
3. Precipitation
• Minimal use of rainwater for seasonal irrigation
Figure 6-1 Water Input into Metro Vancouver
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6.2 Variability
6.2.1 Spatial variability
Canada has 20% of the worlds freshwater, and 7% of its renewable supplies of water.
• Areas of highest renewable supplies is in areas of lowest population density
• 60% of freshwater drains north, while 90% of the population
lives within a hundred kilometers of border (so only 40% of
renewable freshwater is available)
Figure 6-2 Water Availability in Canada
(Water Demand and Availability Indicator based on a 30 years long term yearly average water supply and 2005-2007 water use)
Misconceptions about water availability fuels Canada’s high per capita water demand
(twice that in Europe)
On average, typically enough water, problem is water is not always available when or
where you need it.
v 1.4
6.2.2 Temporal variability
Yearly changes in water availability and demand
Figure 6-3 Inflows and withdrawals from reservoirs in Metro Vancouver
v 1.4
Example 6-1(Can demand meet availability?):
Compare demand vs. availability

By how much can population grow?
Inflow Withdrawls
Month Cleveland Seymour Cleveland Seymour
J 25 15 6.5 4.1
F 23 13 6.5 4.1
M 20 12 6.6 4.2
A 25 15 6.8 4.3
M 33 19 7.7 4.9
J 26 17 8.4 5.3
J 14 8 8.8 5.4
A 7 4 8.9 5.5
S 9 7 8 5
O 26 18 6.9 4.4
N 33 22 6.6 4.3
D 30 18 6.5 4.1
Average 22.58 14.00 7.35 4.63 m3/s

712,188,000 441,504,000 231,789,600 146,116,800 M3/yr
Total Inflow 1,153,692,000 m3/yr
Total Withdrawl 377,906,400
Difference 775,785,600
Population served by Seymour and capilano 2,250,000 population
Per papita water use per day 460.16 L/capday
Total capacity divided by per capita

use 6,868,915 Population
So population could grow 3.05 times
But water is not allways available when it is needed…

Must maintain some water for fish/rivers
v 1.4
6.2.3 Climate change
Overall volume of precipitation not expected to be greatly affected by climate change.

However, the timing of the precipitations is expected to change
• Fewer precipitation events of greater intensity
This will have significant impacts on
• Required storage volumes
o Availability greater in winter and lower in summer
• Water quality
o Increased surface runoff will entrain more material into
surface water and [pushed] into groundwater
• Need for other sources
o As population continues to grow
v 1.4
6.3 Raw water Quality

As water travels through the cycle, it can ‘pick-up’ naturally occurring and anthropogenic
contaminants. Contaminants are either transported as soluble material, or carried by
hydrodynamic forces. Groundwater tends to contain dissolved material such as
calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, while surface water tends to contain suspended
material (e.g. clay, soil, microbial pathogens) carried from the flow of water over land, as
well as soluble material leached from decaying vegetation (e.g. amber colour often
associated with surface water).
6.3.1 Water Quality Parameters
Water contains thousands of constituents. However, in terms of water quality, the

constituents of concern can be grouped into a small number of categories.
i) Solids
Solids in water (Total Solids or TS) can be suspended (total suspended solids or TSS)
or dissolved (total dissolved solids or TDS). TS are measured by drying (at 103-105C)
a known volume of water and measuring the weight of the residues. TSS are solids that
can be retained by filtering through a filter (0.45 um). Again, a known volume is filtered
and the weight of the material retained on the membrane is measured after drying. TDS
is the difference between TS and TSS.
The organic fraction of TS can be estimated by ‘burning off’ the volatile fraction of the
solids at (at 550C) – all that remains is considered to be inorganic.
Solids in water also impact the ‘clarity’ of the water. Turbidity measures the intensity of
light that is scattered by solids in water. Turbidity is measured in Nephelometric
turbidity units (NTU). NTUs are measured with a turbidity meter (Nephelometer).
Figure 6-4 Turbidity of water impacted by runoff
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Are solids in water of concern?

• Some dissolved material can be of concern
o Manganese, iron, magnesium, calcium
o Tends to be higher in groundwater
o Also seawater
• Some particulate material can also be of concern
o Pathogens
Solids and/or turbidity are often used as a surrogate for other contaminants. These
solids and/or turbidity causing material originate from surface or subsurface runoff and
contain material entrained along with the runoff. Therefore, the presence of
solids/turbidity suggests that any material that could be entrained is present along with
the runoff. Of particular concern for drinking water are pathogens entrained with runoff.
For this reason, turbidity is often used as a surrogate for microbial

quality of the water.
ii) Pathogens (microorganisms harmful to human health)
There are 4 primary groups of microorganisms that can impact human health, the first 3
of which are typically of concern in raw watersources.
• Bacteria - E.Coli O:157
• Protozoa – Giardia, Cryptosporidium
• Viruses - Rotavirus
• Worms (usually found in wastewater)
Table 6-1 Concentrations of pathogens in raw water sources
Source type Typical source water pathogen concentration (count/100L)

Crypto Giardia Rotavirus Campy. Ecoli O157*
Pristine 0.1 0.5 0.1 100 3.4
Lightly impacted 1 5 1 1000 34
Moderately impacted 10 50 10 10000 340
Heavily impacted 100 500 100 100000 3400
*estimated: 3.4% of all E.coli are E.coli O157 (Health Canada, QMRA)
Pathogens originate from infected hosts (i.e. humans/animals). In the absence of

infected hosts, there are no pathogens. However, chances are that infected hosts are
present.
Note: not all pathogens are equal! Must consider virulence -
discussed later
v 1.4
It would be prohibitively expensive to monitor for all possible pathogens. Instead,

indicators (i.e. surrogates) are commonly used. The presence of these organisms
suggests a vector possibly exists between an infected host and the water.
Characteristics of ideal surrogates include

• Present at high concentrations
• Can easily be measured
• Has similar characteristics as the target pathogen
o Physically
o Chemically
o biologically
• Are not hazardous
Fecal coliforms are
• present at high concentrations in the gut of warm blooded animals (i.e. where
pathogens originate)
• are easy to measure
• because they originate from the gut of warm blooded animals, their presence in raw
water indicates that a vector exists from a potential infected host to the water
• most E.Coli are not pathogenic
o Some exceptions E.Coli O:157
Some coliforms originate from soil. Therefor total coliform counts include
microorganisms that do not originate from the gut of warm blooded animals.
iii) Minerals leached from soil
Compounds such as those listed below are commonly leached from soil
• Calcium (Ca)
• Magnesium (Mg)
• Iron (Fe)
• Manganese (Mn)
• Arsenic (As)
Calcium and magnesium contribute to the ‘hardness’ of water. Hardness in itself is not
of concern to human health. However, hard water tends to form scales (e.g. boilers,
kettles). Hardness also impacts certain activities/industrial processes (e.g. cleaning).
Iron is not of health concern at concentrations typical in raw waters. However, iron can
stain material (i.e. because of its colour) and contribute to objectionable taste (metallic)
of water. Manganese has historically not been of concern. Like iron, it can contribute to
v 1.4
objectionable taste of water. However, recent research suggests that manganese can
negatively impact child development.
Sulphur compounds can also be leached from soil. Reduced Sulphur compounds are
responsible for the ‘rotting egg’ smells sometimes associated with groundwater.
iv) Nitrogen (Nitrates)
Nitrates can reduce the oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin in babies, and if
elevated, can lead to death (blue baby syndrome).
v) Natural Organic Matter
Natural organic matter (NOM), which originates from decaying material on/in soil, is
present in colloidal (very small particles) and soluble form. NOM is generally
responsible for the amber colour associated with many waters (Note, iron can also
contribute to the colour of water). NOM is also responsible for the musty/peaty
taste/odour present in some raw waters.
NOM in drinking water sources is generally measured as Total or dissolved organic

carbon (TOC/DOC).
NOM itself is not of concern for human health. However, NOM can react with chemicals
commonly used in drinking water treatment to form by-products, some of which are of
concern. Of particular concern are by-products of disinfection with chlorine. Some
Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) are classified as suspected carcinogens, and have
been lined to birthing and developmental concerns. The two most prevalent group of
DBPs are
• Trihalomethanes
• Haloacetic acids
Although hundreds to thousands of other DBPs can form, THMs and HAAs are the only
groups of regulated DBPs. These are considered to be surrogates of other DBPs and
their presence at high concentrations typically indicates that other DBPs are also
present at high concentrations.
NOM can also disrupt to operation of some water treatment technologies.
v 1.4
vi) Anthropogenic contaminants
Anthropogenic contaminants originate from human activity. These include

• Herbicides/pesticides
• Petrochemical compounds
• Heavy metals
• Micro-plastics (emerging…of concern???)
Their presence is highly impacted by the type of human activity in an area.
vii) Other physical parameters
Temperature is an aesthetic water quality parameter. Temperature does affect the

chemical and biological reactions.
pH is an indicator of the acidity of the water (presence of H+ ions). Above 7, water is

acidic, below 7, water is alkaline (or basic). The pH of natural water is generally
between 6-8.5. In addition to impacting the solubility of various compounds, pH also
impacts biological and chemical reactions.
viii) Hardness
Presence of calcium and magnesium in water. Can form scaling and consumes
detergents
Vancouver water is very soft!
v 1.4
6.4 Demand
Water demand varies significantly from country to country. Globally, 3,800km3 of water
is extracted every year for use (or 0.1% of all the available freshwater).
• The Unites States has the highest per capita ‘water footprint’: ~2,500 m3/capita.yr.
The second largest consumer is approximately half this amount (Australia at
1,400m3/capita.yr)
• Most of water is used by a handful of countries: India, China, US, Russia,
Indonesia, Nigeria, Brazil, Pakistan
6.4.1 Demand by Sector
Water demand in a given area is highly impacted by sociological, economical and

geographical factors as these impact ‘activities’ in a given area. Some activities are very
water intensive (e.g. agriculture), while others are not as intensive (e.g. domestic use).
Water use in Canada

• Thermal power generation: 64%
• Manufacturing: 14%
• Municipal: 12% (3.2 million m3 in 2013)
• Agriculture: 9% (1.7 billion m3 2014)
• Mining: 1%
Of the 12% used by municipalities
• Domestic/residential: 52%
• Commercial/institutional: 19%
• Industrial: 16%
• Public services: 13%
• Losses/unaccounted: +8-24%
v 1.4
For the 52% domestic uses,

• Toilet flushing: 33%
• Shower/bathing: 28%
• Wash basin uses: 11%
• Laundry: 16%
• Kitchen: 9%
o Drinking/cooking: 2-5%
o Dishwashing: 3-5%
o Garbage disposal: 0-6%
• Misc: 3%
• Lawn sprinklers: 0-25%
So, of the amount of water used in cities, only a small percentage is consumed (drinking
cooking) or comes into direct contact with humans (Shower/bathing).
Table 6-2 Typical water uses in a city
Source Unit Average Flow

(L/unit.day)
Residential
Single family Person
Low income Person 270
Medium income Person 310
High income Person 380
Apartment Person 230
Commercial
Hotel/motel Room 380
Hospital Bed 950
School Student 76
Restaurant Customer 30
Bar Customer 8
Coffee shop Customer 20
Shopping centre m2 floor area 6-8
Office bldg. Employee 65
Airports Passengers 10
Car wash Car 209
Industrial
Industry specific
v 1.4
Figure 6-5 Water demand for different products
v 1.4
Figure 6-6 Per Capita Water Demand in Canada
v 1.4
Figure 6-7 Metro Vancouver Per Capita Water Demand (total)
Demand is not constant

• Domestic demand is low at night and peaks in the morning and evening. Shape and
timing of the peaks depends on community (e.g. size, urban/suburb)
• Industrial demand from a single industry can fluctuate extensively depending on the
particular industry, number of shifts, cleaning activities, etc… However, overall (i.e.
when considering multiple industries), the demand tends to be relatively constant on
weekdays. Weekend stability again depends on the industry, shifts, cleaning…
• Commercial demand is also low at night and relatively constant during the day.
Depending on cleaning activities, small peaks can also occur in the evening.
• Community total: Overall behavior in a city (except in highly industrialized cities or in
industrial parks) tends to be dominated by domestic demand.
• Weekday and weekend demand varies.
v 1.4
Figure 6-8 Typical daily demands by use
The peak factor (also commonly referred to as demand factor), is the ratio between
peak events and average yearly flow. These can be determined based on historical
data or empirical models. These peak factors are of importance because they impact
the maximum flows to consider when designing ‘treatment systems’.
For example, water treatment systems are typically designed to meet the demand for
the peak day of the year.
Equation 6-1
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1.8𝑇 iS.X
where t is the period of interest (days)

Equation 6-2
𝑄jkVMUl = 𝑃𝐹 𝑥 𝑄nkoQpn oqkQolk
v 1.4
Figure 6-9 Metro Vancouver Average and Peak day demand
v 1.4
Example 6-2Estimate Peak Flow
A city has a population of 10,400 people. Estimate the peak month average and peak
day average demand. Peak month average is of interest in terms of purchasing
treatment chemicals (which are delivered once per month) and peak day average is of
interest to size the different treatment processes.
1. Average day demand over peak month (design for monthly

delivery of chemicals)
2. Average peak day (design for hydraulic components of

treatment system)
6.4.2 Demand management
Domestic water saving devices
Table 6-3 Impact of water conservation on demand
Water use Without conservation With conservation

(l/cap.day) (L/cap.d)
Toilets 76.1 33.6
Clothes washer 57.2 40.1
Showers 47.7 37.9
Leaks fixed 37.9 18.9
Total 274.4 187.8
v 1.4
6.4.3 Fire flow
To ensure safety, a water system must be able to meet the recurring water demands,
and in the event of an emergency, meet the demands for fire flow.
Different jurisdictions use different approaches to calculate fire flow, which is usually
based on
• Population density
• Material of construction
• Building type
• Building activities
• Building density
Many jurisdictions adopt the Fire Protection Rating as defined by the Insurance Servies
Office (ISO, 1998). A water system is to have the available storage pumping capacity
and piping capacity to deliver the maximum daily demand PLUS the fire flow demand at
any time during the day.
For single family residences, the Needed Fire Flow (NFF) is tabulated.
Table 6-4NFF for Small Family Residences
Distance between NFF

