2018

ESSENTIAL ENGINEERING ON
PHOTOGRAPH READING AND
INTERPRETATION

SIKALE PRINTING COMPANY EDWIN B. MASSAI

 ***INTRODUCTION***
Through hardships and struggle to hold on with geography course especially during teaching and learning
processes, it came to my big desire of attainment of this great legacy that will contain everlasting solution
for all hardship in studying photograph interpretation and an endless taste of success in geography,
photography interpretation on particular. However, the experience gained on passing through the course,
will also avail some issues that were hardly understandable during studying geography course on physical,
map reading, settlement and population as well as environmental education.
This hand out/pamphlet holds a great role on the last blow of a student or candidate on the best performance.
Its content is of very great assistance to students who have similar hardship that I passed through on perusing
geography knowledge from o-level to university. The title denotes “engineering” for a reason. It denotes the
mastering on the course to make it easier to call it “a classroom without teacher” in studying photograph
course. It enriches you with unforgettable knowledge, the know-hows and hows of interpreting photograph
in the absence of teacher.
It took me a great deal of time to come up with solution of mastering this course with less teacher’s efforts.
To become masters of they are own destine in their course of the study with an ultimate motive behind the
creation of this great work. The work is voluminous of very important issues that is break into two pieces,
volume one and volume two.
The first volume entails the know-how or the understanding of photograph reading and interpretation. Here
is where a student becomes an engineer of photograph reading.
The second part is lovely one, as it brings to a student in the field of engineering photograph reading and
interpretation. It gives the mechanism on answering the disturbing questions of photograph reading and
interpretation. Through different examination and examination sample questions; students a taught to tackle
the questions.
To make even it more modern and more attractive to learners and teachers, some photos of NECTA and
MOCK PAPERS were altered that makes them not look similar with the original pictures except, its nature
remains the same. The questions remain the same, so the students and teachers are asked to review the
original papers for any doubt clearance. In this part I gathered enough questions from different angles to
make a student richer on the familiarity of geographical issues.
The work holds a very strong essence on understanding not only photograph and the way to interpret it but
also to understand geography as a whole. It is a key for good performance and best tool for a teacher to
produce the best geography results. I smile and I will smile forever, if the anticipated motive will be achieved
through this work.
Action sound louder than words, that is an old adage that holds a meaning in the process of proving to
scholars, government, different institutions and people that, a good book to be used in school will always
come from a good teacher. We learn that from our teachers and our forefathers. For that, I thank all who
directly or indirectly have involved in accomplishment of this great job.
By Edwin B. Massai

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 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................................... 1
THE CONCEPT OF PHOTOGRAPH AND PHOTOGRAPH INTERPRETATION ..................................................... 5
Types or Classification of Photographs ........................................................................................................................................ 5
1. GROUND LEVEL PHOTOGRAPHS ......................................................................................................................... 5
2. OBLIQUE PHOTOGRAPHS ........................................................................................................................................ 7
3. VERTICAL AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS ..................................................................................................................... 9
Differences between Oblique/Ground Photograph and Vertical Photograph ............................................................... 10
Comparisons between Photographs and Maps ..................................................................................................................... 10
Differences between Maps and Photographs............................................................................................................................. 10
The Value or Importance of Photographs in Geography and Daily Life.............................................................................. 10
PARTS OF PHOTOGRAPH ...................................................................................................................................................... 11
PHOTOGRAPH READING AND INTERPRETATION ...................................................................................................... 11
1. Determining the Title ............................................................................................................................................................ 12
2. Identification of type of a photograph ............................................................................................................................... 12
3. Estimating Time and Season................................................................................................................................................ 12
A. TIME................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
B. SEASONS .......................................................................................................................................................................... 12
2. Estimating Direction/Position of a photographer........................................................................................................... 13
3. IDENTIFYING AND INTERPRETING PHYSICAL FEATURES ....................................................................... 14
A. RELIEF .............................................................................................................................................................................. 14
B. DRAINAGE ..................................................................................................................................................................... 17
C. VEGETATION................................................................................................................................................................ 17
D. SOIL .................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
E. CLIMATE .......................................................................................................................................................................... 19
4. IDENTIFYING AND INTERPRETING HUMAN ACTIVITIES ......................................................................... 19
A. AGRICULTURE .............................................................................................................................................................. 20
B. PROCESSING FACTORIES ........................................................................................................................................ 23
C. INDUSTRIAL AND MINING ACTIVITIES .......................................................................................................... 23
D. LUMBERING ................................................................................................................................................................... 24
E. TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION ............................................................................................................... 24
F. TOURISM.......................................................................................................................................................................... 25
G. FISHING ........................................................................................................................................................................... 26
H. ADMINISTRATION ...................................................................................................................................................... 26
I. SETTLEMENT ................................................................................................................................................................ 26
Factors Encouraging Settlements ............................................................................................................................................ 29
5. Estimating the Size of Features ........................................................................................................................................... 29
CALCULATIONS IN VERTICAL AIR PHOTOGRAPHS ..................................................................................................... 30

