See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/229065021

3 Different Types of Strength Training in Older Women

Article  in  International Journal of Sports Medicine · July 2012

DOI: 10.1055/s-0032-1312648 · Source: PubMed

CITATIONS READS

35 656

12 authors, including:

Cleiton Correa Eduardo Lusa Cadore

Canoas City Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
36 PUBLICATIONS   402 CITATIONS    188 PUBLICATIONS   2,146 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Alvaro Reischak-Oliveira Martim Bottaro

Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul University of Brasília
136 PUBLICATIONS   1,123 CITATIONS    328 PUBLICATIONS   2,595 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Os efeitos do treinamento de força e do treinamento em circuito na força e ativação muscular, no consumo máximo de oxigênio e na
densidade mineral óssea de mulheres pós-menopáusicas com perda óssea View project

Análise Da Ativação Muscular Nos Diferentes Tipos De Leg Press Em Níveis De Esforço Máximo E Submáximos View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Alvaro Reischak-Oliveira on 06 June 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

962 Training & Testing
3 Different Types of Strength Training in Older Women
Authors
Affiliations
Key words
●
▶ rapid strength training
●
▶ elderly women
●
▶ functional capacity
●
▶ reaction time
●
▶ muscle thickness
accepted after revision
April 17, 2012
Bibliography
DOI http://dx.doi.org/
10.1055/s-0032-1312648
Published online:
July 10, 2012
Int J Sports Med 2012; 33:
962–969 © Georg Thieme
Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York
ISSN 0172-4622
Correspondence
Prof. Cleiton Silva Correa
Exercice Research Laboratory
– Physical Education School –
UFRGS
Federal University of Rio
Grande do Sul, RS, Brazil
750 Felizardo Furtado Street
– Jardim Botânico – CEP 90690-
200 Porto Alegre – RS – Brazil
90690-200 porto alegre
Brazil
Tel:.+55/51/9358 9414
Fax: +55/51/3308 5842
cleitonesef@yahoo.com.br
Correa CS et al. Three Different Types of … Int J Sports Med 2012; 33: 962–969
C. S. Correa1, D. P. LaRoche2, E. L. Cadore1, A. Reischak-Oliveira1, M. Bottaro3, L. F. M. Kruel1, M. P. Tartaruga4,
R. Radaelli1, E. N. Wilhelm1, F. C. Lacerda1, A. R. Gaya1, R. S. Pinto1
Affiliation addresses are listed at the end of the article
Abstract
▼ rectus femoris (RF) compared to CG (p < 0.05).
The objective of the present study was to evalu-
ate and compare the neuromuscular, morpholog-
ical and functional adaptations of older women
subjected to 3 different types of strength train-
ing. 58, healthy women (67 ± 5 year) were rand-
omized to experimental (EG, n = 41) and control
groups (CG, n = 17) during the first 6 weeks when
the EG group performed traditional resistance
exercise for the lower extremity. Afterwards, EG
was divided into three specific strength training
groups; a traditional group (TG, n = 14), a power
group (PG, n = 13) that performed the concentric
phase of contraction at high speed and a rapid
strength group (RG, n = 14) that performed a lat-
eral box jump exercise emphasizing the stretch-
shortening-cycle (SSC). Subjects trained 2 days
per week through the entire 12 weeks. Follow-
ing 6 weeks of generalized strength training,
significant improvements occurred in EG for
knee extension one-repetition (1RM) maximum
strength (+19 %), knee extensor muscle thickness
(MT, +15 %), maximal muscle activation (+44 %
average) and onset latency ( − 31 % average) for
Introduction
▼ lower limbs, particularly at the knee and ankle
Biological aging is associated with a decline in
neuromuscular function and morphology, result-
ing in a decrease in maximal strength, power
[1, 24, 25] and neuromuscular reaction time
[39, 40]. The factors include changes in neural
recruitment pattern of motor units, and declines
in maximal firing rate and synchronization of
motor units [19, 43]. The morphological changes
are associated mainly with muscle fiber atrophy,
with consequent decreases in cross-sectional
area and muscle thickness (MT), especially in
type II fibers, which have the greatest motor unit
strength, power and speed of contraction. These
vastus lateralis (VL), vastus medialis (VM) and
Downloaded by: Dot. Lib Information. Copyrighted material.
Following 6 more weeks of specific strength
training, the 1RM increased significantly and
similarly between groups (average of +21 %), as
did muscle thickness of the VL (+25 %), and acti-
vation of VL (+44 %) and VM (+26 %). The onset
latency of RF (TG = 285 ± 109 ms, PG = 252 ± 76 ms,
RG = 203 ± 43 ms), reaction time (TG = 366 ± 99 ms,
PG = 274 ± 76 ms, RG = 201 ± 41 ms), 30-s chair
stand (TG = 18 ± 3, PG = 18 ± 1, RG = 21 ± 2)
and counter movement jump (TG = 8 ± 2 cm,
PG = 10 ± 3 cm, RG = 13 ± 2 cm) was significantly
improved only in RG (p < 0.05). At the end of
training, the rate of force development (RFD) over
150 ms (TG = 2.3 ± 9.8 N·s − 1, PG = 3.3 ± 3.2 N·s − 1,
RG = 3.8 ± 6.8 N·s − 1, CG = 2.3 ± 7.0 N·s − 1) was sig-
nificantly greater in RG and PG than in TG and CG
(p < 0.05). In conclusion, rapid strength training
is more effective for the development of rapid
force production of muscle than other specific
types of strength training and by consequence,
better develops the functional capabilities of
older women.
changes negatively affect the muscles of the
[6, 20], leading to impaired mobility and ability
to perform activities of daily living (ADL). For
example, Skelton et al. showed that aging
decreases strength and power capacities and
these variables are related to the ability to per-
form functional activities like standing and step-
ping up [48].
The impact of aging on the neuromuscular sys-
tem differs not only in terms of muscle groups
and type of contraction studied [21, 29, 50], but
also in the onset latency of muscle activation
(OM) [37]. From a functional and therapeutic
perspective, the capacity for the rapid applica-