Buildings (ft) (gal/min)
<11 1,500
11-30 1,000
31-100 750
>100 500
For larger structures, the NFF is calculated based on the characteristics of the structure.
Equation 6-3
𝑁𝐹𝐹 = 18 𝑥 𝐹 𝑥 𝐴S.t 𝑥 𝑂 𝑥 u1 + K(𝑋 + 𝑃)x
where NFF is the needed fire flow (gal/min), F is the construction factor (0.6)fire
resistive) to 1.5(wood frame)), A is the building effective area (ft2), O is the
occupancy (i.e. type of activity in building) factor (0.75(noncombustible) to
1.25(rapid burning)), (X+P) relate to the influence of adjacent buildings, X is the
exposure hazard of adjacent buildings, P is the communication (e.g. fire walls)
factor (the sum of X + P is never greater than 0.6).
v 1.4
The duration of a fire is considered to increase with the NFF
Table 6-5NFF Duration
NFF Duration
(gal/min) (hrs)
<2,500 2
2500-3500 3
>3500 4
Example 6-3 Estimating Total Required Flow (assuming ISO, 1998)
Residential (e.g. Kitsilano): Distance between buildings ~ 11-30

ft
lop RS TMU z.{O TW TW

NFF: 1000 = 228
TMU PQ lop XSSSO PQ
NFF duration: 2 hours
Peak flow demand per hour (t=1/24)
𝑚z iS.X
𝑚z 𝑚z
𝑄}ko~ PN•Q = 4160 1.8(1/24) = 10,289 = 429
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑑 ℎ𝑟
Total (demand and fire flow)
𝑚z 𝑚z 𝑚z
228 + 429 = 656
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
For 2 hours
v 1.4
6.4.4 Equalization
Because demand is variable and supply tends to be relatively constant, storage is

required as a ‘buffer’ between supply and demand. In addition to storage required for
buffering, storage is also required to accommodate the volume for fire flow.
Recall that the volume required for equalization over a given period (e.g. one day for
peak day demand) can be estimated using a mass balance approach. We establish that
the control volume delineates an equalization ‘tank’.
Equation 3-1
Also, if we assume that water is conserved (i.e. water is not transformed to another form
(i.e. vapour or ice), the above equation becomes.
Equation 3-2
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡(𝑠) ⎡ ⎤
! 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 4 = !𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑜 4 − ⎢ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ⎥
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ⎣ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ⎦
As previously discussed, this can be expressed as

Equation 3-6
K 𝜌L 𝑑𝑉 ⁄𝑑𝑡 = K 𝑄M 𝜌G − K 𝑄N 𝜌G
where V is the volume of water (here volume in equalization tank) [volume], 𝜌G is

the density of water [mass/volume], Q is flow [volume/time], and subscripts I and
o correspond to inputs and outputs respectively.
If the density of water does not change (i.e. if the temperature does not change
substantially), then we can divide all terms by density, yielding.
Equation 3-7
K 𝑑𝑉 ⁄𝑑𝑡 = K 𝑄M − K 𝑄N
We consider the summation (i.e. cumulative mass of water) of all inputs and outputs of
water over a given period into and out of the control volume (i.e. defined by the volume
of an equalization basin). The difference defines the extent of change in mass of water
v 1.4
in the control volume (𝑑𝑉 ⁄𝑑𝑡). If we know the extent to which the mass of water has
changed, we select an equalization tank size large enough to buffer this change.
The mass balance is performed over a period of interest

• Because many water system components are designed to meet peak day demand
(and therefore we need to buffer changes within that peak day), we perform the
mass balance over the peak period of interest: 24 hours.
• In some application we want to buffer the impact of a summer drought. In that case,
we consider an extended period (e.g. 6 months) – results in very large reservoirs!!!!
Example 6-4Equalization tank 1
Use mass balance approach - storage to buffer difference

between supply and demand (over a peak day – 24 hours)
K 𝑄M − K 𝑄N = K 𝑑𝑉⁄𝑑𝑡
Time ∑ 𝑄M (𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦) ∑ 𝑄N (𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑) ∑ 𝑑𝑉⁄𝑑𝑡 (𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)
(hrs) (volume) (volume) (volume)
0 0 0 0
6 2 0 2
12 4 0 4
18 6 8 -2
24 8 8 0
From its initial level, the reservoir volume will go up by 4 units

and down by 2 units. So the maximum dV over the time period
of interest (i.e. peak day) is 6 units.
v 1.4
Example 6-5 Equalization Tank 2
The peak day instantaneous demand is presented in the table below. What storage
volume is needed to supply the instantaneous demands during this day?
Time ∑ 𝑄M (𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦) 𝑄N (𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑) ∑ 𝑄N (𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑) ∑ 𝑑𝑉 ⁄𝑑𝑡 (𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)

(hrs) (m3) (m3/2hr) (m3) (m3)
0 0 100 0 0
2 623 100 100 523
4 1246 150 200 1046
6 1870 200 350 1520
8 2493 400 550 1943
10 3116 700 950 2166
12 3740 800 1650 2090
14 4363 800 2450 1913
16 4986 1000 3250 1736
18 5610 1600 4250 1360
20 6233 1400 5850 383
22 6856 200 7250 -394
24 7480 100 7450 0
Total storage for daily demand:

2,166+349=2,515m3
Add storage for fire flow
lop RS TMU z.{O TW

NFF: 1000 =
TMU PQ lop XSSSO
TW TW
228 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 = 456
PQ ‰PQ
So the total storage is

2,515m3+456m3 (i.e. over any
time period, there must be a
reserve for fire flow)
v 1.4
6.5 Required Water Quality

Of all water use in cities, the greatest risk is to humans (as opposed to other life forms
or the environment). For this reason, water quality must not pose high risk to humans.
6.5.1 Risk Based Approach
Risk is the probability that an adverse effect will occur. It is quantified over a range from
0 (0% probability of adverse effect occurring), to 1 (100% probability of adverse effect
occurring).
Estimating risk is difficult because there is no certainty in the estimates. To estimate

risk, it is often necessary to rely on historical or experimental data.
Example 6-6 Risk
• Risk of dying
o Assume 200,000 Canadians die yearly and that the
population in Canada is 35,000,000.
o Risk of dying is 200,000/35,000,000 = 0.0057 or 1 in 175
o Is this accurate?
§ Depending on age group, more or fewer Canadians
die. So risk is not an absolute number.
• Young – overestimate
• Old-underestimate
v 1.4
For humans, risk is is defined based on the likelihood of injury, disease or death. It can
be defined as
Equation 6-4
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑘 = 𝑓(ℎ𝑎𝑧𝑎𝑟𝑑, 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)
There are two components to risk: the hazard itself, and the exposure to the hazard.
An activity can be hazardous, but if the exposure to the hazard is infrequent, the risk
may be minimal (e.g. getting hit by lightning). Similarly, an activity may not be
hazardous, but it frequently exposed to this hazard, then the risk may be high (e.g.
second hand smoke).
Reducing either the magnitude of the hazard or the exposure will reduce the risk.
Sometimes, only one of hazard or exposure can be controlled
• Ex. Humans drink approximately 8L of water per day. The
exposure to a hazard contained in potable water cannot be
decreased by reducing the volume of water humans drink.
In general, we are concerned with risk of exposure to contaminants or group of
contaminants
• Chemical: anthropogenic and naturally occurring
• Biological: bacteria, viruses
• Physical: UV radiation, smoke
However, risk can also result from other hazards such as ozone depletion, climate
change, water scarcity, etc.
The concept of risk can be applied to animals, plants and the entire ecosystem. For
now, we will only consider risk to humans from consuming water. The framework for
risk assessment can be depicted as follows
Figure 6-10 Risk Assessment Framework
v 1.4
Perceived Risk
Judgement is often used to assess risk. The judgement is generally based on

qualitative and quantitative information, as well as life experience. If we believe we
know a lot about a particular hazard, we tend to underestimate the risk.
The perceived risk is also impacted by our ‘control’ of the hazard; with the risk to
voluntary exposure to a hazard being less than the risk of involuntary exposure.
Examples (not only related to drinking water) of voluntary exposure to a hazard include
• Drinking water from when camping
• Smoking
• Driving fast
• Mountaineering
Table 6-6 Activities that increase risk of mortality by 1/1,000,000 (10-6)
Activity Type of Risk

Drinking ½ L of wine Cirrhosis of the liver
Travelling 500 km by car Accident
Travelling 16 km by bicycle Accident
Eating 40 tablespoons of butter Liver cancer
Toxicity Assessment
Toxicological impact on human health from exposure to contaminants can be classified

as carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic.
Carcinogens promote or induce the uncontrolled or abnormal growth and division of

cells leading to the formation of tumors (cancer). Carcinogens act by attacking the
structure and function of DNA.
• There are few Known human carcinogens. These are banned or their use/exposure
is restricted (e.g. benzene, vinyl chloride, arsenic, hexavalent chromium).
• Most ‘carcinogens’ fall under the suspected category. For these, tests on animals
have confirmed increased cancer risk through exposure.
o This is the case for trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids
typically found in treated drinking water (will discuss later)
v 1.4
Non-carcinogenic contaminants promote/induce all other toxicological responses (i.e.

excludes cancer). There is no single mechanism of action. Non-carcinogenic responses
include range in severity
• Skin rash (less serious)
• Dizziness
• Asthma (Moderately serious)
• Neurological damage
• Birth and developmental effects (very serious)
The Dose Response is the relationship between the exposure to a toxicant (carcinogens
and non-carcinogens) and the impact on the exposed individual. Although here we are
concerned with exposure to humans, dose response curves are generally developed
based on bioassays performed on animals.
The dose is generally defined as the amount of a toxicant ingested to the mass of the
‘host’ (i.e. human), generally expressed in mg/kg. The dose is also often expressed
over time to reflect the chronic nature of an exposure [e.g. mg/kg.day].
The response depends on a number of parameters

• Susceptibility of test organism (which is often not a human)
• Concentration (mass of hazard to mass of medium in which it is present; mg/L)
• Dose (mass of hazard per mass of recipient organism; mg/kg)
• Duration (time over which dose was administered; mg/kg.day)
The mechanism of action depends on the type of toxicant and can be acute (immediate
effect) or chronic (long term effect).
• Acute toxicity results in a rapid response
o Generally non-carcinogenic impacts are from acute
exposure
• Chronic toxicity manifests itself over extended periods of time. Mutagenesis, which
is the mutation of the genetic material, results from chronic toxicity and can
potentially lead to cancer (carcinogens) or birth defects (teratogens).
o Generally carcinogenic impacts are from chronic exposure
The relationship between dose and response generally follows an ‘S’ shaped curve.
• Many animal-based tests report dose response in terms of
o Median Lethal Dose (LD50), which is the dose at which 50% of the ‘hosts’ die.
o Mean Infectious Dose (N50), infects 50% of hosts
• Instead of mortality, the impact of exposure can also be expressed in terms of
cumulative response (or Risk).
v 1.4
Figure 6-11 Typical Dose Response Relationships
Typical Dose-response curve for non- Typical dose-response curve for

carcinogens (LD50) carcinogens
Although the dose-response curves for carcinogens and non-carcinogens look similar,
they have some significant differences
i) For carcinogens
• There is no ‘threshold’ level without risk because there is a cancer risk associated
with all doses
• Generally interested in added risk (above background level)
• Chronic exposure is generally of greater interest (long term exposure generally
required to induce changes in DNA.
• Dose response curves are generally developed based on bioassays performed on
animals using high exposure doses. The data must then be extrapolated to a range
of exposure doses that would be expected for humans (i.e. low dose).
• Dose relevant for exposure for humans generally expressed in terms of slope factor
(SF) (also sometimes referred to as potency factor) [EPA Model]
Equation 6-5
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑘
𝑆𝐹 =
𝐶𝐷𝐼
where SF: slope factor (slope of dose response curve at low doses) [(kg.d)/mg],
the incremental lifetime cancer risk is the amount above background
[dimensionless], CDI: chronic daily intake (average dose of toxicant absorbed per
kg of body weight over an entire lifetime [mg/(kg.d), will discuss CDI later…]
v 1.4
Figure 6-12 Slope Factor (EPA Model)
Table 6-7 Slope Factors for select carcinogens
Chemical Slope Factor

(kg.day/mg)
Arsenic 1.5
Benzene 1.5x10 to 5.5x10-2
-2
Chloroform 6.1x10-3
DDT 3.4x10-1
v 1.4
ii) For non-carcinogens

• There is generally a level below which no negative impact is expected.
• Dose response curves are generally developed for both acute (short term) and
chronic (long term) exposure. Acute toxicological impacts are generally experienced
at higher doses than chronic exposure.
• Dose response curves are generally developed based on bioassays performed on
animals using high exposure doses. The data must then be extrapolated to a range
of exposure doses that would be expected for humans.
• Dose relevant for exposure for humans generally expressed in terms of
o LOAEL: lowest dose that elicits an adverse response
o NOAEL: highest dose that does not elicit an adverse response
o RfD: Reference dose.
Equation 6-6
𝑁𝑂𝐴𝐸𝐿
𝑅𝑓𝐷 =
𝑓
where factor (f) reflects the uncertainty associated with the variability of
responses to the toxicant (e.g. limited uncertainty f=10; high uncertainty
f=1000).
§ Uncertainty because often extrapolating from tests where high doses
were administered to animals and the results extrapolated to low level
exposure to humans.
• 10: from long term tests with humans with no effect on a
significant fraction of population (i.e. low doses)
• 100: limited long term data from human exposure, but extensive
data from exposure to different types of animals
• 1000: No long term data from human exposure, and limited
results from exposure to animals
Figure 6-13 NOAEL
v 1.4
Exposure Assessment
Exposure assessment identifies the

• exposure pathway(s)
• exposed population(s) – actual or expected
• exposure location – actual or expected
• exposure duration – actual or expected
• magnitude - actual or expected
Essentially it is a mass balance with the control volume defined as

the human body
Exposure pathways include
• Inhalation
• Ingestion (liquids/solids)
• Adsorption (through skin or eyes)
Here we will only consider ingestion of drinking water. However, keep in mind that
pathways from water can also include inhalation (e.g. trihalomethanes inhalation in
swimming pools) and adsorption through skin.
Daily Intake from drinking water can be estimated based on

Equation 6-7
𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)
𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝐷𝐼•• =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
where DIID is the daily intake through injection [e.g. mg/kg.day]
v 1.4
Impacts from exposure are generally cumulative. Cumulative/total exposure can be

estimated based on the sum of the chronic daily intake (CDI) from different pathways
(US EPA Method, USEPA 1989).
Equation 6-8
𝐶𝐷𝐼••
𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
“𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐶𝑊)• 𝑥 – 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 (𝐼𝑅)— 𝑥 ˜ (𝐸𝐹)š 𝑥 u (𝐸𝐷)x
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
=
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟
“ 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 (𝐵𝑊)• 𝑥 –𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝐴𝑇)—
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑑
where
• CDI: Chronic Daily Intake (mg/kg.day),
• CW: chemical concentration in water (mg/L),
• IR: intake or contact time - the amount of contaminated medium taken in or
contacted per unit time or event (e.g. L/day),
o 2L/day for adult
o 1L/day for child
• EF: Exposure frequency (days/year),
o Residential exposure: 350 days/year (assumes away
for approx. 2 weeks per year for holidays)
o Industrial/commercial/daycare/school: 245 days/year
(assumes away for weekends and holidays)
• ED: exposure duration (years),
o Residential exposure: 30 years
o Industrial/commercial/daycare/school: 21 years
• BW: body weight averaged over exposure period (kg)
o Adult Male/female: 70 kg/50 kg
o Child: 15 kg
• AT: averaging time – period over which exposure is averaged (days)
o Non-carcinogens: equal to exposure duration (ED)
o Carcinogens: 70 years
(above adapted from US EPA, Exposure Factor Handbook 2011[available online –
search for: EPA/600/R-09/052F,2011])
Note that exposure assessment values obtained from literature are generally for
‘average’ conditions. If you are not dealing with average conditions, you need to modify
the above values accordingly.
v 1.4
Risk Characterization
i) Carcinogens: Incremental risk is defined as