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Calculating the Ground Scale, Focal Length and Air-Craft Altitude ..................................................................................... 30
1. GROUND SCALE .......................................................................................................................................................... 30
2. AIR-CRAFT ALTITUDE............................................................................................................................................... 30
3. FOCAL LENGTH ........................................................................................................................................................... 31

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 EDWIN B. MASSAI’S

PHOTOGRAPH READING
AND
INTERPRETATION

VOLUME ONE

4
THE CONCEPT OF PHOTOGRAPH AND PHOTOGRAPH INTERPRETATION
Etymologically, the word photograph is derived from Greek word which means “drawing with light.” From
this meaning, photograph can be defined as a picture taken by means of chemical lights prepared on a special
paper.
Photograph is picture produced by using a camera or satellite or radar, and then made visible and permanent
by chemical treatment, or stored digitally.
Alternatively, it simply defined as an image of an object which is recorded by a camera and then printed on
paper.
Photograph interpretation is a process of reading, measuring and interpreting photographs for obtaining
reliable information about natural or human features and their environment.
In other words, photograph interpretation can be defined as analysis and examination of photographs so as
to be able to identify natural or artificial features.
TYPES OR CLASSIFICATION OF PHOTOGRAPHS
Photographs are classified according to the viewpoint or position from which they are taken. They can be
taken from the ground or from the air. This then basically gives us three major types of photographs namely,
horizontal, oblique and vertical photographs. :
1. Ground (Horizontal) Photographs
2. Oblique Photographs
3. Vertical Photographs
1. GROUND LEVEL PHOTOGRAPHS
These are the photographs taken on the level grounds when the optical camera axis is horizontal to the
object.
Or, these are photographs that are taken from the ground when the camera is at the same level as the object
being photographed.
There are of two types
(1) Ground close-up and
(2) Ground general view

1. Ground close-up: is the type of ground 2. Ground general view: is taken horizontally
photograph which is taken horizontally closer to but furthest from an object to let other
the object. features to be seen in the photograph.
- The image taken is large and specific to the - Under this category, the horizon (H) is
idea of a cameraman or a photographer. seen

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 Ground (Horizontal) Photographs: General view

- Objects are large and clearly shown in these photographs when they are close than those far from
the camera.
- The fore ground and the horizon is seen but the back /dead ground is not seen.
- There is no fixed scale.
- They are sometimes known as Terrestrial Photographs.

Sisal harvesting: Ground (Horizontal) Photograph - Close-up ground photograph

Characteristics of Ground Level Photographs

1) They show only the (front) side view of an object
2) It is taken when the camera is near the to the ground
3) Its scale decrease from the foreground to the background
4) They have the optical camera axis horizontal to an object
Uses of Ground Level Photographs
1) They are used for the identification of the objects because the features are shown clearly
2) They are for ordinary photographs
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2. OBLIQUE PHOTOGRAPHS
These are the photographs taken from hills looking down with camera towards the ground. Sometimes they
are taken from low flying planes, towers or from tall building.
Or, are the photographs taken when a camera is slanting at an angle less than 90°.
- They are taken when the photographer is standing on an elevated ground and hold the camera on an
angle towards the lower ground.
- They normally cover the horizon.
Types of Oblique Photographs
A. Ground oblique
B. Aerial Oblique
1. Low Oblique Photographs
2. High Oblique Photographs
A. GROUND OBLIQUE PHOTOGRAPHS
These are types of photographs that are taken from an angle, when the photographer is standing in elevated
ground, such as top of a hill, building or cliff, and holds the camera at an angle pointing towards the lower
ground.
The photograph can also be taken when the photographer is standing at the bottom of an elevated ground,
with the camera pointing towards the higher ground.
There are two categories of oblique photographs as described below:

An illustration on how an oblique photograph is

taken

The photograph can also be taken when the photographer is standing at the bottom of an elevated ground,
with the camera pointing towards the higher ground.
So, whether the photograph is taken from the top or bottom of an elevated ground, the resulting photograph
is called ground oblique photograph. In this kind of photograph, the images closer to the camera are larger
than those far away.
B. AERIAL OBLIQUE PHOTOGRAPHS
These photographs are taken from the sky with the camera tilted at an angle towards the ground.