tion of strength (including reaction time) has an impact on the
ability to recover from a loss of balance as Tang et al. [49] and
Thelen et al. [50] have demonstrated. In turn, the ability to rap-
idly produce force is vital and can serve as a preventive mecha-
nism in falls [51].
Injuries as a result of falls and their associated complications
(hospitalization, surgery to implant prostheses, etc…) result in
high costs and represent a serious public health problem [51].
Moreover, falls in the elderly often result in death. The incidence
of falls in older women is higher than in older men, due to their
low level of physical activity [46] and can threaten the inde-
pendent lifestyle of these individuals. The adoption of a regular
and systematic program of strength training (ST) reduces the
speed at which the muscle fibers deteriorate, increases absolute
and relative strength, improves balance and increases muscle
power helping the elderly reduce fall risk as well as maintain
ADL and independence [18, 52]. In this context, participation in
traditional strength training, power training, or rapid strength
training that uses the stretch-shortening-cycle (SSC) should aid
in the development of maximal strength, power and rapid mus-
cle contractions, respectively, which are essential for the main-
tenance of motor health and quality of life in older adults.
Among the 3 types of strength training above, power training
has been shown to be more suitable for the improvement of
functional abilities in older men that traditional strength train-
ing [28, 45]. Since rapid strength training, or plyometric training,
is purported to improve numerous aspects of muscle perform-
ance (i. e., maximal strength, power and reaction time), from a
neuromuscular point of view it may be the most appropriate
training modality to increase muscle responsiveness for older
women. However, to the authors’ knowledge there are no pub-
lished studies that have evaluated and compared the effects of
three different types of strength training on neuromuscular and
morphological parameters as well as the functional capabilities
of older women. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to
evaluate and compare the neuromuscular and morphological
adaptations, and functional abilities of older women subjected
to 3 different types of strength training. Our hypothesis was that
rapid strength training would be more effective than traditional
strength training for the improvement of reaction and muscle
activation times resulting in greater improvement in functional
performance.
Methods
▼ box with a pre-defined height of either 10, 20 or 30 cm (increased
Subjects
The volunteer sample was comprised of 58 older women, age
67 ± 5 years, with a mean height of 158.1 ± 10.2 cm and 38.0 ± 5.3 %
body fat, who had not engaged in regular and systematic ST for
at least 1 year before the study. The study excluded individuals
with a history of severe endocrine, metabolic and neuromuscu-
lar diseases. Subjects were recruited through advertisement in a
widely read local newspaper. Prior to participation, subjects
were carefully informed of the design of the study, especially the
possible risks and discomforts related to the procedures. Sub-
jects then gave their written, informed consent. The study was
performed according to the ethical standards of the IJSM [27]
and the protocol was approved for the use of human subjects by
the University’s Institutional Ethics and Research Committee
(Protocol No. 19322).
Training & Testing 963
Body composition
Body mass and height were measured using an ASIMED (MG,
Brazil) analog scale (resolution of 0.1 kg) and a stadiometer (res-
olution of 1 mm), respectively. Body composition was assessed
using the skinfold technique. The same technician obtained all
anthropometric measurements on the right side of the subject’s
body. Skinfold thickness was obtained with a Cescorf skinfold
calliper. A 7-site skinfold equation was used to estimate body
density [13, 31] and body fat was subsequently calculated using
the Siri equation [14].
Experimental design
The experiment was divided into 2 phases. In the first phase,
consisting of 6 weeks, the subjects were randomly divided into
an experimental group (EG, n = 41) that performed traditional
resistance exercise and a non-exercising control group (CG,
n = 17). The randomization resulted in no significant difference
between groups for any of the performance variables (● ▶ Table 1)
prior to training. The EG performed leg press, knee extension,
and knee flexion exercises, twice a week for six weeks, with lin-
ear, progressive increases in intensity and volume, accrued
[5, 35] over two meso-cycles. During weeks one to three the EG
Downloaded by: Dot. Lib Information. Copyrighted material.
performed two sets of each exercise with a maximum of 15–20
repetitions (RM), and during weeks 4–6, performed three sets of
12–15 RM with a time interval between sets and exercises of
120 s.
In the second phase of the study also lasting 6 weeks, the EG was
further divided into 3 subgroups that carried out traditional
strength training (TG, n = 14), power training (PG, n = 13), and
rapid strength training (RG, n = 14) (●
▶ Fig. 1). This phase had a
similar periodization scheme that used 3 sets of 10–12 RM dur-
ing weeks 7–9 and 4 sets of 8–10 RM during weeks 10–12. TG
and PG performed the same exercises for the lower limbs as was
done in the first 6 weeks (leg press, knee extension and knee
flexion). However, in the second phase while TG performed
these exercises in a controlled fashion (e. g. 2 s concentric, 2 s
eccentric), PG performed the exercises with maximal speed dur-
ing the concentric phase but maintained a 2 s pace during the
eccentric movement. In RG the leg press exercise was replaced
by a lateral box jump exercise (● ▶ Fig. 2) that relied heavily on
the SSC (i. e., a plyometric exercise) characterized by a high-
intensity eccentric component (● ▶ Fig. 2c) followed immediately
by a rapid and powerful concentric contraction (● ▶ Fig. 2b)
[32, 33, 42]. The exercise consisted of rapidly, and explosively,
jumping up, over the box, and down with the alternate leg on a
10 cm every 2 weeks). 3 sets of the lateral box jump exercise
were performed during weeks 7–9 and 4 sets during weeks
10–12. This body-weight resisted exercise required dynamic
knee and hip extension with the goal of performing the maxi-
mum number of side-to-side repetitions in the allotted time
(15–20 s). The CG did not perform any resistance exercise during
the 12 weeks of the intervention.
Maximal dynamic strength
Maximal strength was assessed using the one-repetition maxi-
mum knee extension test (1RM) in a knee extension machine
(World Sculptor-RS, Brazil). 1 week prior to the test day, subjects
were familiarized with all procedures. On the test day, the sub-
jects warmed up for 5 min on a cycle ergometer, stretched all
major muscle groups, and performed the specific movements of
the exercise test. Each subject’s maximal load was determined
Correa CS et al. Three Different Types of … Int J Sports Med 2012; 33: 962–969
964 Training & Testing