Equation 6-9
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑘 = 𝑑𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑘 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑠𝑒
As previously discussed, at low doses, the incremental risk per unit dose is the slope
factor (SF) [Equation 6-5]
If there is exposure to more than one carcinogen, the risks are added.
An incremental risk greater than 10-6 (i.e. if 1,000,000 individuals are exposed to a
toxicant, then 1 will exhibit adverse effects) is generally considered to be an acceptable
risk, while a 10-3 (i.e. 1 in 1,000) is generally considered to be unacceptable.
An acceptable incremental lifetime risk can be determined by combining Equation 6-5

and Equation 6-9.
Equation 6-10
[𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒]𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑘 = 𝐶𝐷𝐼ožžkŸ o¡pk 𝑥 𝑆𝐹
An acceptable chemical concentration can be estimated by combining Equation 6-8 and

Equation 6-10.
Equation 6-11
[𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒] 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟
[𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒] –𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 — “ 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 • –𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 —
𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑘 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑑
¢𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 £ =
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 – 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚— ˜ š u x (𝑆𝐹)
v 1.4
Example 6-7 Maximum acceptable concentration (carcinogen)
Arsenic (Carcinogen)
• Naturally present in some soils
• Present in ground waters of geographical areas containing arsenic
• Many forms of arsenic are of concern (organic, inorganic, oxidation state)
• Has many pathways for adverse effects. Chronic pathways (i.e. cancer) is of
greater interest than acute pathways (liver and gastrointestinal effects) as it
can occur at lower concentrations
• Many forms of cancer are possible
o Risk for each differ
o Risk different for women and men
o Greatest risk if for lung cancer in women
• Test animals do not respond to arsenic in a similar manner than humans
• Epidemiological studies of populations in areas where arsenic is present in
ground water at high concentrations provides valuable information (e.g.
Taiwan, Bangladesh)
• Based on 95% upper boundary of response, the slope factor is approximately
0.0868 kg.day/mg for lung cancer in women
Assuming that an incremental lifetime risk of 1x10-6 is considered to be acceptable

(i.e. 1 in 1,000,000), and that exposure is mainly due to drinking water (2L/day), what
is the maximum acceptable concentration of arsenic in drinking water? Assume
average lifetime weigh for a woman is 50kg.
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑥 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑔 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
[ 𝐿 ] [𝐿/𝑑] [𝑑/𝑦𝑟] [𝑦𝑟]
𝑖𝑛𝑐. 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑥 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑘 [𝑘𝑔. 𝑑𝑎𝑦/𝑚𝑔]
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
[𝑘𝑔] [𝑑]
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 2𝐿 𝑥 350𝑑 𝑥 30𝑦𝑟𝑠
𝑚𝑔 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑦𝑟
[ 𝐿 ]
1x10iR = 0.0868𝑘𝑔. 𝑑𝑎𝑦/𝑚𝑔
50𝑘𝑔 𝑥 (70𝑦𝑟𝑠 𝑥 365𝑑/𝑦𝑟)
Concentration = 0.7 ug/L
Guidelines = 5 ug/L (available removal technologies achieve 1-5

ug/L; also concentration in most source waters is <5ug/L)
v 1.4
ii) non-carcinogens: A hazard index (or quotient) is typically used

Equation 6-12
𝐶𝐷𝐼
𝐻𝐼 =
𝑅𝑓𝐷
Because reference doses (RfD) are for a given pathway, they must only be used with
the exposure (CDI) from that pathway.
When there are multiple pathways and/or non-carcinogens, The HI’s for each are
added.
A HI < 1 is generally considered to be acceptable, where a value >1 indicates

unacceptable risk.
An acceptable concentration can be estimated based on a slightly modified version of

Equation 6-12.
Equation 6-13
𝐶𝐷𝐼ožžkŸ o¡pk
[𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒]𝐻𝐼 =
𝑅𝑓𝐷
An acceptable concentration can be determined by combining Equation 6-8 and

Equation 6-13
Equation 6-14
[𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒] 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟

[𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒] – 𝐻𝐼 — “ 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 • –𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 — (𝑅𝑓𝐷)
𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑑
¢𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 £ =
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 – 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚— ˜ š u x
v 1.4
Example 6-8 Maximum acceptable concentration (carcinogen)
Selenium in drinking water (e.g. from mining operations)

Rfd: 5x10-5mg/kg.day (From USEPA)
Exposure duration = averaging time, so not important (here assume 10 yrs)
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑥 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝑔
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 [ 𝐿 ] [𝐿/𝑑] [𝑑/𝑦𝑟] [𝑦𝑟] 1
=
𝐻𝐼 𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑓𝐷
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
[𝑘𝑔] [𝑑]
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 1.5𝐿 𝑥 350𝑑 𝑥 10𝑦𝑟𝑠
𝑚𝑔 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑦𝑟
[ 𝐿 ] 1
1=
60𝑘𝑔 𝑥 (10𝑦𝑟𝑠 𝑥 365𝑑/𝑦𝑟) 5x10iz mg/kg. day
Acceptable concentration: 0.2 mg/L
Canadian Guidelines: 0.05 mg/L
v 1.4
Risk Management
Approaches used to minimize adverse effects of a toxicant

• Treat water
• Reduce exposure
The cost and/or availability of an approach/technology to minimize the adverse effect is
often considered in the risk management approach.
Ultimately, risk management is reflected in regulatory requirements for water and

wastewater use and discharge.
Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment
Illness from most contaminants typically requires long-term exposure. However, illness
form pathogens often requires a single exposure. In addition, exposure to most of the
contaminants of concern is unlikely unless you have an ‘impacted’ water source.
However, exposure to pathogens is possible even when dealing with a pristine water
source. For these reasons, risk associated with pathogens is often considered
separately from that associated with other contaminants.
QMRA (quantitative MICROBIAL risk assessment) is commonly used in many

jurisdictions in Canada to assess the risk and the treatment needs for the removal of
pathogens from potable water.
Based on the probability of an illness from exposure to a pathogen (probability of

infection determined using similar approach previously discussed – i.e. S curve), the
number of cases of a given illness can be estimated (i.e. probability x exposure
days/365 x population). Based on the number of cases, the expected outcome from
each case (e.g. mild diarrhea, severe diarrhea, renal failure, death) and the expected
duration of each outcome (days to lost years of life for death), an equivalent Disability
Adjusted Life Year (DALY) can be estimated (Health Canada QMRA Model).
The total DALY for a population is the sum of the DALYs for each specific pathogen.
Equation 6-15
𝐷𝐴𝐿𝑌¯N op
= 𝐷𝐴𝐿𝑌°QnŸ N + 𝐷𝐴𝐿𝑌±QoQjMo + 𝐷𝐴𝐿𝑌²N oqMQ•V + 𝐷𝐴𝐿𝑌°oTŸMpN¡ož kQ + 𝐷𝐴𝐿𝑌³.°NpM ´Xtµ
v 1.4
6.5.2 Regulations
Canadian Drinking Water Quality Guidelines (CDWQG)
Regulations for [drinking] water use are under provincial Jurisdictions. However, the
Canadian government provides Guidelines (i.e. Canadian Drinking Water Quality
Guidelines) that the provinces generally adopt.
• To distribute eater, a provider must obtain a license – the
license generally stipulates that the CDWQG must be met
Exceptions
• Some jurisdictions adopt more stringent requirements than in
the guidelines
• Some jurisdictions interpret guidelines differently
o E.g. filtration deferral in BC
• Some jurisdictions provide a timeline for adoption of guidelines
to account for the reality of site specific conditions.
In general, the guidelines are based on acceptable risk values from which Maximum
Acceptable (MAC) concentrations of toxicants are derived. However, other parameters
are often used
• Maximum levels achievable by existing commercial

technologies
• Use of surrogates
Example 6-9 MAC
Canadian Drinking water Quality Guideline for arsenic is 5 ug/L

Why not 0.7ug/L (based on risk analysis for 10-6)
• The Guideline must be feasible

o Economically
o Technically
• Available arsenic removal technologies can achieve 1-5 ug/L
• The concentration of arsenic in most source waters in
Canada is < 5 ug/L
• Guideline will be revised in future as needed
v 1.4
Example 6-10 Surrogate
Canadian Water Quality Guidelines for Pathogens is based on

turbidity and total coliform
Why not based on disease burden?
• Too many pathogens to monitor

o Expensive, time/logistics
• Pathogens originate from the ‘gut’ of infected hosts
• Look for surrogate for material from ‘gut’ (e.g. warm blooded
animal – fecal coliforms)
The Canadian Drinking Water Quality Guidelines are divided into 3 sections
i) Microbial contaminants
ii) Physical/Chemical contaminants
iii) Radioactive contaminants
Each parameter in the tables below are accompanied by a summary report that details
the justification for the particular MAC. The guidelines are reviewed every few years
and modified as needed.
i) Microbial contaminants
These are of concern because exposure and illness from these manifests itself
immediately with often severe consequences.
Microbial contaminants of concern in drinking water are generally divided into 3

categories
• Viruses (e.g. Rotavirus)
• Protozoa (e.g. Giardia and Cryptosporidium)
• Bacteria (E.Coli O157)
These differ significantly in terms of physical (size, structure), chemical (charge,

reactivity) and biological (infectivity, health outcomes) characteristics. The
concentrations of these also differ significantly depending on the source.
Removal of microbial contaminants often expressed in term of Log Reduction Value

(LRV)
Equation 6-16
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 ′𝑟𝑎𝑤′ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑁N
𝐿𝑅𝑉 = =
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 ′𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑′ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑁
v 1.4
Example 6-11 pathogens
Range median infectious dose (N50) for Giardia lamblia cycts 10-100
What level of treatment (percent removal) is required for Canadian raw water
sources?
Giardia concentration
Province Site/watershed Reference
(cysts/100 L)
LeChevallier et
Alberta Not available 494
al., 1991a
North Saskatchewan River, 8-193 Gammie et al.,
Alberta
Edmonton 2500 2000
North Saskatchewan River, 98
Alberta EPCOR, 2005
Edmonton 8700
Black Mountain Irrigation
60.4
District
British Vernon Irrigation District 3.8
Ong et al., 1996
Columbia Black Mountain Irrigation
4.6-1880
District
Vernon Irrigation District 2-114
Seymour 3.2
Capilano 6.3
British Coquitlam 3.8 Metro
Columbia Seymour 8.0 Vancouver, 2009
Capilano 20.0
Coquitlam 12.0
Grand River 71 Van Dyke et al.,
Ontario
Grand River 486 2006
Ontario Ottawa River 16.8 Douglas, 2009
ROS Water Treatment Plant,
Thousand Islands River, 1376
Montreal
STE Water Treatment Plant, Payment and
Quebec
Thousand Islands River, 336 Franco, 1993
Montreal
REP Water Treatment Plant,
7.23
Assomption River, Montreal
Payment et al.,
Quebec Saint Lawrence River 200
2000
v 1.4
Regulations for pathogens (i.e. microbial contaminants) are

generally based on removal, defined as log reduction value
(LRV)
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 ′𝑟𝑎𝑤′ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑁N

𝐿𝑅𝑉 = =
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 ′𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑′ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑁
Regulations typically state 3 log reduction for Giardia.
If 10 is sufficient for illness, and highest expected is 10,000, the

LRV of 3 should be OK??? Safety factor?
What log reduction value to use considering that the raw water
concentration can vary substantially between locations?
Most jurisdictions adopt a ‘bin’ approach (e.g. US EPA

LT2ESWTR) to account for potential variability
• E.g. 0 to 0.075 counts/L – treatment level ‘A’
0.075 to 1 count/L – treatment level ‘B’
1 to < 3 counts/L – Treatment level ‘C’
>3 – Treatment level ‘D’
v 1.4
Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality Summary Table (February 2017)
Table 6-8 Guidelines related to Microbial (pathogen) Parameters
Tables
Table 1. Microbiological Parameters
In general, the highest priority guidelines are those dealing with microbiological contaminants, such as bacteria, protozoa and
viruses. As a result of challenges with routine analysis of harmful microorganisms that could potentially be present in inadequately
treated drinking water, the microbiological guidelines focus on indicators (E.coli, total coliforms) and treatment goals. The use of a
multi-barrier approach that includes source water protection, adequate treatment, including disinfection, and a well maintained
distribution system can reduce microorganisms to levels that have not been associated with illness, as well as meet the guidelines
outlined below.
Parameter Guideline Common Health considerations Applying the guideline

(approval) sources
Enteric Treatment goal: Human and Giardia and Cryptosporidium are Monitoring for Cryptosporidium and Giardia in
protozoa: Minimum 3 log animal faeces commonly associated with gastrointestinal source waters will provide valuable information
Giardia and removal and/or upset (nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea). Less for a risk-based assessment of treatment
Cryptosporidium inactivation of cysts common health effects vary. Giardia requirements.
(2012) and oocysts infections may include prolonged
gastrointestinal upset, malaise and Depending on the source water quality, a greater
malabsorption. Cryptosporidium infections, log removal and/or inactivation may be required.
in immunocompromised individuals, can
occur outside the gastrointestinal tract
including in the lungs, middle ear, and
pancreas.
Enteric viruses Treatment goal: Human faeces Commonly associated with gastrointestinal Routine monitoring for viruses is not practical;
(2011) Minimum 4 log upset (nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea); less characterize source water to determine if greater
reduction (removal common health effects can include than a 4 log removal or inactivation is necessary.
and/or inactivation) respiratory symptoms, central nervous
of enteric viruses system infections, liver infections and
muscular syndromes.
Escherichia coli MAC: Human and The presence of E. coli indicates recent E. coli is used as an indicator of the
(E. coli) None detectable per animal faeces faecal contamination and the potential microbiological safety of drinking water; if
(2012) 100 mL
Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality presence of microorganisms capable of detected, enteric pathogens
Summarymay also be present.
Table (February 2017)
causing gastrointestinal illnesses; pathogens E. coli monitoring should be used, in conjunction
in human and animal faeces pose the most with other indicators, as part of a multi-barrier
Parameter Guideline Common Health considerations
immediate danger to public health. Applying
approach the guideline
to producing drinking water of an
(approval) sources acceptable quality.
Total coliforms MAC of none Human and Total coliforms are not used as indicators of Total coliforms should be monitored in the
(2012) detectable/100 mL animal faeces; potential health effects from pathogenic distribution system because they are used to
in water leaving a naturally microorganisms; they are used as a tool to indicate changes in water quality.
treatment plant and occurring in determine how well the drinking water In water leaving a treatment plant, total coliforms
in non-disinfected water, soil and treatment system is operating and to should be measured in conjunction with other
groundwater leaving vegetation indicate water quality changes in the indicators to assess water quality; the presence of
the well distribution system.3 total coliforms indicates a serious breach in
Detection of total coliforms from treatment.
consecutive samples from the same site or In a distribution and storage system, detection of
from more than 10% of the samples total coliforms can indicate regrowth of the
collected in a given sampling period should bacteria in biofilms or intrusion of untreated
be investigated. water.
In non-disinfected groundwater, the presence of
total coliforms may indicate that the system is
vulnerable to contamination, or it may be a sign
of bacterial regrowth.
Turbidity Treatment limits for Naturally Filtration systems should be designed and Guidelines apply to individual filter turbidity for
(2012) individual filters or occurring operated to reduce turbidity levels as low as systems using surface water or groundwater
units: particles: reasonably achievable and strive to achieve under the direct influence of surface water. The
- Conventional and Inorganic: clays, a treated water turbidity target from decision to exempt a waterworks from filtration
direct filtration: silts, metal individual filters of less than 0.1 NTU. should be made by the appropriate authority
≤ 0.3 NTU1 precipitates Particles can harbour microorganisms, based on site-specific considerations, including
- slow sand and Organic: protecting them from disinfection, and can historical and ongoing monitoring data. To
diatomaceous earth decomposed plant entrap heavy metals and biocides; elevated ensure effectiveness of disinfection and for good
filtration: ≤ 1.0 & animal debris, or fluctuating turbidity in filtered water can operation of the distribution system, it is
NTU2 microorganisms indicate a problem with the water treatment recommended that water entering the distribution
- membrane process and a potential increased risk of system have turbidity levels of 1.0 NTU or less.
filtration: pathogens in treated water. For systems that use groundwater, turbidity
≤ 0.1 NTU3 should generally be below 1.0 NTU.
1
in at least 95% of measurements either per filter cycle or per month; never to exceed 1.0 NTU.
2
in at least 95% of measurements either per filter cycle or per month; never to exceed 3.0 NTU.
3
in at least 99% of measurements per operational filter period or per month. Measurements greater than 0.1 NTU for a period greater than 15 minutes from an
individual membrane unit should immediately trigger an investigation of the membrane unit integrity.
Because too many to monitor, use surrogate(s). These surrogates must not be present
above a given level in the treated water
• The water must contain 0 total4 coliform
o Coliform bacteria originate from ‘gut’ of warm blooded
animals. If fecal coliforms are present (i.e. from a host), then
if that host was ill, pathogens may be present
v 1.4
• Turbidity
o Originates from soil runoff, which can contain pathogens
(excreted from host). If runoff (i.e. turbidity) is high, then
pathogens could be present
o Note that required treated water turbidity depends on the
technology used to treat the water
§ Based on level achievable with a given technology
ii) Physical/chemical contaminants
Table 6-9 Guidelines related to Physical/Chemical parameters

Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality Summary Table (February 2017)
Type1 Parameter MAC Other value Common sources of Health considerations Comments
(approval, (mg/L) (mg/L) parameter in water
reaffirmation)
I Boron 5 Naturally occurring; Health basis of MAC: Reproductive MAC based on treatment achievability.
(1990) leaching or runoff from effects (testicular atrophy,
industrial use spermatogenesis)
Other: Limited evidence of reduced
sexual function in men
DBP Bromate 0.01 By-product of drinking Health basis of MAC: Renal cell MAC based on analytical and treatment
(1998) water disinfection with tumours (classified as probable achievability.
ozone; possible carcinogen)
contaminant in
hypochlorite solution
P Bromoxynil 0.005 Leaching or runoff from Health basis of MAC: Reduced liver
(1987, 2005) agricultural use to body weight ratios
I Cadmium 0.005 Leaching from galvanized Health basis of MAC: Kidney
(1986, 2005) pipes, solders or black damage and softening of bone
polyethylene pipes;
industrial and municipal
waste
I Calcium None Naturally occurring Guideline value not necessary, as there is
(1987, 2005) required (erosion and weathering of no evidence of adverse health effects from
soils, minerals, ores) calcium in drinking water; calcium
contributes to hardness.
P Carbaryl 0.09 Leaching or runoff from Health basis of MAC: Decreased
(1991, 2005) agricultural use kidney function (may be rapidly
reversible after exposure ceases)
P Carbofuran 0.09 Leaching or runoff from Health basis of MAC: Nervous
(1991, 2005) agricultural use system effects (cholinesterase
inhibition) and growth suppression
O Carbon tetrachloride 0.002 Industrial effluents and Health basis of MAC: Liver toxicity MAC takes into consideration all
(2010) leaching from hazardous Other: Kidney damage; liver tumours exposures from drinking water, which
waste sites (classified as probable carcinogen) include ingestion, as well as inhalation and
dermal absorption during showering and
bathing.
D Chloramines 3.0 Monochloramine is used as Health basis of MAC: Reduced body MAC is for total chloramines based on
(1995) a secondary disinfectant; weight gain health effects associated with
formed in presence of both Other: immunotoxicity effects monochloramine and analytical
chlorine and ammonia achievability.
iii) Radioactive contaminants

7
Mainly of concern in areas where the ground is naturally radioactive. For example, the
prairie provinces have naturally occurring radiation. Ingestion through water is
considered to be minimal, with the bulk exposure through inhalation.
v 1.4
4-3-2-1-0-DBPs
In the absence of anthropogenic contaminants and in geographical areas where there

are no known naturally occurring contaminants that originate from soil (e.g. arsenic,
manganese), the guidelines can be simplified to 4-3-2-1-0-DBPs
• 4-log removal of viruses

• 3-log removal of protozoa (Guardia and Cryptosporidium)
o Assumes source water quality is good (i.e. would be in a
bin that does not correspond to ‘heavily impacted’ water)
o Otherwise, additional treatment would be required
• 2-barriers (managerial or technological)
• <1NTU (turbidity)
• 0 total coliform (indicator organism)
• DBPs < MAC as per CDWG
The above often guides the selection for technologies for water treatment
v 1.4
6.6 Treatment
Treatment is performed as required to meet the CDWQG.
Although a large number of different types of treatment systems exist, all can be
analyzed/designed using a mass balance approach.
Treatment of the water involves the application of physical, chemical and/or biological
processes within an engineered system to remove or ‘transform’ material of concern.
Reactors are engineered to control these transformations
Figure 6-14 Schematic of reactor (fully mixed)
C
QiCi QeCe
r V
By defining a control volume around a reactor, it is possible to develop a mass balance.

Recall…
Equation 3-1
The mass of inputs and outputs are generally defined as the product of a concentration
(C) of a material in water and the flow (Q) of water into or out of the control volume
Equation 6-17
𝐶· 𝑄·
where C is the concentration of the material in the water [e.g. mg/L]; Q is the flow
of the water into or out of the control volume [e.g. L/day], and the subscript j
corresponds to an input or an output to/from the control volume
v 1.4
The transformations within the control volume are generally defined as the product of a
reaction rate (r) of a material in a medium (e.g. water) and the Volume (V) of that
medium
Equation 6-18
𝑟~ 𝑉
where r is the reaction rate of the material in the water [e.g. mg/(L.day)]; V is the
volume of the water in the control volume [e.g. L], and the subscript j
corresponds to a transformaton in the control volume
The total change in mass in the control volume resulting from inputs, outputs and
transformations in the control volume is generally defined as the product of the change
in concentration (C) of material in the medium (i.e. water) in the control volume over
time (t), expressed in terms of dC/dt and the Volume (V) of that medium in the control
volume.
Equation 6-19
𝑑𝐶
𝑉
𝑑𝑡 ¯
where dC/dt is the change with respect to time in the concentration of material in
the water in the control volume [e.g. mg/(L.day)]; and the subscript T corresponds
to the total change within a control volume
Combining the above, and realizing that there can be multiple inputs and outputs for the
material of interest as well as many changes can occur to the material in parallel or
sequentially, yields
Equation 6-20
𝑉 𝑑𝐶 ⁄𝑑𝑡 = K 𝑄M 𝐶M − K 𝑄N 𝐶N ± K 𝑟𝑉
where the subscripts i and o correspond to an input and output of the material of
interest into or out of the control volume, respectively, and k corresponds to a
transformations that can occur to the material of interest within the control
volume. Note, units for each term are in mass/time.
For steady state conditions, there is no change of mass in the control volume, which
simplifies the above mass balance.
Equation 6-21
K 𝑄M 𝐶M = K 𝑄N 𝐶N ± K 𝑟𝑉
v 1.4
If the material is conservative (i.e. does not change), the mass balance further
simplifies.
Equation 6-22
K 𝑄M 𝐶M = K 𝑄N 𝐶N
6.6.1 Transformations
Transformations that occur in the different types of treatment systems are

• Physical
• Chemical, or
• Biological.
The transformations involve reactants and products. Consider the reactants X and Y
combining to generate product Z
Equation 6-23
𝑋+𝑌 → 𝑍
In water/wastewater treatment applications, the transformations are typically described

as reactions
A reaction rate (r) is the transformation in mass of a specific compound with respect to
time. If we consider a batch reactor (discuss later), reactants X and Y and product Z
Equation 6-24
𝑑𝑋 𝑑𝑌 𝑑𝑍
𝑟=− =− =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
ToVV X
where the rate (r) has units of qNp•Tk . A negative sign means removal
(reactants) and a positive sign means addition (product). X, Y and Z
have units of mass/volume (i.e. concentration)
The rate at which a reaction occurs can be defined as

Equation 6-25
𝑟° = 𝑘𝐶 U
where rC is the rate at which the reactant C is being transformed [mass/volume/time],

k is the rate constant, C is the concentration of the reactant C [mass/volume] and n
is the reaction order [unitless]. Note, the units of k depend on the reaction order.
v 1.4
The reaction order describes the impact of the concentration of a reactant on the
reaction rate
• Zero order: 𝑟° = 𝑘
o Reaction rate is not affected by how much reactant is
present
• First order: 𝑟° = 𝑘𝐶
o Reaction rate is affected by how much reactant is present
• Second order: 𝑟° = 𝑘𝐶 ‰ , or 𝑟° = 𝑘𝐶o 𝐶¡
o Reaction rate is highly affected by how much reactant is
present
As discussed later, the above impact how a reactor should be
designed…
Most reactions in water and wastewater treatment are zero or first order. Examples
include:
• Disinfection: kill/inactivation of pathogens [chemical reaction]

Equation 6-26
𝑟º = (𝑘º 𝐶• 𝑁)
where rN is the disinfection rate [count/volume.time], kN is the disinfection

constant [volume/mass.time], CD is the concentration of the disinfectant
[mass/volume], and N is the number of pathogens [count/volume]
• Flocculation: agglomeration of small particles into large ones [physical reaction]

Equation 6-27
𝑟º = 𝐾o 𝐺̅ Ω𝑁 − 𝑘¡ 𝐺̅ ¿
where rN is the flocculation rate [count/volume.time], N is the number of

unfloculated or primaly particles [count/volume], kA and kB Aggregation and
breakup constants [units depend on order], Ω, the total volume of particles
per unit volume of suspension (Ω ~ Nod3) [unitless], is the root mean
square velocity gradient [1/time], ζ: Turbulence constant (flocs > 2x diameter
of smallest eddy tends to break up) [unitless], t is time.
v 1.4
• Biodegradation: oxidation of organic material (C) [biological reaction]

Equation 6-28
𝜇 𝑆
𝑟À = 𝑋
𝑌 𝑘À + 𝑆
where rG is the biomass growth rate [mass/volume.time], is the maximum

growth constant [1/time], S is the concentration of substrate (e.g. organic
material) [mass/volume], X is the concentration of biomass [mass/volume], kS
is the half saturation constant [mass/volume], Y is the growth yield [-].
What is the order of this equation?
In CIVL 305, we only consider simple chemical and biological reactions, but as learned
in CIVL 204, these reactions can be complex and involve a number of reactants
(substrates, nutrients, trace elements, etc.) and products (CO2 and other gases,
biomass, biopolymers, etc). These reactions are also highly impacted by the
environmental conditions (e.g. temperature, pH, aerobic/anoxic/anaerobic, available
products, etc.)
v 1.4
Example 6-12 Design of a disinfection batch contactor
𝑉 𝑑𝑁⁄𝑑𝑡 = K 𝑄M 𝑁M − K 𝑄N 𝑁N − K 𝑟º 𝑉
C
𝑉 𝑑𝑁⁄𝑑𝑡 = (𝑘º 𝐶• 𝑁)𝑉
𝑑𝑁 r V
= 𝑘º 𝐶• 𝑑𝑡
𝑁
𝑁
𝑙𝑛 = 𝑘º 𝐶• 𝑡
𝑁N
t is the residence time in the batch reactor

No is the initial pathogen concentration and N is the pathogen
concentration time = t
Rearranging
𝑁N
2.3𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 𝑘º 𝐶• 𝑡
𝑁
𝑁N
𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 𝑘 Â (𝐶• 𝑡)
𝑁
º
𝑙𝑜𝑔 Ã is the Log Removal Value (LRV)
º
K’ is a rate specific to a given type of pathogen and type of
disinfectant
(𝐶• 𝑡) is generally referred to as the ‘Ct’ value
To achieve a given LRV, you can use high disinfectant

concentration and short contact time, or long contact time and
low disinfectant concentration
v 1.4
6.6.2 Reactors
All reactors can be simplified to one of 3 types of ideal reactors
The characterization of reactors is typically done using a mass-balance approach with a

conservative tracer (non-reacting material; i.e. rC=0), yielding
Equation 6-29
K 𝑉 𝑑𝐶 ⁄𝑑𝑡 = K 𝑄M 𝐶M − K 𝑄N 𝐶N
Ideal Completely mixed batch reactor (CMBR)
Characteristics
• No inflow or outflow
• Completely mixed
Figure 6-15 CMBR
r V
K 𝑉 𝑑𝐶 ⁄𝑑𝑡 = 0
Tracer Concentration
Time
v 1.4
Ideal Completely mixed flow through reactor (or Completely Stirred Tank Reactor
– CSTR)
Characteristics
• Inflow and outflow
• Completely mixed
• Conc. of outflow = conc. in tank
• If influent is relatively constant dC/dt is constant (steady state)
• tR is the average hydraulic residence time
Figure 6-16 CSTR
C
QiCi QeCe
r V
Time
v 1.4
Ideal Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)
Characteristics
• Inflow and outflow
• No mixing
• Concentration can change over dx and dt
Figure 6-17 PFR
QiCi QeCe
r V C
x
x+dx
The analysis of PFR is more complex than for CMBRs and CSTRs (need to define the
control volume around dx).
However, if the cross-sectional area remains constant and there are no other
inputs/output along the reactor, you can simplify the analysis by consider a PFR simply
as a reactor with a CMBR that travels along its length at a velocity of Q/AC. (Q: flow; AC:
Cross-sectional area). All of the contents of the CMBR comes out of the PFR after a
residence time of tR (tR=V/Q; V: volume of PFR; Q: flow)
Time
v 1.4
Real reactors
Real reactors do not behave as true CMBR, CSTR or PFR. This is because
• Incomplete mixing
• Mixing (diffusion, dispersion)
• Dead zones, short circuiting
Fortunately, the behavior of most real reactors can be approximated with multiple
completely mixed flow through reactors in series
Examples
• A Completely mixed flow through reactor with poor mixing can
behave as 2 CSTRs in series
• A PFR with significant longitudinal dispersion can behave as 3-
5 SCTRs in series
• A well performing PFR behaves as 15-20+ CSTRs in series
Figure 6-18 Multiple CSTRs in Series
QiCi QeCe
Performing an analysis similar to the one performed for a single CSTR, but for multiple
CSTRs in series yields
Equation 6-30
𝑛 𝑛𝑡 (UiX) uiU x
𝐶U ( = 𝐶Ä ˜ š˜ š 𝑒 Æ
) (𝑛 − 1)! 𝑡²
where n is the number of CSTRs, t is the time since the tracer was added, Cn is the
concentration of the tracer in the effluent, CΔ is the average concentration of tracer
in system (mass of tracer added/total volume of system0, 𝑡² is the total hydraulic
residence time (V/Q; V total reactor volume; Q: flow). If the mass of tracer added is
X È
not known, it can be estimated (= ∫S 𝐶𝑑𝑡)
Æ
v 1.4
Can use goal-seek to fit the above equation of measured data to estimate n for your real
reactor
As an alternative, the ratio of the t10/HRT can be used to characterize the performance
of your system. The t10 is the time it takes for 10% of the tracer mass to exit the
system. The HRT (tR)is the hydraulic retention time, and is the ratio of the volume of
your system to the flow through your system. A t10/tR of >0.7 is characteristic of a well
performing real PFR.
Time
v 1.4
6.6.3 Transformations in Reactors
Consider a zero-order reaction for the removal of contaminant ‘C’. Note, you are
responsible for being able to solve the mass balance for first order reactions
CMBR
CSTR
v 1.4
PFR
Imagine a PFR simply as a reactor with a CMBR that travels along its length at a
velocity of Q/AC. (Q: flow; AC: Cross-sectional area). All of the contents of the CMBR
comes out of the PFR after a residence time of tR (tR=V/Q; V: volume of PFR; Q: flow)
v 1.4
Summary
Why is it important for rectors be designed and behave a certain way???
Example 6-13 impact of reactor type
Which type of reactor (PFR or CSTR) produces a cleaner effluent? The rate constant
is 5/day. The initial concentration is 100 mg/L. The flow is 100 m3/day and the
volume is 10 m3.
Note: a rate constant with units of 1/time is first order.
For any reaction order over 0, a PFR (or multiple CSTRs in