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 - The photographer may take the photograph from
a helicopter or low-flying aeroplane. Or today,
they might be taken from flying drones.
- These photographs cover quite a large area of land.
- Objects near the camera appear slightly larger
than those far away. An Example of Aerial Oblique Photograph

Note: the aerial oblique photograph is of two types also.

1. Low aerial oblique photograph which covers the horizon, because is taken almost near the ground
with small angle of elevation but in the atmosphere or air; and
2. High aerial oblique photograph; which does not include the horizon because it is taken little higher
from the ground hence the angle of elevation is much bigger and covers a large area to let features
to be seen smaller compared with those in low oblique. If not carefully, you may think is vertical
aerial photograph.

LOW OBLIQUE PHOTOGRAPH

HIGH OBLIQUE PHOTOGRAPH

In this photograph, horizon is seen at the background In this photograph, there is no horizon that is seen

Characteristics of Low aerial Oblique Photographs

1) It covers a small area
2) It doesn’t show the horizon
3) It shows three dimensional views of the objects, side, top and front views.
4) They are taken from an elevated area at 45° (for example: from the top of the mountain)
5) The features in the fore and middle ground are shown clear
Uses of Low Oblique Photographs
1) They are used for the identification of the objects because the features are shown clearly
2) They can be used for geographical research

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Characteristics of high oblique
1) They show large area
2) They are taken at 60°
3) They do not show the horizon
4) They show three dimension (3D) of the features, the front, side and top view
5) They are important in map making
3. VERTICAL AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
These are photographs taken with camera whose axis tilted vertically to the ground at right angle (90°).
These are photographs taken from the aircraft with the camera directly above the object pointing vertically
to the ground. Only the top view is seen. Instruments used to capture pictures are called air crafts or the
satellites
Air vertical. P.P. = Principal point.

Scale ratios increase at the same rate in

all directions from the principal point;
but a photograph hii will be a large scale
one at the principal point than
photograph hi because the ground
vertically below camera is closer.

Vertical Photographs
Characteristics of Vertical Aerial Photographs
1) They show large areas
2) They are taken from the air
3) They are taken when the camera is placed vertically towards the object
4) They can be used in map making
5) They contain a lot of detailed information of a given photographic region since they print
everything
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Uses of Vertical Aerial Photographs
i. They are used for plotting contour lines
ii. They are used for map making
iii. They are used for military purposes
iv. They can produce variety of scales like small scale and large scale
v. They are used for pilot studies before conducting field trip
vi. They can be used for investigation or researches
vii. They can be also used for rapid survey of unknown area like thick forests and high mountains
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OBLIQUE/GROUND PHOTOGRAPH AND VERTICAL
PHOTOGRAPH
i. Vertical photographs show the top view while Oblique photographs show the top and front view
ii. It is difficult to identify objects in Vertical photographs than in Oblique photographs
iii. In Vertical photographs, all important features are seen while in Oblique photographs some
important features are not seen.
iv. Oblique photographs are less expensive than Vertical photographs
v. It is difficult to recognize the image of the Vertical photographs while the image or picture of
Oblique photographs is easily recognized
vi. It is easier to determine the scale in Vertical photographs than in Oblique photographs
COMPARISONS BETWEEN PHOTOGRAPHS AND MAPS
3. Both photographs and maps are important in learning geography
4. They both have scales
5. Both are used in military for techniques
6. Both show the physical and relief features on the earth
7. Both are used by planners when planning for something or a project
8. They both represent the three dimensional World on the flat surface

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MAPS AND PHOTOGRAPHS

MAPS PHOTOGRAPHS
1. They have keys 1. They have not keys
2. They are selective 2. They are not selective as they print everything
3. They have titles 3. They do not have titles
4. They are very expensive 4. They are less expensive and fast
5. They take much time in making a map 5. They take less in producing a photo
6. The scale is constant or uniform 6. The scale is not constant or uniform
7. They need skills to interpret them 7. They are very easy to interpret

THE VALUE OR IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOGRAPHS IN GEOGRAPHY AND DAILY LIFE

1. Photographs store information for future generation
2. They act as main house of information of a place
3. Photographs are used to prepare the topographical maps
4. They provide quick and instant information than maps
5. They replace verbal description and save time
6. They show real feature of the earth and provide a good visual impression for observation and
interpretation
7. Photographs are also used in geographical research

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PARTS OF PHOTOGRAPH
A photograph has main three parts or divisions. These parts include: -
1. Foreground 2. Middle ground 3. Back ground