Variables EG, n = 42 CG, n = 17 Table 1 Comparison of muscle performance

between those conducting generalized strength
Pre Week 6 Pre Week 6
training and controls, before and after 6 weeks of
1 RM-KE (kg) 42.5 ± 8.1 50.4 ± 8.4†* 39.1 ± 8.3 36.8 ± 9.0 strength training.
MT-VL (mm) 16.1 ± 2.3 17.9 ± 2.1†* 16.7 ± 2.9 16.1 ± 3.1
MT-VM (mm) 14.0 ± 3.3 16.7 ± 2.2†* 14.4 ± 3.6 14.9 ± 3.4
MT-RF (mm) 16.2 ± 2.9 18.7 ± 2.1†* 16.8 ± 2.1 16.0 ± 2.0
EMG-VL (μV) 108.2 ± 51.5 146.3 ± 33.2†* 119.9 ± 44.9 106.4 ± 34.6
EMG-VM (μV) 78.2 ± 33.7 117.8 ± 27.9†* 88.7 ± 34.5 79.8 ± 33.5
EMG-RF (μV) 66.7 ± 43.3 99.7 ± 23.3†* 77.2 ± 29.8 71.3 ± 27.1
OM-VL (ms) 324.5 ± 69.4 194.3 ± 51.6†* 343.8 ± 76.3 311.2 ± 75.7
OM-VM (ms) 356.8 ± 68.7 236.9 ± 54.4†* 298.7 ± 67.9 320.9 ± 63.8
OM-RF (ms) 346.2 ± 66.3 275.9 ± 49.9†* 350.7 ± 64.9 328.8 ± 63.7
RT (ms) 473.2 ± 67.1 318.3 ± 50.1†* 457.4 ± 91.5 398.6 ± 80.5
RFD-0–0.15 s (N·s − 1) 2.3 ± 7.3 2.6 ± 7.9 2.7 ± 7.0 2.4 ± 8.7
RFD-0–0.25 s (N·s − 1) 1.6 ± 4.1 1.8 ± 4.8 1.7 ± 7.5 1.8 ± 6.7
STS (n ° repetition) 14.1 ± 1.5 17.2 ± 1.3†* 15.7 ± 2.0 15.7 ± 2.0
CMJ (cm) 7.4 ± 2.5 8.2 ± 2.1 7.6 ± 2.5 7.9 ± 2.5
Values are mean ± SD
† Significant difference between pre and week 6 (p < 0.05)
* Significant difference between Experimental Group (EG) and control group (CG) (p < 0.05)
1RM = One Repetition Maximum, KE = knee extension, MT = muscle thickness, VL = vastus lateralis, VM = vastus
medialis, RF = rectus femoris, EMG = electromyography for maximal muscle activation, OM = Muscle Onset Latency,
RT = Reaction Time, RFD = Rate of Force Development, STS = 30-s Sit-to-Stand, CMJ = Counter-Movement Jump

Downloaded by: Dot. Lib Information. Copyrighted material.

Division of Training Groups Fig. 1 Simplified study experimental design.
EG = Experimental Group, TG = Traditional Training
Group, PG = Power Training Group and RG = Rapid
Training Group.
TG
Pre 6 weeks

EG (generalized period)
PG 12 weeks
(Specifics Strength Training)

RG

ronome (Quartz, CA, USA). The test-retest reliability coefficient

(ICC) was 0.99 for KE 1RM.

Fig. 2 Lateral box jump used by the Rapid Training Group demonstrat-
ing the a starting position, b box jump, and c landing on the alternate leg
which was then instantly repeated in the opposite direction ( in the order
c – b – a).
with no more than 5 attempts with a 4-min recovery between
attempts. Performance time for each contraction (concentric
and eccentric) was 2 s and was controlled by an electronic met-
Muscle thickness
The evaluation of muscle thickness (MT) was performed using
images obtained with an ultrasound device (Philips, VMI, Indus-
tries e Commercial Ltda. Lagoa Santa, MG, Brazil) in B-mode.
During the evaluation of MT, subjects remained in a supine posi-
tion with the assessed leg extended and relaxed for 10 min to
restore the normal flow of body fluids. A transducer with a sam-
pling frequency of 7.5 MHz was positioned perpendicularly to
the muscles. For image acquisition, we used a water-based gel
that promotes acoustic contact without causing pressure with
the transducer over the skin. The subcutaneous adipose tissue
and bone tissue were identified by the ultrasound image, and
the distance between them was defined as the MT. The evalua-
tion of MT was made in the dominant segment, and the same
evaluator performed all measurements. The evaluation of MT in
the knee extensors was performed at the following points: the
vastus lateralis (VL); the midpoint between the greater tro-
chanter and lateral epicondyle of the femur; the vastus medialis
(VM), measured at 30 % of the distance from the lateral epi-
condyle of the femur to the greater trochanter; rectus femoris
(RF), measured at two-thirds of the distance from the greater
trochanter of the femur to the lateral epicondyle and 3 cm lateral
from the midline of the limb [34].