series) produces a cleaner effluent for a given reactor volume
v 1.4
Effluent concentrations (C) for different rate kinetics and reactor types
Table 6-10 Summary Equations for different reactor types
Reaction CSTR n CSTRs PFR

order
0 𝐶 = 𝐶M − 𝑘𝑡² 𝐶 = 𝐶M − 𝑘𝑡² 𝐶 = 𝐶M − 𝑘𝑡²
1 1 𝐶 = 𝐶M 𝑒 (i~ Æ )
𝐶 = 𝐶M ˜ š 1
1 + 𝑘𝑡² 𝐶 = 𝐶M “ •
𝑡 U
u1 + 𝑘 𝑛² x
For > zero order, PFR (or multiple CSTRs in series) always
produces a ‘cleaner’ effluent (i.e. transforms more of the input
material)
v 1.4
6.6.4 Technologies
Typical/Conventional Water Treatment plant
Figure 6-19 Typical (Direct Filtration) Water Treatment Plant
Conventional (i.e. typical) water treatment generally consists of
1. Intake structure: selects water from optimal depth

• Low turbidity
• cold
2. Screening
• Protect wildlife
• Protect equipment
3. Pumping
• Elevate water for subsequent flow by gravity
4. Coagulation
• Condition small particles for agglomeration
• Chemical reaction
5. Flocculation
• Agglomeration of particles
• Physical reaction
6. Settling
• Removal of bulk of particles
• Gravity separation
7. Filtration
• Removal of residual particles
• Straining
• Defined as Direct Filtration if no settling prior to filtration
v 1.4
8. Primary disinfection
• Inactivation/kill remaining pathogenic organisms
• Physical/chemical reaction
9. Secondary Disinfection
• Prevent regrowth in distribution system
• Physical/chemical reaction
Figure 6-20 Metro Vancouver Seymour-Capilano Water Treatment Plant
Figure 6-21 Metro Vancouver Coquitlam Water Treatment Plant
v 1.4
The mechanisms governing the transformations that occur in each process and the
design of these is covered in CIVL 406.
6.6.5 Expected Performance
The expected contaminant removal efficacy is highly dependent on how well the system
is operated. A number of agencies/jurisdictions compile data on system performance to
that the expected efficacy for ‘well operated’ systems can be benchmarked.
i) Particulate removal technologies
Pathogens are particles, therefore means of removing particles will remove pathogens
Table 6-11 Achievable Log removal
Treatment Crypto Giardia Rotavirus Campylobacter E.Coli

O157
Coagulation 1.83 1.60 1.69 1.56 1.6
and Settling (0.89) (0.89) (1.02) (0.94) (0.9)
Granular 1.04 1.09 0.76 0.52 0.5

Filtration (0.69) (0.91) (0.79) (0.29) (0.3)
Coag/Settling 2.57 2.04 0.98 0.87 0.87

and Granular (1.32) (1.12) (0.69) (0.38) (0.38)
Filtration
Slow Sand 4.90 4.90 2.17 2.64 2.64

Filtration (1.3) (1.01) (1.11) (1.06) (1.06)
Ultrafiltration 6.41 6.18 4.12 8.00 8.00

(0.44) (0.82) (1.13)
Adapted from Health Canada Literature Review, 2008 (Health Canada QMRA Model)
ii) Disinfection technologies
Disinfection technologies aim to either oxidize (i.e. burn) pathogens to kill (e.g. chlorine)
or disrupt their RNA so that they cannot reproduce (e.g. UV radiation).
The extent of ‘death’ or ‘inactivation’ depends on the dose applied. For chemical
disinfectants (e.g. chlorine), the dose is the product of the concentration and exposure
time (Ct), and for disinfection using radiation, the dose is the product of radiation
intensity and duration (It). (see Example 3-1)
v 1.4
Figure 6-22 Metro Vancouver Water Quality
• High quality source

o Rainfall/snow
o Protected Watershed
• Treatment
o Filtration/disinfection
§ Seymour+Capilano
o Disinfection(s)
§ Coquitlam
• DBPs high at some extremities
o Research with UBC to
minimize
v 1.4
6.6.6 Water Quality Advisories
Two types of advisories exist
Do not consume
"Do not consume" and "Do not use" advisories are typically used when a chemical
contaminant is suspected or confirmed in a drinking water supply.
Boil water advisories
Boil water advisories are by far the most common type of advisory. They are issued
when the microbiological quality of drinking water is suspected or confirmed to be
compromised, meaning disease-causing micro-organisms, such as bacteria, viruses or
parasites, could be in the drinking water.
• ~80% of boil water advisories are precautionary

o Generally linked to operational constraints: e.g. operator
certification, power outage, equipment failure, monitoring,
management plans
• ~15% due to surrogates
o Total coliform, turbidity
• ~5% due to detection of E.coli
• Most boil water advisories are in small communities and are
precautionary
Figure 6-23 Boil Water Advisory for Communities of Different Sizes
v 1.4
The large number of small communities in BC results in a proportionally large number of

boil water advisories
Figure 6-24 Boil Water Advisories in Canada
v 1.4
6.7 Value of Water

The value of used water can be estimated based on the cost to withdraw, treat and
distribute.
Figure 6-25 Cost of Water in Canada
Figure 6-26 Water Cost Internationally
v 1.4
The costs are then passed onto users. Depending on the jurisdiction, the cost is based
on use, or a flat rate that is part of municipal taxes.
In metro Vancouver, member municipalities purchase water from Metro Vancouver.

The individual municipalities pass on the cost of the purchase to users.
Table 6-12 Metering in Metro Vancouver
Figure 6-27 Percent of residences metered
v 1.4
Notes:
Tap water: $1.7/1000L (2015)
Cola: $1365
Bottle water: $1500
Milk: $2480
Beer: $5400
Wine: $20,000
Scotch (12 yr): $70,000
6.7.1 When the systems fail…
Outbreaks still result in affluent countries. Canada has two of the worse drinking water
outbreaks of recent times: Walkerton and North Battleford.
Walkerton:
A 5-year-old boy who lived in a community near the town of Walkerton, Ontario had
been playing with friends in Walkerton. The next day he complained of "pains in his
stomach" and that afternoon he told his mother he had to go to the bathroom four times
because he had to "poop" a lot. By early evening he had continued to have diarrhea and
in addition, he developed a fever. His mother was concerned and took him to the
Walkerton hospital emergency department, which was the closest hospital to where he
lived.In the emergency room a stool sample was collected and noted to be "bloody".
The child was dehydrated and sufficiently ill that the attending physician decided to
admit him to the hospital for re-hydration and observation. During the course of the
evening shift in the emergency room three other people from Walkerton were seen, who
were also complaining of severe diarrhea.
Eventually…
• More than 2,300 individuals were estimated to have suffered
gastrointestinal illness
• Of these, 65 were hospitalized for severe bloody diarrhea and
dehydration (permanent kidney damage)
• 27 developed hemolytic uremic syndrome (severe and
potentially fatal kidney ailment)
• 7 died
• Estimated cost of outbreak: $300,000,000
• The culprit: Escheria coli O157:H7
v 1.4
Fault
• GM:
– Negligent conduct
– Did not understand the impact of their actions
– Limited competence to run system
• MOE:
– Does have the knowledge to understand the impact of their actions
– Did not enforce the use of residual chlorine monitors (as required in MOE
policy)
– MOE found a number of deficiencies in Walkerton water
system over the years but failed to take meaningful and
consistent follow-up actions
• Town (Walkerton) Commissioner
– Did not take significant action when contacted by MOE regarding deficiencies
in water system
• Public Health Inspector
– Responded diligently to outbreak
– Criticized by some for not issuing a boil water advisory earlier
– However, they were pursuing their investigation based on incorrect
information
– In hindsight, should have issued a boil water advisory as a
precautionary measure
• Provincial Government
– Cuts to MOE and government labs
– Provincial Health officer warned the government that regs were required for
private labs to report adverse results to health units
– No enforcement of operator certification program
Changed how water is regulated in Canada!!!
v 1.4
7 Used water (a.k.a. Wastewater)

7.1 Source
7.1.1 From water that is used
Most of the water that is used eventually makes it way to a used water (i.e. wastewater)
collection system.
Figure 7-1 Used Water from Domestic, Commercial and Industrial Sources
Figure 7-2 Used Water Flow by Source
v 1.4
7.1.2 From Storm Water
In addition to ‘used water’ from domestic, commercial and industrial sources, water from
precipitation can also make its way to ‘collection’ systems. The extent of precipitation
that makes it way to collection systems depends on the degree of imperviousness of
soil. For urban areas, 30-50% of water makes it way to collection systems.
There are two general types of storm water collection approaches. The type impacts the
volume and quality of the water discharged to the environment
Separate collection systems
Figure 7-3 Separate Storm and Used Water Collection
Vancouver has ~250 separate outfalls to ocean

Combined collection systems
Most areas built before 1940 have combined sewers
Vancouver has ~ 50 combined sewer overflows (CSOs)
v 1.4
Figure 7-4 Combined Storm and Used Water Collection
Urban Swales
Increasingly a more holistic approaches are being sued to manage storm water. A
simple example is urban swales.
These promote infiltration into the ground

• Reduces flow spikes
• Reduces overflows
• ‘cleans’ the runoff from roads
• Simple to implement
Figure 7-5 Urban Swales
v 1.4
Figure 7-6 Metro Vancouver (Crown Street)
Approaches to manage urban storm water are discussed in CIVL 409
v 1.4
7.2 Used Water Quality
7.2.1 Water Quality Parameters
Solids
See Section 6.3.1
Solids can also impact light transmittance in receiving water bodies and impact fish
habitats and spawning.
Figure 7-7 – Impact of solids on fish habitat
Organic Material
Organic material in ‘used’ water is generally quantified based on oxygen demand. This
is because when discharged to the environment, naturally occurring organisms will
consume the organic material, and in the process consume oxygen (see Section 7.4.3).
The amount of oxygen consumed is an indicator of the amount of organic material
present (see CIVL 204).
v 1.4
i) BOD5: Biological oxygen demand: amount of oxygen consumed when organics are
biologically oxidized (i.e. biodegradable). Measured over a 5-day period
o Note that other material can also consume oxygen (e.g. ammonia). We will
only consider carbonaceous (i.e. organic material) oxygen demand (CBOD5).
Equation 7-1
ÊMNToVV
É (t jonV)
𝐶o 𝐻¡ 𝑂ž 𝑁j + 𝑒𝑂‰ + 𝑓𝐻 Ë⎯⎯⎯⎯Í 𝑔𝐶P 𝐻M 𝑂· 𝑁· + 𝑙𝐶𝑂‰ + 𝑚𝐻‰ 𝑂 + 𝑚𝑁𝐻ÎÉ
Not all organic material is easily/rapidly biodegradable (i.e. degrades within 5 days).
Also, the BOD test takes a long time (i.e. 5 days). As an alternative to measuring the
amount of oxygen consumed during the biological oxidation of organic material, it is
possible to measure the amount of oxygen consumed during the chemical oxidation of
organic material.
ii) COD: Chemical oxygen demand: amount of oxygen consumed when organics are
chemically oxidized – a strong oxidizing agent is used (𝐶𝑟‰ 𝑂µ‰i )
Equation 7-2
𝐶o 𝐻¡ 𝑂ž 𝑁j + 𝑒𝐶𝑟‰ 𝑂µ‰i + 𝑂‰ + 𝑓𝐻 É → 𝑔𝐶𝑟 zÉ + ℎ𝐶𝑂‰ + 𝑖𝐻‰ 𝑂 + 𝑗𝑁𝐻ÎÉ
• COD=CODb+CODnb, where b and nb are biodegradable and non-biodegradable,

respectively
o CODb=CODrb+CODsb, where r and s are rapid and slow, respectively

§ CODb ≈1.6BOD5
§ CODrb ≈ BOD5
iii) BOD5/COD ratio provides an approximate estimate of the fraction of total organics
that are biodegradable
Approx 60% of all (biodegradable and non-biodegradable) organic material in

wastewater is particulate, of which approximately half is settlable
v 1.4
Nutrients
Nutrients are essential for all microbial growth. Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P) in
particular are of importance. Excess nutrients in the environment leads to excessive
growth
Figure 7-8 Impact of nutrients on Algae Growth (P limitation)
Nitrogen
• Nitrogen can be a limiting nutrient, and therefore if it is present, microbial growth
could proceed unimpeded.
• Some forms of nitrogen can be toxic to aquatic life (e.g. NH3) and even to humans
(e.g. NO3) - blue babies.
Phosphorous
• Phosphorus is generally the limiting nutrient in aquatic ecosystems.
o Critical concentration for excessive alga growth
§ lakes: 50 ppb total P
§ in rivers: 100 ppb total P
The ratio of organics BOD:N:P in wastewater is generally 100:17-19:5-6
v 1.4
Anthropogenic contaminants
• From domestic and commercial: Personal Care Products, antibiotics,
microplastics, etc...
o Flushed in toilet
o Washing machine, dishwasher
• The characteristics of industrial/commercial wastewater depends on the type of
industry/commerce, and if discharged to municipal sewers, will affect the
characteristics of the municipal wastewater
o Kellogg’s
o Molson breweries
Pathogens/Fecal coliforms
Indicators of fecal (i.e. human) contamination, and therefore the potential presence of
pathogens. Of concern to organisms (e.g. humans) that consume or are exposed to the
water
7.2.2 Typical Raw Used Water Quality
Table 7-1 Summary water quality parameters from various sources