LEFT - BACK - MID - BACK RIGHT - BACK

GROUND GROUND
GROUND

LEFT - MIDDLE - RIGHT-MIDDLE -

MID - MIDDLE -
GROUND GROUND
GROUND

LEFT-FORE - RIGHT-FORE -
MID-FORE -
GROUND GROUND
GROUND
How to name features as they seen in the photograph considering its parts?
- From the above photograph, one can name features as follow: -
 At the fore ground of the photograph, logs are dominated an area. Logs are extended to the right
middle ground to the right hand side.
 At the middle ground, logs are seen at the right middle ground portion, also, boats are seen at the
mid-middle-ground and left-middle-ground. People are seen standing on boats at the mid-middle-
ground.
 At the back ground, large part is dominated by forest (from left-back-ground to mid-back-ground).
At the right-back-ground there is a building. At this portion, water is seen clearly to visualize the
river.

PHOTOGRAPH READING AND INTERPRETATION

Photograph interpretation is the process of reading, measuring, translating and explaining the meaning of
objects identified on that photograph. It is done so as to obtain reliable information about the natural or
cultural features on their environments. It involves the following;
1. Determining the title and
2. Identification of type
3. Estimating time and the season
4. Estimating direction
5. Identifying and interpreting physical features
6. Identifying and Interpreting human activities
7. Identifying and interpret different impacts of human activities on environment
8. Estimating the size of features
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 9. Suggesting possible location of the scenery in the place

1. DETERMINING THE TITLE

Can be obtained by carefully studying the
photograph, information determines the choice of
the title. You can easily determine the title of
photograph by knowing the features, activities,
what is on the surface or sky as they are shown on
the photograph. The information contained in the
foreground, middle ground and dead ground can
help also in determining a suitable title.

2. IDENTIFICATION OF TYPE OF A PHOTOGRAPH

Here an observer focus on the way the photograph is taken. If it is taken horizontally, it will be a ground
photograph, if taken either from air or on an elevated ground or generally from an angle of elevation, will
be oblique photograph (Aerial oblique or High oblique or (Ground or Low oblique) and if it is taken
vertically from air, it will be vertical or aerial photograph. How one can know it is horizontal, vertical or
taken from an angle? Refer to the characteristics of types of photographs above.

3. ESTIMATING TIME AND SEASON

A. TIME
It is possible to estimate the time of day when the
photo was taken if we know where the photograph
was taken, what activity is being done on photograph
and culture of people to perform that activity as well
as the consideration of shadow positions of an object.
On harvesting different commercial crops, we
always refer to the culture of people to do a particular
activity. Harvesting time in most African culture is
done in the morning and rarely during evening.
Through shadow, time can be easily determined by
considering its position. This is because, always a
professional photographer tends to avoid sun ray
direct towards the focus/lens of the camera. These girls are fetching water in the morning

In the Morning: The shadow of the object lies in the western (left) side because the sun rises from the East.
In the Evening: The shadow lies in the Eastern (right) side because the sun sets on the West.
At Noon: The shadow lies around the object because the sun is over head of the object.
B. SEASONS
There is a lot of criteria to be considered in determining the seasons the photograph is taken. Let examine
the following
- A bright sky with dry vegetation may indicate a dry period or season.

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- Thick vegetation young crops or flowering plants in the field and a sky full of rain clouds indicate a
rainy season
- Clear sunny conditions with health vegetation and flowering plants or plants with fruits indicate summer
season
- Plants with young leaves others bloom and field full of grass indicates spring season
- Hazy sky with leafless trees and some snow on the ground indicates winter season
- Also when people appear to be wearing heavy clothes with faces almost completely covered, hand
gloves and heavy boots it indicates cold weather, likely winter in temperate regions
- People wear light clothes and some may even have broad-rimmed hats indicates hot weather
- When houses appear to have slanting roofs it indicates the region experiencing a lot of precipitation
which facilitates the easy flow of water from the roof of the house
- If people appear to be planting, then it is planting season the rains either are about to come or have just
started
- If the people appear to be weeding it is growing
season for the crops and there is reduced rainfall
- If people appear to be harvesting a crop it is
harvesting season and probably dry season
because harvesting normally takes place during
dry weather.
- If people appear to cultivate and plant various
crops, it indicates rainy season because such
process is normally done during rainy season so as
the rain can support the plant growth.
- If people appear to harvest the crops, it indicates
dry season because harvesting is usually done Harvesting Maize is always done during dry seasons
during the dry season.

2. ESTIMATING DIRECTION/POSITION OF A PHOTOGRAPHER

This refers to identifying the position of the photographer after studying the relative sizes of objects in the
photograph. It is possible to estimate the direction on a photograph using shadows. This is possible if the
time and place where the photograph was taken are known.
The other alternative for identifying the position of the photographer or cameraman is by observing the size
of objects in the photograph. The objects close to the photographer appear larger those far away. The objects
apparently appear to decrease in size as their distance from the photographer increase. Therefore, the part
of the photograph showing huge objects is the place close to where the photographer stood.