Correa CS et al. Three Different Types of … Int J Sports Med 2012; 33: 962–969

Muscle activation
Muscle activation was determined by recording the surface elec-
tromyogram (EMG) during a maximal isometric leg press. First,
the electrode sites were prepared by shaving the area and clean-
ing the skin by abrasion with cotton moistened with alcohol gel
as reported by Hakkinen et al. [22]. The electrodes were placed
in a bipolar configuration, along the direction of the muscle fib-
ers over the muscle belly of VL, VM and RF of the right leg. The
distance between electrodes was fixed at 2.2 cm (MIOTEC model
HALL), and for each collection, the level of resistance between
the electrodes was measured by a multimeter to be below
3 000 Ohms. A reference electrode was placed on the tibial tuber-
osity of the right leg. The subjects were positioned in the leg
press with a load cell attached to the equipment to measure
force which was recorded synchronously with the EMG signal of
VL, VM and RF muscles. The load cell and EMG signal conductor
cables were connected to a 4 channel, analog to digital (A/ D)
board (Miotool 400) and the data were sampled at 2 000 Hz
using a personal computer and acquisition software (MIOTEC,
Biomedical Equipment, Porto Alegre- Brazil). The EMG signal
was digitally conditioned using a fifth-order, band-pass Butter-
worth filter, with cutoff frequencies of 20 and 500 Hz and the
force data were filtered using a Butterworth filter with cutoff
frequencies of 0–9 Hz [3, 12].
Participants performed 3, maximal, voluntary, isometric con-
tractions (MVIC), for 5 s in response to a light stimulus during
which they were verbally encouraged to produce a maximal
effort. The angles of the hip, knee and ankle were positioned and
maintained at approximately 90 ° and 3–5 min of recovery was
provided between attempts. The raw EMG signal obtained dur-
ing contraction was quantified as the root mean square (RMS).
Maximal activation of muscle was taken as the highest RMS
EMG observed during the plateau of the force curve. The deter-
mination of onset latency of the VL, VM and RF, as well as reac-
tion time and the rate of force production (RFD) are described
below. Consistent positioning of EMG electrodes at the different
test times was controlled by means of marks made on the skin of
each individual with a pen and the mapping technique proposed
by Narici et al. [44]. All data were analyzed using Matlab soft-
ware (version 5.3).
Reaction time and muscle onset latency
The force vs. time and EMG vs. time curves were used to deter-
mine reaction time and the onset latency of VL, VM and RF mus-
cles, respectively. The reaction time and muscle onset latency
were recorded in milliseconds (ms) and analyzed by an algo-
rithm developed in Matlab (version 5.3). The reaction time was
defined as the time between the light stimulus to the point
where the force curve increased more than 3 standard devia-
tions (SD) above the baseline reference period (25 ms period
prior to force development). The onset latency of VL, VM and RF
muscles was defined as the time between the light stimulus to
the point where the RMS EMG signal rose more than 3 SD above
the mean baseline electrical activity of the muscles (200 ms
period prior to the MVIC) for a minimum of 25 ms [9].
Rate of force development (RFD)
The RFD was measured from the force vs. time curve that was
obtained during the maximal isometric leg press and was calcu-
lated as the change in force divided by the change in time (slope
of the force vs. time curve). The RFD (N·s − 1) was calculated in
Matlab from the MVIC that elicited the highest force [4] at 2 dif-
Training & Testing 965
ferent time intervals (0–0.15 s and 0–0.25 s) similar to the meth-
ods of Aagaard et al. [2].
30 s sit-to-stand
The 30 s sit-to-stand test began with the participant seated in
the center of a chair (height 43 cm) with the back straight and
feet on a flat surface positioned about shoulder-width apart,
arms crossed at chest height, with an angle of approximately 90 °
for hip and knee flexion. At a verbal signal, the participant rose
to a full upright position and then returned to the initial seated
position. The participant was encouraged to complete as many
repetitions as possible within a 30-s period [28, 48].
Counter movement jump (CMJ)
To carry out the CMJ, subjects were positioned on a force plat-
form (Advanced Mechanical Technology, Inc. Watertown, MA,
USA, Model OR6-WP-1000) and were familiarized to the proce-
dure by performing several jumps. They were instructed to jump
with their hands on their waist while avoiding the bending of
their legs during flight and trying to achieve the maximal pos-
sible time in the air. After the familiarization, the subjects per-
formed 3 CMJ on the force platform with 2 min rest intervals.
Downloaded by: Dot. Lib Information. Copyrighted material.
There was no restriction on the angle of knee flexion during the
eccentric phase of the CMJ [15, 30, 33]. The greatest jump height
was used for analysis and was determined by the equation pro-
vided by Bosco et al. [10]: [(height = 9.8·(Flight time)2/6)], using
Matlab software.
Statistical analysis
Descriptive statistics were calculated and are presented as
mean ± SD. Normality of the data was assessed using the Kol-
mogorov-Smirnov test and Levene’s homogeneity of variance
test. For comparisons between groups prior to training, and fol-
lowing 6 and 12 weeks of strength training, a 2-way repeated
measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used (2 groups × 3
times), with Bonferroni post-hoc tests. In addition, a one-way
ANOVA was performed to compare the relative changes (Δ %)
between the experimental and control groups at different times
in the study (after 6 and 12 weeks of training). The significance
level for all statistical tests was p < 0.05 and all analyses were
performed using SPSS statistical software version 17.0.
Results
▼
During the initial 6 weeks of strength training, when there was
no division between different types of training, a significant
increase occurred in EG for maximal dynamic strength (1RM),
maximal activation of the quadriceps muscles (VL, VM and RF),
muscle thickness (VL, VM, and RF) and the number of chair
stand repetitions (p < 0.05, ●
▶ Table 1). During the same period,
significant decreases occurred for muscle onset latency (VL, VM
and RF) and reaction time (p < 0.05). There were no significant
changes for these variables for CG. This resulted in significant
differences between EG and CG at 6 weeks for maximal strength,
muscle thickness, muscle activation, muscle onset latency, reac-
tion time and sit-to-stand performance (p < 0.05). Following the
initial 6-week period there were no changes in RFD or CMJ
height for either group.
After the division of the general strength training group (EG)
into specific training groups (TG, PG and RG, from 6–12 weeks),
significant increases in knee extension 1RM (● ▶ Fig. 3a), muscle
Correa CS et al. Three Different Types of … Int J Sports Med 2012; 33: 962–969
966 Training & Testing

a 100 b
*
30
Δ 21% Δ 22% Δ 20%
80 Δ 17%
Δ 7%
1RM Knee Extension (kg)

Δ 8%

Maximum Repetitions (n°)

60 20

40
10

20

0 0
TG PG RG TG PG RG
c 800 d

* 25

*
600

Downloaded by: Dot. Lib Information. Copyrighted material.