BOD COD Total Total Suspended Total Ammonia Total Fecal
(mg/L) (mg/L) Organic Solids Solids Nitrogen (mg/l as N) Phosphorous Coliforms
Carbon (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L as N) (mg/L as P) (MPN/100mL)
(mg/L)
Background 0.5-3 5-100 0.05-0.5 0.01-0.2 0-100’s
environment
Stormwater 20 400 3-10 0.6 15,000
runoff
Municipal 115- 250- 80-290 350- 100-350 9-85 12-50 1.9-15 700,000-109
wastewater 400 1000 1200
Primary effluent 135 80 35 8 200,000
Secondary 25 15 10 4 1,000
effluent
Tertiary effluent <5 <10 <3 <2
Note that in North America, because we use more water than in Europe, the
concentration of material in our wastewater is lower than in Europe (i.e. more diluted).
• Is this a good thing?
o As discussed in Section 6.6.1, biological treatment is
generally used to treat ‘used water’.
§ Rate for biodegradation is first order
§ First order kinetics proceed faster when more
reactants are present
v 1.4
7.3 Production
A mass balance analysis can be used to estimate production
Recall…
Equation 3-1
Rearrange…
Equation 7-3
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡(𝑠) 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑠) ⎡ ⎤ 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑠)
⎢ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ⎥ 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒔
!𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑜 4 ± ! 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 4 = ⎢ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ⎥ ± ! 4
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝒕𝒐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ⎣ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ⎦ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Raw water demand eventually results in used water production. As previously

mentioned, most of the water that is used eventually makes it way to a used water (i.e.
wastewater) collection system.
Differences in the amount of water use and used water production result from
• Losses in distribution and collection systems
• Use of water for products (i.e. transformation component of
mass balance)
• Water used for irrigation (i.e. infiltrates into soil)
Therefore, ‘water use’ data previously discussed can be used to estimate ‘used water’
production.
Note, a time-lag exists between water use and when used water needs to be treated
(will discuss later). The lag corresponds to the time required for used water to travel
through the collection system
v 1.4
7.4 Required Used Water Quality

Until the mid 1800’s, ‘used water’ was simply discharged to pits and cesspools, which
then overflowed into nearby water bodies and/or infiltrated into the soil. However, two
events occurred that drastically changed used water ‘management’ practices.
• Broad Street cholera outbreak (London in 1854): A direct link was made
between drinking water contaminated with wastewater and the
occurrence of Cholera.
• The Big Stench also known as the Great Stink (London 1856): Unbearable foul
odours emanating from the Thames River during the hot
summer months.
Figure 7-9 Water Quality Problems (London mid 1800s)
Following these events, urban used water practices changed worldwide, initially in
larger cities, but then eventually to most communities (especially in ‘industrialized’
nations)
v 1.4
7.4.1 Mixing of used water with receiving water body
Regulations for wastewater are to some extent based on the concentration of

contaminants in the receiving environment (e.g. water bodies such as rivers, lakes,
etc…)water body. Therefore, it is necessary to know the concentration (and the
temperature) in the receiving environment
Concentration in receiving environment
Based on the concept of conversation of mass, the change in mass of material in a

control volume is the sum of all the mass inputs and outputs of that material.
Equation 3-1
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑜 ⎢ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ⎥ 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛
! 4=! 4 − ⎢ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ⎥ ± ! 4
If there are no (or limited) transformations, and steady state conditions prevail (i.e. no
change in mass in control volume over time – a reasonable approximation if the flow is
relatively constant) the relationship simplifies to
Equation 7-4
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡(𝑠) ⎡ ⎤
𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑜 ⎢ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ⎥
! 4 = ⎢ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ⎥
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ⎣ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ⎦
The inputs and outputs of mass of a material are expressed as a mass flux (𝑚̇), such as
kg/day. Typically, we do not know the mass, but the concentrations in a liquid (or solid
or gaseous) medium.
As previously discussed, inputs and outputs are generally defined as the product of a
concentration (C) of a material in water and the flow (Q) of water into or out of the
control volume
Equation 7-5
𝐶· 𝑄·
where 𝑚̇ is the mass flux [e.g. kg/day]; C is the concentration of the material in
the water [e.g. mg/L]; Q is the flow of the water into or out of the control volume
[e.g. L/day], and the subscript j corresponds to an input or an output to/from the
control volume
v 1.4
Combining the above yields

Equation 7-6
K 𝑄M 𝐶M = K 𝑄N 𝐶N
interest into or out of the control volume, respectively.
Equation 7-7 (discharge of a waste stream into a river – resulting concentration):
∑ 𝑄M 𝐶M = ∑ 𝑄N 𝐶N
Qi1: 184 m3/s ; if don’t know all flows, use mass balance…
Qi2: 16 m3/s
Ci1: 5 mg/L
Ci2: 250 mg/L
Recall
𝑄N = K 𝑄M
𝑄N =184 m3/s + 16 m3/s=200 m3/s
X{ÎÒtÉXRÒ‰tS
𝐶N = ; Co=25 mg/L
‰SS
v 1.4
Temperature in receiving environment
A similar approach can be used to estimate the temperature of the mixed water body.
Based on the concept of conversation of energy, the change in energy in a control

volume is the sum of the energy inputs and outputs.
Equation 7-8
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡(𝑠) ⎡ ⎤ 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠(𝑠)
⎢𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ⎥
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛
! 4 = !𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑜 4 − ⎢ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ⎥ ± ! 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 4
A number of energy transformations can occur (e.g. from mechanical to thermal). For
the present case, we are only interested in thermal energy, and assume that
transformations into other forms of energy (e.g. potential energy, kinetic energy, etc.)
are negligible
If there are no (or limited) transformations in the control volume, and steady state
conditions prevail (i.e. no change in energy in control volume over time) the relationship
simplifies to (as for Equation 7-4).
Equation 7-9
!𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑜 4 = ⎢ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ⎥
In many applications, we are interested in the energy associated with the heat content
of water, which can be estimated based on enthalpy.
Equation 7-10
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐𝑇
where E is energy associated with heat content of water [J]; m is mass of water
[g]; c is specific heat of water which can generally be assumed to be constant
over the range typical of environmental conditions [4.1 J/g.Kelvin]; T is
temperature of water [Kelvin]
v 1.4
Converting mass of water to a mass flux [mass/time] yields

Equation 7-11
𝐸̇ = (𝑄𝜌G )𝑐𝑇
where 𝐸̇ is energy flux [e.g. J/s], Q is the flow of water [e.g. L/s], 𝜌G is the
density of water [e.g. g/L]
Considering that the density of the water does not change much over the range of
temperatures typical of ‘environmental processes’, and that the specific heat of water
can be considered to be constant for most environmental applications, the energy
balance equation for heat in water can be simplified to
Equation 7-12
K 𝑄M 𝑇M − K 𝑄N 𝑇N
interest into or out of the control volume, respectively, and T is the temperature
[Celsius or Kelvin].
v 1.4
Example 7-1 (discharge of a waste stream into a river – resulting Temperature):
K 𝑄M 𝑇M = K 𝑄N 𝑇N
Qi1: 184 m3/s

Qi2: 16 m3/s
Ti1: 8 C
Ti2: 15 C
Recall
𝑄N =184 m3/s + 16 m3/s=200 m3/s
184𝑥8 + 16𝑥15
𝑇N =
200
To=8.5 C
v 1.4
7.4.2 Risk Based Approach
For impact to human health, an approach similar to that presented for ‘water use’ is
applied to ‘used water’ for exposure to pathogens, non-carcinogens and carcinogens.
However, instead of being interested in a Chronic Daily Intake (CDI) associated with the
consumption of potable water, we are interested in other avenues of intake
• Ingestion from swimming in receiving water

𝐶𝑊 𝑥 𝐶𝑅 𝑥 𝐸𝐹 𝑥 𝐸𝐷
𝐶𝐷𝐼•iÀ =
𝐵𝑊 𝑥 𝐴𝑇
• Dermal contact with water

𝐶𝑊 𝑥 𝑆𝐴 𝑥 𝑃𝐶 𝑥 𝐸𝐹 𝑥 𝐸𝐷 𝑥 𝐶𝐹
𝐶𝐷𝐼•iL =
• Ingestion from soil onto used water is applied

𝐶𝑆 𝑥 𝐼𝑅 𝑥 𝐶𝐹 𝑥 𝐹𝐼 𝑥 𝐸𝐹 𝑥 𝐸𝐷
• Ingestion of food products (e.g. vegetables) from soils onto used water is applied
𝐶𝐹 𝑥 𝐼𝑅 𝑥 𝐹𝐼 𝑥 𝐸𝐹 𝑥 𝐸𝐷
𝐶𝐷𝐼•iÓ =
• Dermal contact from soil onto used water us applied

𝐶𝑆 𝑥 𝐶𝐹 𝑥 𝑆𝐴 𝑥 𝐴𝐹 𝑥 𝐴𝐵𝑆 𝑥 𝐸𝐸 𝑥 𝐸𝐷
• Inhalation from air impacted from aerosols of used water

𝐶𝐴 𝑥 𝐼𝑅 𝑥 𝐸𝑇 𝑥 𝐸𝐹 𝑥 𝐸𝐷
𝐶𝐷𝐼•iÔ =
where ABS: adsorption factor (dimensionless), AF: soil to skin adherence factor
(mg/cm2), AT: averaging time – period over which exposure is averaged (days), AT:
equal to exposure duration for noncarcinogens and 70 years for carcinogens,
BW: body weight averaged over exposure period (kg), C: chemical concentration
over exposure period (e.g. mg/L for water), CA: chemical concentration in air
(mg/m3), CDI: Chronic Daily Intake (mg/kg.day), CF: conversion factor (e.g. 1L=1000
cm3), CR: contact rate (L/hr), CS: chemical concentration in soil (mg/kg), CW:
chemical concentration in water (mg/L), ED: exposure duration (years), EF:
Exposure frequency (days/year), ET: exposure time (hr/day), FI: pathway specific
fraction ingested (dimensionless), IR: intake or contact time - the amount of
contaminated medium taken in or contacted per unit time or event (e.g. L/day), PC:
Chemical specific dermal permeability constant (cm/hr), SA: Skin surface area
available for contact (cm2)
v 1.4
7.4.3 Impact Based (Environment Impact Assessment)
For impact to the environment, an assessment approach is used that focuses on

maintaining ‘current’ or ‘original’ conditions.
The first step of an environmental impact assessment generally consists of compiling an

inventory of the natural environment. Then, potential negative changes to the
inventoried components are assessed. Impact of different alternatives are compared
(including the do nothing alternative).
Inventory
Inventory the conditions for the proposed and alternative sites where outputs to sinks
may occur.
The inventory is typically limited to within the ‘zone of influence’
• 3-D subsurface zone where mixing occurs (discharge to ground water).
Within this zone, travel time to property line, well water or surface must be greater
than a given amount
i. High quality water (Class (A or B): 6 days
ii. Lower quality water (Class C or D): 10
days
Essentially you want ‘used water’ to travel slowly so that
‘nature’ has more time to clean itself (i.e. capture and/or
degrade contaminants)
• 3-D surface zone where mixing occurs (discharge to surface water).
Typically defined as radius (e.g. 100m or 25% of the width of a water body). Edge of
zone must be at least 300m from recreational area, domestic or agricultural intakes,
and other ‘sensitive’ areas
Within zone, certain dilution ratios are required

i. High dilution (e.g. 100:1)
§ discharge must meet ‘basic’ treatment quality (e.g.
BOD, TSS, fecal coliform, toxicity)
ii. Intermediate dilution
§ Discharge must meet ‘advanced’ treatment quality
(e.g. as above + nutrients)
iii. Low dilution (e.g. 10:1)
§ Discharge prohibited
v 1.4
Essentially, you are diluting the water… Reducing impact.
The inventory is to catalogue all animal and plant species as well as physical/chemical
conditions at sites. Hydrological and meteorological information is also collected
Assessment
A number of different approaches exist. In general, these are based on assigning

weights to the impacts that consider the importance, the magnitude and the outcomes
of the impacts
i) Importance factors (IF)
• Scale generally over a range (e.g. 0-5)
• 0: no importance
• 5: high importance
ii) Magnitude factors (MF)
• Scale generally over a range (e.g. 0-5)
• 0: no magnitude
• 5: high magnitude
iii) Effect Factors (EF)
• Is impact positive or negative
• +1 for positive
• -1 for negative
A number is produced for each area of concern:∑UMiX 𝐼𝐹M 𝑀𝐹M 𝐸𝐹M
Note that the above, especially the impact and magnitude factors,
can be very subjective
v 1.4
Examples of High Importance (IF) and Negative Effect (EF)
i) Oxygen depletion:
Figure 7-10 Impact of discharge of biodegradable organic material to river
Depletion of oxygen in receiving water body at a rate kL

Equation 7-13
𝑑𝐿
= −𝑘𝐿
𝑑𝑡
where L is the concentration of biodegradable organic matter (expressed as

mg/L of oxygen demand)
A change in L essentially translate in a depletion in the concentration of oxygen in the

system
Note that for BOD test, the temperature was controlled at 20C. In receiving
water bodies, the temperature is variable. Temperature affects the rate at which
organic material is biodegraded (i.e. rate kinetics). k obtained from BOD tests at
20C can be corrected for temperature
v 1.4
Equation 7-14
𝑘 ¯ = 𝑘‰S 𝜃 (¯i‰S°)
where kT is the rate at your temperature of interest, and k20 is the rate at a
temperature of 20C and θ is 1.145 (-) (from Arrhenius equation that
describes the effect of temperature on rate of chemical reactions)
If receiving water cannot re-aerate itself fast enough, oxygen can be depleted
• Fish die if DO concentration is less than approx. 2-5 mg/L
Re-aeration also follows a first order rate that can be expressed as
Equation 7-15
j•
j
= −𝑘‰ 𝐷
where D is the DO deficit which is the difference between the DO

concentration (DO) [mg/L] and the saturation DO concentration (DOSAT)
[mg/L], the greater the deficit, the higher the rate of re-aeration; k2 is the re-
aeration coefficient [/d]
The saturation DO [mg/L] is a function of the water temperature.