For example, if a photograph shows a tree whose shadow

is on the right and it is indicated that it was taken within
the tropics and in the morning, then the photographer was
facing south. The sun and the shadow are always in the
opposite sides of the photograph.
If the sun is in the east, the shadow will always be cast
westwards and vice versa. If the shadow is pointing
towards you and the photograph was taken in the afternoon
(meaning that the sun was in the west), the photographer
was facing westwards. With such information, it is then
possible to fix compass points on a photograph.
Pastoralism in East Africa
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3. IDENTIFYING AND INTERPRETING PHYSICAL FEATURES
Many physical features shown in the photograph can be identified and interpreted. These features include
relief, drainage, and vegetation, among others.
A. RELIEF
Before interpretation of other physical features, it is important to first identify relief features on the
photograph. Start by giving a general idea about the area shown in the photograph. In describing landscape
and landforms, it is important to go even further and describe the forces and processes that are responsible
for their formation and modification. This is an essential aspect of relief interpretation. Relief features in
the photograph may include the following features:
1. Ridge 2. Escarpment

An escarpment is an area of highland with very steep slopes

Ridge is a narrow and long relief feature
on one side and a gentle slope on another side. The steep
with steep slopes on all sides.
slope of an escarpment is called the scarp slope and the
gentle slope is known as dip slope.

3. Plateau 4. Slopes

A plateau is an extensive highland

region and whose top surface is almost
flat.
- A plateau is easily identified on the
map by the absence of contour lines
on the higher land surface and with
a series of contours close together
A slope the inclination or slant of the land. This inclination
on either sides.
varies considerably, resulting in the following types of slopes
A concave slope is widely spaced at the lower ground and
closely spaced at the higher ground. A convex slope on the
other hand has a steep slope at the lower ground and a gentle
slope at the higher ground.

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5. Col 6. Saddle (pass).

A Col is the land between two peaks of a mountain A saddle is generally wider than a col. Saddles
or in the mountain ranges. provide convenient passages across mountain
ranges. Contours showing peaks are usually closed.

6. Valley. 7. Spur.

Valley is the low lying part of the land which is
bound over higher ground and steep slope. Valleys
are indicated by contours forming ‘V’ shape
pointing the higher ground and some valleys have
rivers flowing in them.
Spur (Salient) is a projection of the raised land from
the side of a hill or mountain into lowland, contours
showing a spur form a ‘V’ shape pointing to the
lower ground.

8. Hills/Peaks
A hill is a rounded upland area not as high as a
mountain. Hills rises above the general relative
low ground but less than a mountain. Hill height is
usually about 350m-650m. Some hills are regular
while others are irregular. A hilly landscape is
shown on photographs as having varied relief of
hills and valleys that are not isolated on a flat
landscape. Where hills appear to have the same
height across the entire landscape, such a
landscape is probably a dissected plateau. Streams
have cut valleys across former flat land and some
interlocking spurs may be visible towards valleys.

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 9. Cliff
A cliff is described as a steep rock face that is
vertical or nearly vertical.
- Cliffs are common in mountainous or hilly
areas and along the shores of lakes and seas.
- On topographical maps, cliffs are shown by
contours that are so closely packed that they
appear to merge into one another.
- To emphasize the presence of the cliff, a
special symbol is drawn on top of the contours
as shown in the figure below.

10. Plain Plains occur as lowlands and at the

bottoms of valleys but also on plateaus
or uplands at high elevations.

On topographical maps, a plain is shown

by contours that are very widely spaced.
Some rivers, if present, may be seen to
have meanders.
Plains altitudes are less than 500 metres
while plateau altitudes are more than
500 metres above sea level.
It is impossible to tell the average area
of the land directly from a photograph.
However, other features appearing in
the photograph, such as part of the sea,
A plain is a continuous tract of relatively flat land covering a
crops and other economic activities may
broad area of lowland. Some plains may be raised but the
be used in estimating the altitude.
slopes are very gentle.

11. Depression
A depression in geology is a
landform sunken or depressed
below the surrounding area.
Depressions form by various
mechanisms.
Some are formed by wind in the
desert areas which they become
known as blowout.
Some are formed by human
activities, some are formed by
natural factors such as submergence
of earth’s crust as a result of
tectonic movement.

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 12. Mountain. 13. Crater or Caldera
On a photograph, it will express the presence
of volcanic mountain. Sometimes can be filled
with water to become a lake.