20
Δ 15% Jump Height (cm) Δ 25%
time (ms)

Δ 9% 15 Δ 8%
400 Δ –29%
Δ 4%

10

200
5

0 0
TG PG RG TG PG RG

post 6 post 12

Fig. 3 Percent change (Δ %) in a One-repetition maximum (1RM) knee extension strength, b 30-s sit-to-stand repetitions, c Reaction time and d Counter-
movement-jump height between weeks 6 and 12 of specific strength training. Values are mean ± SD. † Significant difference between week 6 and week 12
of specific strength training (p < 0.05). * Significant difference between RG (Rapid Strength Training Group) in relation to groups TG (Traditional Strength
Training Group) and PG (Power Training Group) (p < 0.05).

thickness of VL, muscle activation of the VM and VL muscles
occurred in each of the training groups (●
▶ Table 2, p < 0.05) with
no differences between groups. Over the same period there
were no changes in any of the measures for CG. Reaction time
(●
▶ Fig. 3c) and muscle onset latency were significantly reduced
in RG but not in the other training groups. Likewise, the per-
formance in 30-s Sit-to-Stand (● ▶ Fig. 3b) and CMJ (● ▶ Fig. 3d)
was significantly higher in RG compared to TG and PG groups.
The RFD in the period from 0–0.15 s of contraction was signifi-
cantly higher in RG and PG groups following training (p < 0.05),
but not in TG (●
▶ Table 2).
Discussion
▼ training program used in this study was short (12 weeks) and
The major findings of this study were that rapid strength train-
ing was more effective than traditional strength training and
power training for 30-s Sit-to-Stand and counter movement
jump performance tests as well as for the activation of the VL
and VM. In addition, 3 specific types of strength training (TG, PG
and RG) resulted in equal increases in maximal dynamic knee
extension strength and quadriceps muscle thickness.
In relation to the development of maximal strength, our results
agree with previous studies that observed improvement in
strength related to increases in muscle activation and muscle
hypertrophy [7, 17, 18, 26]. In the present study there was an
increase in muscle activation of VM and VL muscles suggesting
an increased recruitment and firing frequency of motor units,
with no significant difference between training type [23, 24].
Morphological adaptations were evident as there was an
increase in muscle thickness of VL in all strength training groups
indicating that hypertrophy likely contributed to the increased
maximal, dynamic strength [6, 13, 28]. However, the resistance
the differences in neuromuscular adaptation demonstrated
between training groups in this study should be investigated
over longer periods (e. g. 1 year). Nonetheless, these results are
important because they show that the RG group that replaced a

Correa CS et al. Three Different Types of … Int J Sports Med 2012; 33: 962–969
 Training & Testing 967

Table 2 Comparison of muscle performance between those conducting generalized strength training, power training, reactive strength training and controls,
before and after six weeks of specific strength training.

Variables TG, n = 14 PG, n = 13 RG, n = 14 CG, n = 17

Week 6 Week 12 Week 6 Week 12 Week 6 Week 12 Week 6 Week 12
MT-VL (mm) 17.8 ± 1.6 21.8 ± 2.9† 18.0 ± 2.3 23.2 ± 3.9† 17.8 ± 3.1 21.8 ± 2.3† 16.1 ± 3.1 16.2 ± 2.1
MT-VM (mm) 15.2 ± 3.1 16.1 ± 2.3 15.6 ± 2.6 16.9 ± 3.6 14.7 ± 2.6 16.9 ± 2.9 14.9 ± 3.4 15.1 ± 4.6
MT-RF (mm) 18.2 ± 2.9 19.8 ± 3.6 18.1 ± 3.2 19.9 ± 3.1 18.0 ± 3.2 19.8 ± 4.4 16.0 ± 2.0 16.8 ± 3.7
EMG-VL (μV) 136.3 ± 32.2 182.0 ± 39.4† 139.3 ± 55.2 195.9 ± 37.8† 158.9 ± 76.3 245.5 ± 55.7† 106.4 ± 34.6 98.1 ± 34.3
EMG-VM (μV) 117.1 ± 29.4 144.8 ± 14.6† 120.9 ± 19.3 143.7 ± 18.9† 126.4 ± 35.4 169.7 ± 34.7† 79.8 ± 33.5 86.8 ± 34.8
EMG-RF (μV) 99.3 ± 37.1 119.6 ± 30.7 89.6 ± 39.9 118.7 ± 27.6 108.4 ± 28.6 117.7 ± 24.9 71.3 ± 27.1 74.3 ± 28.2
OM-VL (ms) 194.3 ± 51.6 272.6 ± 98.2 195.7 ± 42.3 229.2 ± 75.7 262.5 ± 56.1 229.2 ± 93.4 311.2 ± 75.7 289.3 ± 58.1
OM-VM (ms) 205.1 ± 54.3 254.9 ± 94.6 218.9 ± 38.7 239.1 ± 96.7 226.6 ± 38.9 248.6 ± 59.3 320.9 ± 63.8 298.4 ± 59.1
OM-RF (ms) 255.9 ± 49.9 285.9 ± 109.0 223.7 ± 51.4 252.8 ± 63.7 291.2 ± 44.3 203.0 ± 43.6†* 328.8 ± 63.7 292.1 ± 44.9
RFD-0–0.15 s (N·s − 1) 2.6 ± 0.8 2.3 ± 0.9 2.3 ± 0.3 3.3 ± 0.3†£ 2.5 ± 0.7 3.8 ± 0.6†£ 2.4 ± 0.8 2.3 ± 0.7
RFD-0–0.25 s (N·s − 1) 1.8 ± 0.6 1.7 ± 0.4 1.8 ± 0.3 2.3 ± 0.7 1.7 ± 0.6 2.4 ± 0.7 1.8 ± 0.6 1.8 ± 0.6
Values are mean ± SD
† Significant difference between week 6 and week 12 of specific strength training (p < 0.05)
*Significant difference between RG = Reactive Strength Training in relation to TG = Traditional Strength Training and PG = Power Training (p < 0.05)
£Significant difference between RG = Reactive Strength Training and PG = Power Training in relation to TG = Traditional Strength Training (p < 0.05)
CG = Control Group, MT = muscle thickness, VL = vastus lateralis, VM = vastus medialis, RF = rectus femoris, EMG = electromyography for maximal muscle activation, OM = Muscle
Onset Latency, RFD = Rate of Force Development