Colder water can hold more oxygen. The Saturation DO
concentration for different temperatures (T) can be estimated
using
Equation 7-16
𝐷𝑂ÀÔ¯ ≈ 14.18𝑒 (iS.S‰‰¯)
K2 can be estimated using the following empirical equation

Equation 7-17
z.×q Ø.Ù(Ú(ÛÜÝØ) )Ø.Ù
𝑘‰ = Þ ß.Ù
where T is temperature of water (C), H is the average

depth of flow (m) and v is the mean stream velocity (m/s)
and θ is 1.012 (-), k2 has units of 1/day; for small deep
stagnant ponds, the re-aeration coefficient is low (0.1-
0.2/d at 20C), while for fast moving rapids, the re-
aeration coefficient is high (0.6-1.2/d at 20C).
v 1.4
Combining oxygen depletion and re-aeration yields an expression for the change in the
DO deficit (D) over time
Equation 7-18
𝑑𝐷
= 𝑘𝐿 − 𝑘‰ 𝐷
𝑑𝑡
here, Lt is the BOD concentration as a function of time, and can be calculated

based on the BOD concentration immediately after the discharge has mixed with
the stream (Lo). Note, this is similar to the ultimate BOD (Lu) in the BOD test
bottle.
Equation 7-19
𝐿 = 𝐿N 𝑒 i~
yielding
Equation 7-20
𝑑𝐷
= 𝑘𝐿N 𝑒 i~ − 𝑘‰ 𝐷
𝑑𝑡
Integrating…
Equation 7-21
𝑘𝐿N
𝐷 = [𝑒 i~ − 𝑒 i~Ý ] + 𝐷N 𝑒 i~Ý
𝐾‰ − 𝑘
You are not expected to be able to derive this last equation, but are expected to know
what every parameter means and how to use them. The above equation is commonly
referred to as the Streeter-Phelps equation.
Typically, you are not really interested in deficit at any point in time (Dt), but in the
dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration at different times t (DOt).
Equation 7-22
𝐷𝑂 = 𝐷𝑂Ào − 𝐷
Combining…
Equation 7-23
~OÃ
𝐷𝑂 = 𝐷𝑂ÀÔ¯ − uà [𝑒 i~ − 𝑒 i~Ý ] + 𝐷N 𝑒 i~Ý x
Ý i~
A mass balance approach can be used to calculate the ultimate BOD concentration
(Lo) immediately after the discharge has mixed with the stream (see Section 7.4.1)
v 1.4
From conservation of mass…

Equation 7-4
!𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑜 4 = ⎢ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ⎥
Equation 7-6

K 𝑄MU 𝐿MU = K 𝑄N• 𝐿N•
Equation 7-24
𝑄À QkoT 𝐿À QkoT + 𝑄•MVžPoQlk 𝐿•MVžPoQlk = 𝑄áMÒ •Qk 𝐿N
Equation 7-25
âãäåæçè Oãäåæçè Éâéêëìíçåîæ Oéêëìíçåîæ
𝐿N = âïêðäñåæ
Similarly, a mass balance approach can be used to calculate the DO deficit (Do)
immediately after the discharge has mixed with the stream
Equation 7-26
𝐷S = 𝐷𝑂Ào − 𝐷𝑂N
Equation 7-27
𝑄À QkoT 𝐷𝑂À QkoT + 𝑄•MVžPoQlk 𝐷𝑂•MVžPoQlk = 𝑄áMÒ •Qk 𝐷𝑂N
Equation 7-28
âãäåæçè •´ãäåæçè Éâéêëìíçåîæ •´éêëìíçåîæ
𝐷𝑂N = âïêðäñåæ
As previously discussed, the temperature of the mixed stream can also be

determined in the same manner
Equation 7-29
Q óôõö÷ø Tóôõö÷ø + Q úûüýþ÷õÿö 𝑇•MVžPoQlk = Q !û"ô#õö 𝑇N
Equation 7-30
𝑄À QkoT 𝑇À QkoT + 𝑄•MVžPoQlk 𝑇•MVžPoQlk
𝑇N =
𝑄áMÒ •Qk
v 1.4
Table 7-2British Columbia O2 criteria for aquatic life for fresh, marine and estuary
waters and sediments
All life stages (except Buried embryos (for 30 days

buried embryos) post hatching)
Water Column Water Column Interstitial
(mgO2/L) (mgO2/L) (mgO2/L)
30 day mean 8 11 8
Instantaneous 5 9 6
minimum
v 1.4
Example 7-2 (DO consumption following discharge):
Discharge flow rate Qw 10000 m3/day

Stream flow rate Qs 100000 m3/day
Mixture flow rate Qt 110000 m3/day
DO (mg/L)
Discharge temperature Tw 25 C
Stream temperature Ts 18 C 10
Mixture temperature To 18.6363636 C
5
BOD
Discharge BOD5 5w 25 mg/L
BODu 0
Discharge BODu w 39.5494177 mg/L 0 20 40
Stream BOD5 BOD5s 1 mg/L
BODu
Stream BODu w 1.58197671 mg/L
Mixture BODu BODo 5.03356225 mg/L
Discahrge DO DO w 1.6 mg/L

Stream DO DO s 9.41056055 mg/L
Mixture DO DO o 8.70050959 mg/L
Mixture average depth H 5 m

Mixture average velocity v 0.3 m/s
Reaeration rate k2 0.18951259 /day
BOD consumption rate k 0.2 /day

Temperadjusted BOD consumption
rate K 18 0.16628026 /day
DO saturation at mixture
temperature DO sat 9.41056055 mg/L
Time (d) DO (mg/L)

0 8.70050959
0.5 8.3818254
1 8.12249706
1.5 7.91472164
2 7.75159608
2.5 7.62702026
3 7.53561018
3.5 7.47262007
4 7.43387262
4.5 7.41569643
5 7.41487009
5.5 7.42857202
6 7.45433573
6.5 7.49000967
7 7.53372148
v 1.4
ii) Eutrophication
Eutrophication results from the input of high amounts of nutrients into the environment.
The outcome from excessive eutrophication is loss of habitat and death of aquatic
species
Figure 7-11 Eutrophication process
Figure 7-12 Phosphorous inputs to receiving water bodies
v 1.4
7.4.4 Regulations
Generally, under Provincial Jurisdiction

Can be under Federal jurisdiction if discharge is to waterway with
• Fisheries
• Navigation
• Interprovincial/International boundaries
In BC, governed by the Municipal Wastewater Regulation (of the Environment

Management Act). Discharge requirements depend on discharge location
Discharge to Ground
Specifies discharge class (A-C) based on quality of water discusrged
Depending on discharge class, prescribes

• maximum allowable levels for certain contaminants (see below)
• setbacks (e.g. to water wells)
• monitoring requirements (type and frequency)
• design (e.g. drainage fields)
• management requirements(best practices) requirements
Different requirements depending on size of community
• realizing financial constraints of small communities
• also realizing ‘net impact’ of sources of different sizes
Table 7-3 Requirements for discharge to ground
Parameter Class A Class B Class C
BOD5 (mg/L) 10 10 45
TSS (mg/L) 10 10 45
Fecal colifrm median: 2.2 400 if max daily na
(count/100mL) any: 14 flow is >37m3/d
Turbidity (NTU) average: 2 na na
any:5
Nitrogen (mg/L) Nitrate N: 10 na na
Total N: 20
Recall from Section 7.4.3 that dirtier water has to spend more
time in ground…
v 1.4
Discharge to Surface Water
Specifies a quality base on dilution. Depending on characteristics of receiving water,

prescribes
• maximum discharge limits (see below)
• distance to uses (e.g. recreational, fisheries, intakes, sensitive
areas)
• monitoring requirements (type and frequency)
• Different requirements depending on size of community (as
above, but different ‘size’ classifications)
Some areas are predefined as ‘sensitive’ and require advanced treatment (e.g.
Okanagan basin - significantly affected by elevated P levels)
Table 7-4 Requirements for discharge to surface water

Parameter Streams, Rivers, Lakes Marine waters
Estuaries
Dilution >40:1 >10:1 Area > Open Embayed
Ratio 100 ha (semi-
closed)
BOD5 (mg/L) 45 10 45 45 45
TSS (mg/L) 45 10 45 45 45
Total P 1 1 1 na 1
(mg/L)
Ortho P 0.5 0.5 0.5 na 0.5
(mg/L)
Recall from Section 7.4.3 that a solution to pollution is dilution…
v 1.4
Reclaimed Used Water
The water quality requirements depend on end uses (i.e. contact with
humans…)
1. Indirect potable reuse
• Replenish potential water source
2. Greater exposure potential
• For which public contact is likely
• Risk to receiving environment
3. Moderate exposure potential
• Direct contact likely minimal
• Public access to reclaimed water is restricted
• Moderate risk to receiving environment
4. Low exposure potential
• Public access restricted and public not likely to have contact
• Commercial or Industrial in Nature
• Low risk to receiving environment
Table 7-5 Requirements for reuse
Parameter Indirect Greater Moderate Low

potable exposure exposure exposure
reuse potential potential potential
pH Site 6.5-9 6.5-9 6.5-9
Specific
BOD5 (mg/L) 5 10 25 45
TSS (mg/L) 5 na na na
Turbidity (NTU) 1 Avg 2 na na
Fecal Coliform 1 5 100 200
(count/100mL) max 400
Chlorine 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
residual (mg/L
v 1.4
7.5 Treatment
Performed as required to meet the discharge requirements
Treatment can be classified into 3 categories
1. Primary treatment: predominantly removes solids that can readily settle (i.e. chunks)
• Generally achieved with a settling tanks/basins
2. Secondary Treatment: predominantly removes organic material

• Generally achieved biologically (following primary treatment)
• Generally a 2 step process
• Step 1: Biological removal of contaminants
• Step 2: Removal/retention of microorganisms used for biodegradation
3. Tertiary treatment: to provide additional treatment beyond secondary for the removal
of specific contaminants of interest
• Generally achieved using
o Advanced secondary treatment: predominantly removes nutrients (N and P)
and organic material (often referred to as biological nutrient removal)
o Post physical/chemical treatment approaches (e.g. oxidation, filtration)
• Used when receiving water can be substantially affected by discharge of secondary
effluent quality
Because the requirements for discharge of used water varies to a greater extent than
the requirements for treatment of raw water, so too does the extent of treatment
Figure 7-13 Level of Treatment for Used Water In Canada
v 1.4
Metro Vancouver
• Annacis, Lulu and Lions Gate (under construction) provides secondary treatment
• Iowna provides Primary
Sufficient???
As with treatment of raw water, the treatment of used water can
be analysed/designed using a mass balance approach
Recall, for a CSTR
Figure 7-14 Schematic of CSTR
C
QiCi QeCe
r V
Equation 3-1
Equation 6-20
𝑉 𝑑𝐶 ⁄𝑑𝑡 = K 𝑄M 𝐶M − K 𝑄N 𝐶N ± K 𝑟𝑉
where C is the concentration of the material in the water [e.g. mg/L]; Q is the flow
of the water into or out of the control volume [e.g. L/day], r is the reaction rate of
the material in the water [e.g. mg/(L.day)]; V is the volume of the water in the
control volume [e.g. L], dC/dt is the change with respect to time in the
concentration of material in the water in the control volume [e.g. mg/(L.day)]; and
subscripts i and o correspond to an input and output of the material of interest
into or out of the control volume, respectively. Note, units for each term are in
mass/time.
At steady state
Equation 6-21
K 𝑄M 𝐶M = K 𝑄N 𝐶N ± K 𝑟𝑉
v 1.4
7.5.1 Transformations
Other than for settling, most of the transformations in used water treatment are
biological. Microorganisms are used to
• Consume biodegradable organic material
• Consume nutrients
o Convert nitrogen to N2 gas
o Assimilate phosphorous
As discussed in CIVL 204, different groups of microorganisms are responsible for

consuming organic material and nutrients (N,P).
The rate of consumption of material and the growth/decay of microorganism can be

expressed using the following 3 equations
• Consumption of material (substrate)

Equation 6-28
𝑟$% 𝜇 𝑆
𝑟À = = 𝑋
𝑌 𝑌 (𝑘À + 𝑆)
• Death of microorganisms (biomass)

Equation 7-31
𝑟$é = −𝑏𝑋
• Growth of microorganisms (biomass)

Equation 7-32
𝑆
𝑟$ = 𝑟$% − 𝑟$é = ˜𝜇 − 𝑏š 𝑋
(𝑘À + 𝑆)
where 𝑟À is the rate of substrate (ie. food) uptake [mass/volume.time], 𝑟$% is the
rate of biomass growth [mass/volume.time], 𝑟$& is the rate of biomass death
[mass/volume.time], μ is the maximum specific growth rate (i.e. for non-substrate
limited conditions) [time-1]; S is the concentration of substrate [mass/volume]; kS is
the half saturation concentration [mass/volume]; X is the biomass concentration
[mass/volume], b is the endogenous decay (death) constants [time-1].
Note that all the variables (other than S and X) are specific to a group of
microorganisms
v 1.4
Example 7-3 Design of an aerated lagoon
Size a completely mixed aerated lagoon for a city with a population of 3000 people
(average max daily water consumption of 400 L per capita per day, 80% of which
becomes wastewater). The influent BOD is 200 mg/L and the required final effluent is
45 mg/L (discharge to marine outfall). Assume the lagoon is to be 3m deep.
Assume the lagoon behaves as a CSTR under steady state conditions.
To solve, perform a mass balance around biomass growth
𝑉 𝑑𝑋⁄𝑑𝑡 = K 𝑄M 𝑋M − K 𝑄N 𝑉N ± K 𝑟$ 𝑉
𝑉 𝑑𝑋⁄𝑑𝑡 =0
𝑋M = 0
𝑄N 𝑋N = 𝑟$ 𝑉 C
𝑄N QiCi QeCe
𝑋 = 𝑟$
𝑉 N r V
𝑄N 𝑆
𝑋N = ˜𝜇 − 𝑏š 𝑋
𝑉 (𝑘À + 𝑆)
𝑄N 𝑆
𝑋N = ˜𝜇 − 𝑏š 𝑋
𝑋N = 𝑋
𝑄N 𝑆
= ˜𝜇 − 𝑏š
𝑄N
𝑉=
𝑆
˜𝜇 − 𝑏š
(𝑘À + 𝑆)
For microorganisms that presominantly just consume

biodegradable organic material (i.e. BOD), u=6/day, kS=40
mg/L, b=0.12/day.
Daily average flow is (3000cap)(400L/cap.day)(0.8)=960 m3/day
V= 316 m3, so area is ~100 m3
v 1.4
Figure 7-15 Aerated lagoon
Accounting for many transformations by many groups of microorganisms, functioning in

parallel or in sequence, can become complex (see matrix below), as different groups of
microorganisms can compete for substrates and nutrients, or the products of one group
becomes the reactants of another
• Use numerical tools
v 1.4
Table 7-6 Activated Sludge Model (ASM) 3 Transformation (rate) Equations
v 1.4
7.5.2 Technologies
Typical/Conventional Used Water Treatment Plant
Figure 7-16Typical Used Water treatment
Preliminary treatment: predominantly removes contaminants such as grit, oil and

grease, which could negatively affect the performance of downstream processes.
Waste is generally sent directly to landfill
• Bar screens: removes material smaller than 1.5-4.5cm
• Grit (gravel, sand, glass, grounds, etc - Type I settling) and oil
removal
• Comminution: Grinding to reduce size to 0.5-1cm
Primary, secondary and tertiary as previously defined
Solids waste handling: Management of solids generated during treatment