This refers to the upland or highland over 1000m from

the mean sea level

B. DRAINAGE
Drainage features such as rivers, lakes and seas may easily be identified
in all types of photographs. Different aspects of rivers can be studied on a
photograph. These include the shapes of river valleys, stages of
development and various features.
Based on the presence of certain features, one can tell the nature of the
rock over which the river flows. For example, the presence of rapids and
waterfalls is an indication that the river is flowing over steep land.
Drainage patterns are easier to identify on vertical aerial photographs.
The colour tone of areas covering deep water appears darker than those of
shallow water.
The various functions of the river can also be identified.
Interlocking spurs indicate that the river valley is
made of alternating layers of hard and soft rocks.

River meanders are an indication that the river is in

it mature or old-age stage
C. VEGETATION
Photographs show all types of vegetation in the photographed area. Planted (artificial) and natural forests
appear to be distributed unevenly, with planted forests usually in clear straight lines.
The plant characteristics that may appear on the photograph can be used as a guide to the general types of
vegetation, for example savannah or semi-arid vegetation.
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Natural Forest
In natural trees/forests, there is no uniformity of the
tree size and height. Depending on the nature of
climate, they can either be scattered/sparse or
concentrated. They are not well arranged and
sometimes it can be even impossible to determine
the kind of vegetation when photograph is taken
from afar.

In planted forests trees tend to be of the same type, size and height because they were planted at the same time.

D. SOIL
A clue on the type of soil in a photographed area may be given by the types of crops grown and appearing
on the photograph. For example:
1. Rice grows well in clay soil.
2. Tea and coffee require volcanic soil.
3. Coconuts and cashew nuts thrive well in coastal regions with sandy soils,
4. Variety of horticultural crops thrive in loam soils.

Clay Soil Sandy Soil

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 Loamy Soil

Proper interpretation of the soil requires an application of one’s general knowledge of geography learnt
in classroom as well as knowledge from other disciplines.

E. CLIMATE
Weather and climate are not shown directly on photographs. Features Desert view
contained in a photograph can be used to make conclusions about the climate
of a photographed area. The type of crops grown and vegetation on the
photograph can be used as a clue to establish the climate of a place. Vegetation
types and crops can also provide evidence about the season or climate of a
place. For example:
1. The presence of many cacti signifies an arid or semi-arid region, and
hence a desert or semi-desert climate.
2. Crops such as sisal and cotton because of their nature, are grown in hot
areas that receive low rainfall while sugarcane thrives in warm to hot
climate with high rainfall.
3. The type of clothing people in the photograph are wearing can give an
indication about the weather and possible climate.

COTTON SUGARCANE

4. IDENTIFYING AND INTERPRETING HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Human activities on a photograph are depicted by various forms of land use. The uses of land may in form
of agriculture (crop cultivation and animal husbandry), forestry, settlement, wildlife conservation, mining
and construction of infrastructures, among other uses.
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A. AGRICULTURE
This includes crop cultivation and livestock rearing. It is practiced at subsistence and commercial levels. It
is easy to identify agricultural activities on ground photographs. To be able to identify these features on
vertical aerial photographs, it requires close examination of the features. Some evidences that can be used
to establish the kind of agricultural activities taking place in an area shown on the photograph are
summarized as follows:
Type of Farming Evidences
a) Subsistence Crop Farming
- Some houses are permanent while others are temporary
- The land is often divided into small plots owned and cultivated by individual farmers
- Mixed farming is practiced
- Simple farming tools such as hoes, mattocks, pangas and rakes are used
- Fields are separated by hedges

Subsistence Crop Farming

b) Subsistence Livestock Farming

- Indigenous and exotic animal breeds are kept
- Animals are grazed on grassland or semi-arid vegetation
- Large herds of local cattle (zebu or Ankole), goats or sheep
- Local or tradition methods are employed on keeping animals
- Involvement of children and women in tending large number of cattle

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Subsistence Livestock Farming (Pastoralism)
c) Commercial Livestock Farming
- Large fields divided into paddocks
- Presence of cattle sheds near farm houses
- Windmills for water supply
- Presence of water tanks, ponds or reservoirs in the dry areas
- Evidence of livestock infrastructures such as cattle dips or spray races, abattoir, cattle bomas,
slaughter slab, etc.
- High grade exotic or crossed cows with large udders
- Milking parlour with milking machines, and milk processing plants
- Indoor grazing units

Commercial Livestock Farming

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d) Commercial Crop Farming
- Presence of cash crops on an extensive area
- Evidence of modern farming methods, e.g. farm machinery
- Facilities for collecting crops, e.g. sheds and stores
- Presence of access or feeder roads within the farm