Downloaded by: Dot. Lib Information. Copyrighted material.

traditional overload strength exercise (i. e., leg press) with one
that used the SSC at a high execution speed (i. e., lateral box
jump) did not have an impaired ability to increase maximal
strength and muscle thickness. This can be partially explained
by the fact that the use of exercises with SSC promote the
recruitment of motor units with high thresholds of activation
[32, 41], which may have contributed to the increase in maximal
activation in this group. Also, similar changes in muscle area
have been shown in response to training that uses SSC and tradi-
tional strength training in young, untrained individuals when
the volume of exercise was controlled between the types of
training [15].
In addition to maximal muscle activation, muscle onset latency
and reaction time are critical to the evaluation of the neuromus-
cular responsiveness of older adults [49]. In the present study,
we observed a significant reduction in muscle onset latency for
the RF muscle in RG, demonstrating faster muscle activation in
the group that performed the rapid strength exercise. In addi-
tion, RG showed a faster reaction time, which represents a prac-
tically significant improvement in neuromuscular responsiveness
in older women. Our results agree with previous literature,
which demonstrated that the use of strength exercises in which
SSC is present, as in the lateral box jump exercise used in this
study, improves the speed of activation and reaction time of bi-
articular muscles such as RF [16]. Functionally, the faster muscle
onset and reaction time should increase the ability of older
women to avoid obstacles and reduce the frequency of falls
[36, 45]. In fact, LaRoche et al. [38] showed that older women
with a lower propensity for falls had faster motor times of the
ankle and knee muscles. The absence of change in muscle onset
latency of the mono-articular muscles VL and VM may possibly
be due to changes in muscle recruitment strategy during the
evaluation task [43]. It has been shown that neuromuscular
adaptations to training may not occur in all muscle groups
assessed [48].
In this study, 6 weeks of rapid strength training was effective at
further reducing neuromuscular reaction time which did not
occur with traditional strength or power training (● ▶ Fig. 3c).
This result demonstrates that RG, in addition to increasing the
maximal dynamic force to the same extent as PG and TG,
improved the ability to quickly activate the knee extensors. Our
results corroborate the findings of Caserotti et al. [15], who
showed increases in the rate of force application in the knee
extensors of older adults, after 12 weeks of explosive, high
resistance strength training, in just 2 sessions per week with a
load of 70–80 % 1RM. As in the present study, these authors
demonstrated that a training rate of only 2 times a week can
improve the power of older women.
The rate of force development is one variable that represents the
ability to quickly generate force and has high a correlation with
functional capacity in the elderly [11, 47]. In this study, the RFD
in 0.15 s was significantly increased in RG and PG, whereas TG
showed no change in RFD after training. This is likely due to spe-
cificity of training as the speed of muscle contraction was higher
in these types of training. These results emphasize the impor-
tance of performing exercises with maximal or near maximal
speed since the performance of exercises with greater speed
seems to be more effective for the development of rapid muscle
strength [8, 11]. Improving RFD may have additional functional
benefits as it has been shown to be positively related to neu-
romuscular economy during aerobic exercise, as well as aerobic
power in elderly [14].
The rapid development of force, along with the concomitant
increase in maximal strength and muscle mass is of great impor-
tance for functional capacity in older women. The results of this
study suggest that rapid strength training appears to be the best
strategy for development of these capabilities with the added
benefit of faster neuromuscular reaction times. In parallel with
the neuromuscular parameters, rapid strength training was
shown to be most effective for increasing the performance of
functional tests, as demonstrated by the increase in the number
of repetitions in the 30-s Sit-to-Stand and height of the CMJ.
With respect to performance during CMJ, our results are consist-
ent with other studies showing that traditional strength training
results in little or no improvement in the performance of jumps
[15, 30]. This implies the need for developing strategies that use
exercises that rely on the SSC (e. g. jumping) [33] as well as on
the rapid production of force of the lower limbs as these are key
factors contributing to the maintenance of ADL in older adults
[15, 18, 48]. It should be noted that the rapid strength training