• Digestion
• Thickening
• Dewatering
• Final disposal
Disinfection: If needed to achieve discharge limit
• Typically, only needed in summer in locations where human
contact is likely (e.g. near recreational areas such as beaches)
v 1.4
Figure 7-17 Metro Vancouver Used Water System
Figure 7-18 Solids Contact Trickling Filter (Annacis and Lulu Island)
v 1.4
7.6 Value of Used Water

The conventional approach to dealing with used outputs from a city is to collect them
and treat in a centralized system prior to discharge to the environment (i.e. sink). As an
alternative, decentralized systems offer an opportunity to use the water multiple times
before outputting from the city.
7.6.1 Local reuse
Reuse of used water from individual homes, cluster of homes, subdivisions and
commercial or industrial facilities. Reuse close to source
Uses
• Water is used after treatment for irrigation of urban landscape
• In some commercial/institutional and park settings, the treated water is also used for
toilet flushing and other non-potable uses
• Use within home currently not allowed in plumbing code for most jurisdictions due to
concerns with cross-contamination
Wastewater vs. Grey water

• Water from bathing, hand washing, and clothes washing (excluding diapers)
• Often considered to be easier to manage than wastewater which would, in addition
to the above, contain kitchen waste and human waste
• This is a misperception as characteristics of grey water are generally similar to those
for domestic wastewater
Table 7-7 Typical Used Water Characteristics
Parameter Bath water Laundry Water Wastewater

Suspended solids 50-150 90-250 100-350
Ammonia <0.1-1.5 <0.1-2 12-50
Total phosphorus 0.1-2 0.06-40 4-15
BOD 75-200 50-300 100-400
7 5
Total coliform 500-2.5x10 2300-3.3x10 1x106-1x109
Above have units of mg/L except coliform which have units of counts/100mL
Challenges and opportunities

• Opportunities
o Reduced size and extent of used water collection
o Reduced use of external water (i.e. from water input)
• Challenges
o Large number of systems to monitor and maintain
o Limited economies of scale
o Intermittent flow
v 1.4
7.6.2 Sewer mining

Reuse of used water from an existing collection system following treatment. Can be
considered as essentially adding a kidney within the city that purifies the water for reuse
Uses
• User installs and operates treatment system
• Common uses are for irrigation and landscape

• Opportunities
o Reduce flow through centralized system and to be treated
in centralized system
o Not limited to wastewater generated nearby
o Only treat to level required by user
• Challenges
o Generally a retrofit to collect and treat wastewater from a
centralized wastewater collection system infrastructure
7.6.3 Cascading
Water is repeatedly used in series by multiple users (i.e. industries) without
treating or with only ‘partial’ treatment.
Users are match together based on the quality of the water they need and its quality
after use.
Uses
Two options are possible
• Direct cascading: without water treatment
• Indirect cascading: with partial water treatment
o Dedicated treatment: Treatment applied only to the water between two users
o Satellite treatment: Treatment applied to water from multiple users for
distribution to multiple users
v 1.4
A model for analyzing water reuse and resource recovery potential ... http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/pdf/10.1139/l2012-1
1208 CIVL 305 - Introduction to Environmental Engineering 129Vol. 3 9 , 2 0 1 2

Can. J. Civ. Eng.
Fig. 4 . A v iew of th e entire VSA sh owing all potential cascading opportu nities fou nd by th e model. Th e twoblack circles represent areas
Figure 7-19Water Cascading Metro Vancouver
of feasible exch ang e.
Table 5 . Scenario2 resu lts for all treatment plant locations.

Reu se potential
• Opportunities # of # of Water u se per % of total
WRF m3 /year MLD sink s sou rces sink (m3 /year) water u se
o Reduce flow through centralized system and to be treated
Centennial 251 013 0 .6 8 8 17 12 14 765 4 .8
in centralized
Stewart 3 7 0 0 6 5 system
1 .0 1 4 18 8 20 559 7 .1
Opportunities
o Po well
Williams
6 1 3 8 0 8 for1 .6industries
434 799
82
1 .1 9 1
23
29
to1 06 collaborate
26 687
14 993
and save
1 1 .7
8 .3
§al Industrial
Termin 265 822 parks
0 .7 2 8 20 11 13 291 5 .1
• Challenges
o Limited by water available nearby
Table 6 . Resu lts from th e th ird scenario. Th e distribu tionradiu s is th e maximu m distance
Cost
o water of conveying
is distribu ted from th e WRF. water to/from users is the limiting factor
Reu se potential
# of Distribu tion Water u se per
WRF name m3 /year MLD sink s radiu s (m) sink (m3 /year)
Centennial 791 300 2 .1 7 419 1000 1890
Stewart 910 300 2 .4 9 404 1000 2250
Powell 969 200 2 .6 6 554 1200 1750
Williams 655 600 1 .8 566 1100 1160
Terminal 674 400 1 .8 5 141 800 4780
tional, and mu lti-familyu sers. Th is scenariooffered th e larg est reu se. Th e best locationfor a satellite water treatment facility
potential for water reu se, bu t alsoyielded th e most complex appears to be in th e proximity of th e Powell Street WRF
implementation based on nu mber and v ariety of potential location. Th is location h as th e h ig h est reu se potential, is lo-
reclaimed water u sers. Bylimiting th e distribu tionnetwork to cated directlyabov e a tru nk sewer, and is ina lig h t indu strial
v 1.4 of th e WRF, th is th ird scenario is th e most
th e proximity area th at wou ld be minimally impacted by th e work ing s of a
economically feasible and will lik ely prov e to be th e most small WRF.
u sefu l infu tu re analyses. Th e analysis model proposed in th is paper prov ides an
It is ev ident from scenarios 2 and 3 th at th e locationof th e effectiv e tool for h ig h lev el qu antificationof anarea’s water
7.6.4 Heat Recovery (Energy Balance)
Used water contains heat that can be converted to energy. An energy balance can be
used to estimate the energy that can be ‘taken’ from the wastewater heat content.
As previously discussed
Equation 7-8
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡(𝑠) ⎡ ⎤ 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠(𝑠)
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛
! 4 = !𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑜 4 − ⎢ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ⎥ ± ! 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 4
The mass balance can be simplified if the following can be assumed

• Within the control volume, the total amount of energy does not change (i.e. steady
state conditions)
• Energy is not transformed (remains as thermal energy)
o Even though a phase change can occur (e.g. change from vapour to water),
the energy is not transformed because it is still available as ‘thermal’ energy
Yielding
Equation 7-9
!𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑜 4 = ⎢ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ⎥
Recall that the thermal energy content of water (i.e. enthalpy) in terms of mass is
Equation 7-10
𝐸¯ = 𝑚𝑐𝑇G
where ET is the thermal energy associated with heat content of water [J]; m is
mass of water [g]; c is specific heat of water which can generally be assumed to
be constant over the range typical of environmental conditions [4.1 J/g.Celcius]; T
is temperature of water [Celsius]
We can assume that the heat content of water is zero at 0 oC (273 L). So in the
above equation, T is in celcius
And in terms of mass flux is

Equation 7-11
𝐸¯̇ = (𝑄G 𝜌G )𝑐𝑇G
where 𝐸̇ is thermal energy flux [e.g. J/s or W], Qw is the flow of water [e.g. L/s],
𝜌G is the density of water [e.g. g/L]
v 1.4
Example 7-4 Heat Exchanger
Wastewater flow is 40L/s (approximate amount of flow for 10,000 people)

Wastewater temperature is 13C
Heat exchanger extracts energy such that the water temperature is reduced to 8C
What is the amount of energy extracted

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ⎡ 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ⎤ ⎡𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 ⎤
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
! 4 = ⎢ 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ⎥ + ⎢ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ⎥
𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
⎢ (𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 ⎥ ⎢ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 ⎥
⎣( 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟)⎦ ⎣𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟⎦
Note that when multiple streams are present, a mass balance

can be used to first estimate the different flows
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 = (𝑄G 𝜌G )𝑐𝑇°ê − (𝑄G 𝜌G )𝑐𝑇°Ã

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝐿 𝑔 𝐽 𝐿 𝑔 𝐽
= ˜40 1000 š 4.1 N 18N 𝐶 − ˜40 1000 š 4.1 N 13N 𝐶
𝑠 𝐿 𝑔 𝐶 𝑠 𝐿 𝑔 𝐶
82x103 J/s = 0.02kWhr/sec
Assuming $0.10/kWhr, then over $65,000/yr!
In many energy recovery applications, a ‘heat carrying medium’ is used to convey the
energy from the source (e.g. wastewater) to the where it is used.
v 1.4
Figure 7-20 Example of Heat Recovery System

(heat carrying medium in red and green)
Water and/or steam are often used as the ‘heat carrying’ medium
• e.g. UBC District Energy System where steam is used to heat
buildings
Figure 7-21 UBC District Energy System
v 1.4
The thermal energy content of steam (i.e. enthalpy) in terms of mass is

Equation 7-33
𝐸¯ = 𝑚À 𝐻À
where 𝐻À = 𝑥𝐻( + (1 − 𝑥)𝐻° is the enthalpy of the vapour and the condensate in
the steam; HV is the enthalpy of the vapour in the steam, HC is the enthalpy of the
condensate (i.e. liquid) in the steam (HV and Hc are determined based on steam
tables that are a function of temperature and pressure), and x is the fraction of
each phase (vapour and condensate) present – also referred to as steam quality
(varies from 0 [all water] to 1 [all vapour]).
If steam quality is assumed to be 1 (very optimistic but simplifies analysis)

Equation 7-34
𝐸¯ = 𝑚À 𝐻(
In terms of mass flux

Equation 7-35
𝐸¯̇ = (𝑄À 𝜌À )𝐻q
where QS is the flow of steam [e.g. L/s], 𝜌À is the density of steam [e.g. g/L]
Hv (can also be referred to as Hg) is obtained from steam tables
v 1.4
In most heat recovery applications, the ‘heat carrying medium’ does not mix with the
water from which the heat is extracted (i.e. indirect contact heat chamber)
• Heat carrying medium considered to be a separate stream that does not mix
Based on the above, an energy balance can be developed for energy extraction or
energy addition (i.e. heating) with water and/or steam
Example 7-5 Heat Exchanger
Wastewater flow is 40L/s (approximate amount of flow for 10,000 people)

Wastewater temperature in is 18C, wastewater temperature out is 13C.
Heat carrying medium (water) temperature into heat exchanger is 90C (as a liquid),
and the temperature out is 300C (assume 100% as vapour; x=1).
What is the flow of the heat carrying medium entering the heat exchanger?

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ⎡𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ⎤ 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ⎡𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
!𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 4 + ⎢ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 ⎥ = !𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 4 + ⎢ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 ⎥
𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
⎢ 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 ⎥ ⎢ 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 ⎥
⎣ 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ⎦ ⎣ 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ⎦
)𝑄G 𝜌Gê *𝑐𝑇Gê + )𝑄Þ°áê 𝜌Þ°áê *𝑐𝑇Þ°á

= )𝑄G 𝜌GÃ *𝑐𝑇GÃ + )𝑄Þ°áÃ 𝜌Þ°áÃ *𝐻V
Here, Hs=Hv (x=1). At 300C, Hv = 2750J/g
𝐿 𝑔 𝐽 𝐽
˜40 998 š 4.1 N 18N 𝐶 + (𝑋)4.1 N 90N 𝐶
𝑠 𝐿 𝑔 𝐶 𝑔 𝐶
𝐿 𝑔 𝐽 𝐽
= ˜40 1000 š 4.1 N 13N 𝐶 + (𝑋)2750
𝑠 𝐿 𝑔 𝐶 𝑔
Solving for X = 344g/s

Considering that the density of the water carrying the heat as it
enters into the heat exchanger is 965 g/L,
X=𝑄Þ°áê 𝜌Þ°áê
𝑄Þ°áê =0.35L/s
v 1.4
7.6.5 Energy from Organics
The energy content of wastewater is approximately 4 kJ/L

• 40% as primary sludge
• 30% as activated sludge
o Can be recovered as biogass (CH4)
§ Equivalent to 30-50% of energy used for treatment
• 30% ‘consumed in activated sludge treatment
7.6.6 Nutrient Recovery
Most phosphorus used for agriculture is from mining.

However, based on current extraction, phosphorous will be
depleted within a century.
Most of phosphorous used could be recovered
Figure 7-22Mass balance of Phosphorous in Europe (similar in Canada)
Need to start considering wastewater not just as a ‘waste’ but as

a valuable resource!
v 1.4

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Course notes for: CIVL 305

Introduction to Environmental Engineering

Instructor: Pierre Bérubé

Course Outline and Expectations

Credit Value: 3 Credits (3-0-0)

By the end of this course you should be able to:

1 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING ........................................................................6

2 CONTROL VOLUMES .............................................................................................8

3 MASS BALANCES ..................................................................................................9

4 WATER SYSTEMS ................................................................................................12

4.1 Tera Scale ................................................................................................................................ 12

4.2 Macro Scale ............................................................................................................................. 14

4.3 Micro Scale .............................................................................................................................. 18

5 MASS BALANCE ON WATER SYSTEMS ............................................................19

6 WATER FOR USE..................................................................................................20

6.3 Raw water Quality ................................................................................................................... 27

6.5 Required Water Quality ........................................................................................................... 45

6.6 Treatment ................................................................................................................................ 66

6.6.6 Water Quality Advisories ....................................................................................................... 85

6.7 Value of Water ......................................................................................................................... 87

7 USED WATER (A.K.A. WASTEWATER) ..............................................................91

7.2 Used Water Quality ................................................................................................................. 95

7.3 Production ............................................................................................................................... 99

7.4 Required Used Water Quality ............................................................................................... 100

7.5 Treatment .............................................................................................................................. 119

7.6 Value ...................................................................................................................................... 127

As environmental engineering continued to grow, so did the contribution of other

When dealing with metropolitan areas, boundaries can be defined by:

When performing an analysis on a control volume (e.g. Greater Vancouver), it is

Conceptually, mass balances can be defined as follows.

Example 3-1 Mass balance (2 streams mixing)

-Define control Volume, inputs and outputs, expected

The mass of water is

where V is the volume of water [volume] and is the density of water

Expressed in terms of flow

where Q is the flow of water [volume/time] and t is time [time]

The change of mass of water in the control volume can be expressed as

Combining into the above equation yields

If we have steady state conditions (inflows and outflows are constant)

Example 3-2 Mixing of 2 Streams

Flow of stream 1: 184 m3/s

𝑄N =184 m3/s + 16 m3/s

Total flow: 200m3/s

We will expand on the above simple mass balance concept

4.1 Tera Scale

Figure 4-1 Water Cycle (Tera Scale)

Average residence times in a medium range from days to millennia

What are implications of above to contaminant migration?

4.2 Macro Scale

Figure 4-2 Greater (Metro) Vancouver

Figure 4-3 Fraser River Catchment

Figure 4-4 Capilano, Seymour and Coquitlam reservoir catchments

3. Ocean (i.e. Georgia Straight)

4.2.3 Water Systems in BC

Of the ~5,000 water systems in BC

4.3 Micro Scale

Figure 4-6 Sample process (Fish Farm)

5 Mass Balance on Water Systems

6 Water for Use

Note: BC has 25% of all fresh flowing water in Canada (~1.7% of

ii) Groundwater (confined)

iii) Groundwater (unconfined)

vi) Rainwater capture