Commercial Crop Farming

e) Plantation Farming
- A single crop covering extensive stretches of land, e.g. sugarcane, tea, coffee, sisal, wheat

Plantation Agriculture

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B. PROCESSING FACTORIES
- Presence of storage facilities, e.g. silos
- Many labourers in the fields
- Nucleated settlement within the farm. These are
usually for the workers’ housing
- Presence of a network of roads crossing the farm to
facilitate mechanization and haulage of inputs and
produce to and from the farm, respectively

Fruits processing factory

C. INDUSTRIAL AND MINING ACTIVITIES
The following evidence can be used as a guide in identifying industrial and mining activities on a
photograph:
1. Presence of Factory, buildings with tall chimneys that might be issuing a lot of smoke
2. Nucleated settlements in the neighborhood, likely to be the laborers’ houses
3. Tall chimneys emitting flames and a network of pipes with large tanks in the distance could indicate
an oil refinery
4. Large open pits, large excavators and lorries carrying loads of rocks could indicate open cast mining
5. A large area with derricks (oil rigs) could point to an oilfield where oil is mined

Gas processing plant

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 Mining

D. LUMBERING
Lumbering activities could be indicated by the presence of the following features/activities:
1. The pile of logs or Logs floating down the river
2. People cutting trees using manual or power saws
3. Large forest clearings with tree stumps and piles of logs
4. People loading timber onto lorries or tractor trailers e. Logs piled near a saw mill

Lumbering
E. TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
a) The clues or indicators on Transport.
1. Presence of motor vehicles and roads, Animals carrying loads on their backs. Presence of railway line
Presence of ports, boats, ships or large water bodies.
b) The clues or indicators for Communication
This may be indicated by the presence of telephone lines, telephone booths, satellite dishes, buildings with
masts and wires connecting the masts, post office, radio or television station, newspapers or newspaper
stands, etc.
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 Transport and Communication
F. TOURISM

In tourism look on the presence of: - National parks, Game reserve, Recreational centres e.g. museum,
archives, beaches, etc. Landscape e.g. crater, depression etc. or presence of good scenery of island (s).

Ngorongoro National park

Tourism in Island
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G. FISHING
On fishing look on the presence of: water
bodies such as lakes, seasonal swamps,
rivers, dams, ocean.
These might be surrounded by settlement,
fish market or presence of any fishing
facilities

.
Fishing
H. ADMINISTRATION
Various administrative activities can be identified from abbreviations on the map. However, through photos
similar features can be observed clearly to express the activities done by different administrative activities
performed by different institutions. They include:
a) Provision of security as evidenced by the presence of a Police Station or Police Post
b) Judicial services as evidenced by the presence of courthouse
c) Other administrative offices such as District Commissioner (DC)
d) Regional Commissioner (RC).
I. SETTLEMENT
A settlement comprises of a group of buildings in an area where people live and carry out social and
economic activities. There are two types of settlements; rural and urban settlement.
ii. TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS
i) Rural Settlements
This can be indicated by the following features:
1. Many semi-permanent and a few permanent buildings such as grass-thatched houses or iron-roofed
houses with mud or brick walls.
2. Evidence of farming, fishing activities etc.
3. Unplanned or unevenly distributed of settlement which associated with plantations etc.

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ii) Urban Settlements
This can be identified by the following features:
1. Permanent buildings, which dominate the area
2. Regular street patterns
3. Many large buildings and warehouses indicating an industrial area
4. High numbers of people or population
5. Availability of Many motor vehicles on the road, which may lead to traffic jams

Urban Settlement

iii. SETTLEMENT PATTERNS

It is a layout of dwellings in a particular place. The signs showing settlements on topographical maps are
observed to have varied arrangement. The most common pattern includes the following:
1. Dispersed Settlement Pattern
It is alternatively called scattered settlement pattern. The houses are widely spaced one to another

Dispersed Settlement Pattern

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2. Nucleated Settlement Pattern
Houses and other related form are compacted to another.

Nucleated Settlement Pattern

3. Linear Settlement Pattern:

Houses are concentrated along an elongated objected of economic significance such as a road, water
bodies, railway lines and others

Linear Settlement Pattern

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FACTORS ENCOURAGING SETTLEMENTS
1. A reliable source of water supply e.g. presence of permanent rivers, lakes.
2. Gentle slope i.e. people prefer to establish settlement in less hazardous areas
3. Good soil for agriculture
4. Pleasant climate condition
5. Transport and communication.