Correa CS et al. Three Different Types of … Int J Sports Med 2012; 33: 962–969
968 Training & Testing
program employed in this study was preceded by a general
strength training which may have prepared the nervous, muscu-
lar, ligamentous and skeletal systems of individuals in RG to tol-
erate the SSC exercises. However, our results emphasize that
short periods of rapid strength training seem to be sufficient to
improve lower-extremity functional performance.
Conclusion
▼ Cond Res 2011; 25: 997–1003
Rapid strength training enhances neuromuscular parameters
related to muscle force production, it decreases the time of mus-
cle activation, and improves the functional capacity of elderly
women in greater magnitude than traditional strength and
power training. Moreover, substituting a rapid strength exercise
for a traditional high-load exercise does not prevent the devel-
opment of maximal dynamic strength, muscle thickness, or acti-
vation of the quadriceps muscles as these adaptations were
similar between the specific types of strength training.
Acknowledgements
▼ muscle. JAMA 1990; 263: 3029–3034
The authors would like to thank the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoa-
mento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES-Brazil) and the Con-
selho de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico e Científico (CNPq-Brazil)
for financial support. We would also like to thank our colleagues
Kelly Costa, Bruna Gonçalvez and Fernanda Weber for technical
assistance during data collection.
Affiliations
1
Physical Education Scholl, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto
Alegre, Brazil
2
Department of Kinesiology, University of New Hampshire, Durham,
United States
3 Physiol 2000; 83: 51–62
College of Physical Education, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
4 23 Hakkinen K, Kallinen M, Izquierdo M, Jokelainen K, Lassila H, Malkia E,
MidWest State University, UNICENTRO, Department of Physical Education -
DEDUF/G Laboratory of Biomechanics and Ergonomics
References
1 American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Progression mod-
els in resistance training for healthy adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc
2009; 41: 687–708
2 Aagaard P, Simonsen EB, Andersen JL, Magnusson P, Dyhre-Poulsen P.
Increased rate of force development and neural drive of human skel-
etal muscle following resistance training. J Appl Physiol 2002; 93:
1318–1326
3 Alberton CL, Cadore EL, Pinto SS, Tartaruga MP, da Silva EM, Kruel LF.
Cardiorespiratory, neuromuscular and kinematic responses to station-
ary running performed in water and on dry land. Eur J Appl Physiol
2011; 111: 1157–1166
4 Andersen JL, Aagaard P. Effects of strength training on muscle fiber
types and size; consequences for athletes training for high-intensity
sport. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2010; 20: (Suppl 2): 32–38
5 Baker DG, Newton RU. Adaptations in upper-body maximal strength
and power output resulting from long-term resistance training in
experienced strength-power athletes. J Strength Cond Res 2006; 20:
541–546
6 Bean JF, Herman S, Kiely DK, Frey IC, Leveille SG, Fielding RA, Frontera
WR. Increased Velocity Exercise Specific to Task (InVEST) training:
a pilot study exploring effects on leg power, balance, and mobility
in community-dwelling older women. J Am Geriatr Soc 2004; 52:
799–804
7 Bean JF, Kiely DK, Herman S, Leveille SG, Mizer K, Frontera WR, Fielding
RA. The relationship between leg power and physical performance in
mobility-limited older people. J Am Geriatr Soc 2002; 50: 461–467
8 Behm DG, Sale DG. Velocity specificity of resistance training. Sports
Med 1993; 15: 374–388
Correa CS et al. Three Different Types of … Int J Sports Med 2012; 33: 962–969
9 Bennell K, Duncan M, Cowan S, McConnell J, Hodges P, Crossley K.
Effects of vastus medialis oblique retraining versus general quadriceps
strengthening on vasti onset. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2010; 42: 856–864
10 Bosco C, Luhtanen P, Komi PV. A simple method for measurement of
mechanical power in jumping. Eur J Appl Physiol 1983; 50: 273–282
11 Bottaro M, Machado SN, Nogueira W, Scales R, Veloso J. Effect of high
versus low-velocity resistance training on muscular fitness and
functional performance in older men. Eur J Appl Physiol 2007; 99:
257–264
12 Cadore EL, Pinto RS, Alberton CL, Pinto SS, Lhullier FL, Tartaruga MP,
Correa CS, Almeida AP, Silva EM, Laitano O, Kruel LF. Neuromuscular
economy, strength, and endurance in healthy elderly men. J Strength
13 Cadore EL, Pinto RS, Lhullier FL, Correa CS, Alberton CL, Pinto SS, Almeida
AP, Tartaruga MP, Silva EM, Kruel LF. Physiological effects of concur-
rent training in elderly men. Int J Sports Med 2010; 31: 689–697
14 Cadore EL, Pinto RS, Pinto SS, Alberton CL, Correa CS, Tartaruga MP, Silva
EM, Almeida AP, Trindade GT, Kruel LF. Effects of strength, endurance,
and concurrent training on aerobic power and dynamic neuromuscu-
lar economy in elderly men. J Strength Cond Res 2011; 25: 758–766
15 Caserotti P, Aagaard P, Larsen JB, Puggaard L. Explosive heavy-resist-
ance training in old and very old adults: changes in rapid muscle
force, strength and power. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2008; 18: 773–782
16 Da Silva EM, Brentano MA, Cadore EL, De Almeida AP, Kruel LF. Analysis
of muscle activation during different leg press exercises at submaxi-
mum effort levels. J Strength Cond Res 2008; 22: 1059–1065
17 Fiatarone MA, Marks EC, Ryan ND, Meredith CN, Lipsitz LA, Evans WJ.
High-intensity strength training in nonagenarians. Effects on skeletal
Downloaded by: Dot. Lib Information. Copyrighted material.
18 Fielding RA, LeBrasseur NK, Cuoco A, Bean J, Mizer K, Fiatarone Singh
MA. High-velocity resistance training increases skeletal muscle peak
power in older women. J Am Geriatr Soc 2002; 50: 655–662
19 Frontera WR, Hughes VA, Krivickas LS, Kim SK, Foldvari M, Roubenoff
R. Strength training in older women: early and late changes in whole
muscle and single cells. Muscle Nerve 2003; 28: 601–608
20 Frontera WR, Hughes VA, Lutz KJ, Evans WJ. A cross-sectional study
of muscle strength and mass in 45- to 78-yr-old men and women. J
Appl Physiol 1991; 71: 644–650
21 Granacher U, Gruber M, Gollhofer A. Resistance training and neuromus-
cular performance in seniors. Int J Sports Med 2009; 30: 652–657
22 Hakkinen K, Alen M, Kallinen M, Newton RU, Kraemer WJ. Neuromus-
cular adaptation during prolonged strength training, detraining and
re-strength-training in middle-aged and elderly people. Eur J Appl
Kraemer WJ, Newton RU, Alen M. Changes in agonist-antagonist EMG,
muscle CSA, and force during strength training in middle-aged and
older people. J Appl Physiol 1998; 84: 1341–1349
24 Hakkinen K, Kraemer WJ, Newton RU, Alen M. Changes in electromyo-
graphic activity, muscle fibre and force production characteristics
during heavy resistance/power strength training in middle-aged and
older men and women. Acta Physiol Scand 2001; 171: 51–62
25 Hakkinen K, Newton RU, Gordon SE, McCormick M, Volek JS, Nindl
BC, Gotshalk LA, Campbell WW, Evans WJ, Hakkinen A, Humphries BJ,
Kraemer WJ. Changes in muscle morphology, electromyographic activ-
ity, and force production characteristics during progressive strength
training in young and older men. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1998;
53: B415–B423
26 Harridge SD, Kryger A, Stensgaard A. Knee extensor strength, activa-
tion, and size in very elderly people following strength training. Mus-
cle Nerve 1999; 22: 831–839
27 Harriss DJ, Atkinson G. Update – ethical standards in sport and exercise
science research. Int J Sports Med 2011; 32: 819–821
28 Hruda KV, Hicks AL, McCartney N. Training for muscle power in older
adults: effects on functional abilities. Can J Appl Physiol 2003; 28:
178–189
29 Hunter GR, McCarthy JP, Bamman MM. Effects of resistance training
on older adults. Sports Med 2004; 34: 329–348
30 Izquierdo M, Aguado X, Gonzalez R, Lopez JL, Hakkinen K. Maximal and
explosive force production capacity and balance performance in men
of different ages. Eur J Appl Physiol 1999; 79: 260–267
31 Jackson AS, Pollock ML. Generalized equations for predicting body
density of men. Br J Nutr 1978; 40: 497–504
32 Komi PV. Stretch-shortening cycle: a powerful model to study normal
and fatigued muscle. J Biomech 2000; 33: 1197–1206
33 Komi PV. IOC Medical Commission., International Federation of Sports
Medicine. Strength and Power in Sport. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific,
1992