5. ESTIMATING THE SIZE OF FEATURES

Estimating the size of object in the photographed area sometimes is not
easy, therefore some clues are used in order to estimate size of objects
in the photographed area. Due to perspective nature of photographs,
especially with regard to the ground general view photographs, it is not
ease to measure and calculate possible distances from them. It is,
however, possible to work out approximate sizes of objects using
familiar objects in the close-up photograph such as a person, ruler or
coin. This gives an impression of the relative sizes of the objects and
from this we can be in a position of estimating the size of a given object
in a photograph. That is why, we normally see a coin, hammer or ruler or
any known object placed against rock strata to
give us an idea about the size of the rock.
When we see a person standing against a cliff,
tree or between crop like maize, tea, coffee,
etc. we can use such experience to estimate the
real height of such object.
This is done by first estimating the height of
the person and comparing it with the height of
the object and then estimating how many times
the object is taller than the person. In this way,
we can estimate the height of crops such as
maize, tea, coffee, sisal, etc.
A ruler placed against the face of a rock can be useful in estimating the thickness of the rock layer. Since
the length of the ruler is known, its actual length as it appears in the photograph can be used to estimate how
many ruler lengths there are in the whole rock layer.
It is difficult to determine distances and areas accurately in photographs. This is because objects in a
photograph are not of uniform size and height. Objects in the foreground always appear larger than objects
of the same size in the background.

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CALCULATIONS IN VERTICAL AIR PHOTOGRAPHS
CALCULATING THE GROUND SCALE, FOCAL LENGTH AND AIR-CRAFT
ALTITUDE
1. GROUND SCALE
Focal Length
𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐞 (𝐆𝐒) =
Air − Craft Altitude
NOTE: Ground Scale is usually given in ratio
Example 1
Given the Focal Length is 200mm and Air-Craft Altitude is 8000m, calculate the Ground Scale.
Focal Length 200mm
𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐞 (𝐆𝐒) = Air−Craft Altitude 𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐞 (𝐆𝐒) = 8000m

Change 8,000m to mm, where, 1m = 1000m and it will be 8,000,000mm

200mm
Therefore, 𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐞 (𝐆𝐒) = 8,000,000mm

Hence, 𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐞 (𝐆𝐒) = 1: 40,000

Example 2
Given the Air-Craft Altitude is 25,000m and Focal Length is 500mm, find the Ground Scale
Focal Length 500mm
𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐞 (𝐆𝐒) = 𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐞 (𝐆𝐒) =
Air − Craft Altitude 25,000m (25,000,000mm)
Ground Scale = 1:50,000
2. AIR-CRAFT ALTITUDE
Focal Length
𝐀𝐢𝐫 𝐂𝐫𝐚𝐟𝐭 𝐀𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 =
Ground Scale
NOTE: Air-Craft Altitude is given either in meters or in feet
Example 1

Given the Ground Scale is 1:20,000 and Focal Length is 400mm. Calculate the Air-Craft
Altitude.
Focal Length 400mm
𝐀𝐢𝐫 𝐂𝐫𝐚𝐟𝐭 𝐀𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 = Ground Scale 𝐀𝐢𝐫 𝐂𝐫𝐚𝐟𝐭 𝐀𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 = 1/20,000 = 400mm × 20,000 ÷ 1

𝐀𝐢𝐫 𝐂𝐫𝐚𝐟𝐭 𝐀𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 = 8,000,000mm

(change it to meters, where, 1m=1000mm) therefore, 8,000,000mm = 8000m
𝐀𝐢𝐫 𝐂𝐫𝐚𝐟𝐭 𝐀𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 = 8,000m
Example 2
Given the Ground Scale is 1:30,000 and Focal Length is 300mm. Calculate the Air-Craft
Altitude.

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 Focal Length 300mm
𝐀𝐢𝐫 𝐂𝐫𝐚𝐟𝐭 𝐀𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 = Ground Scale = 1/30,000
= 300mm ÷ 1/30,000
= 300mm × 30,000/1
= 9,000,000mm (change to meters, and 1m=1000mm)
= 9000m
𝐀𝐢𝐫 𝐂𝐫𝐚𝐟𝐭 𝐀𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 = 9000𝑚
3. FOCAL LENGTH
Focal Length = Ground Scale × Air-Craft Altitude
NOTE: Focal Length is usually given in millimeters
Example 1
Given the Ground Scale is 1:40,000 and Air-Craft Altitude is 8000m, calculate the Focal
Length.
Focal Length = Ground Scale × Air-Craft Altitude
Focal Length = 1:40,000 × 8000m
(change to mm, and 1m=1000)
Therefore, it will be 8,000,000 mm
Hence, Focal Length = 1/40,000× 8,000,000mm

Focal Length will be 200mm

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