34 Korhonen MT, Mero AA, Alen M, Sipila S, Hakkinen K, Liikavainio T,
Viitasalo JT, Haverinen MT, Suominen H. Biomechanical and skeletal
muscle determinants of maximum running speed with aging. Med
Sci Sports Exerc 2009; 41: 844–856
35 Kraemer WJ, Ratamess NA. Fundamentals of resistance training: pro-
gression and exercise prescription. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004; 36:
674–688
36 Lajoie Y, Gallagher SP. Predicting falls within the elderly community:
comparison of postural sway, reaction time, the Berg balance scale
and the Activities-specific Balance Confidence (ABC) scale for compar-
ing fallers and non-fallers. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2004; 38: 11–26
37 Laroche DP. Initial neuromuscular performance in older women influ-
ences response to explosive resistance training. Isokinet Exerc Sci
2009; 17: 197
38 LaRoche DP, Cremin KA, Greenleaf B, Croce RV. Rapid torque devel-
opment in older female fallers and nonfallers: a comparison across
lower-extremity muscles. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2010; 20: 482–488
39 Laroche DP, Knight CA, Dickie JL, Lussier M, Roy SJ. Explosive force and
fractionated reaction time in elderly low- and high-active women.
Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007; 39: 1659–1665
40 LaRoche DP, Roy SJ, Knight CA, Dickie JL. Elderly women have blunted
response to resistance training despite reduced antagonist coactiva-
tion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2008; 40: 1660–1668
41 Macaluso A, De Vito G. Muscle strength, power and adaptations to
resistance training in older people. Eur J Appl Physiol 2004; 91:
450–472
42 Malisoux L, Francaux M, Nielens H, Renard P, Lebacq J, Theisen D. Cal-
cium sensitivity of human single muscle fibers following plyometric
training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006; 38: 1901–1908
43 Moritani T, deVries HA. Neural factors versus hypertrophy in the time
course of muscle strength gain. Am J Phys Med 1979; 58: 115–130
View publication stats
Training & Testing 969
44 Narici MV, Roi GS, Landoni L, Minetti AE, Cerretelli P. Changes in force,
cross-sectional area and neural activation during strength training
and detraining of the human quadriceps. Eur J Appl Physiol 1989;
59: 310–319
45 Petrella JK, Miller LS, Cress ME. Leg extensor power, cognition, and
functional performance in independent and marginally dependent
older adults. Age Ageing 2004; 33: 342–348
46 Pyka G, Lindenberger E, Charette S, Marcus R. Muscle strength and fiber
adaptations to a year-long resistance training program in elderly men
and women. J Gerontol 1994; 49: M22–M27
47 Seynnes O, Fiatarone Singh MA, Hue O, Pras P, Legros P, Bernard PL.
Physiological and functional responses to low-moderate versus high-
intensity progressive resistance training in frail elders. J Gerontol A
Biol Sci Med Sci 2004; 59: 503–509
48 Skelton DA, Young A, Greig CA, Malbut KE. Effects of resistance training
on strength, power, and selected functional abilities of women aged
75 and older. J Am Geriatr Soc 1995; 43: 1081–1087
49 Stensdotter AK, Hodges PW, Mellor R, Sundelin G, Hager-Ross C. Quad-
riceps activation in closed and in open kinetic chain exercise. Med
Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35: 2043–2047
50 Sturnieks DL St, George R, Lord SR. Balance disorders in the elderly.
Neurophysiol Clin 2008; 38: 467–478
51 Tinetti ME. Clinical practice. Preventing falls in elderly persons. N Engl
J Med 2003; 348: 42–49
52 Yamada T, Demura S. Relationships between ground reaction force
parameters during a sit-to-stand movement and physical activity and
falling risk of the elderly and a comparison of the movement charac-
teristics between the young and the elderly. Arch Gerontol Geriatr
Downloaded by: Dot. Lib Information. Copyrighted material.
2009; 48: 73–77
Correa CS et al. Three Different Types of … Int J Sports Med 2012; 33: 962–969