Chapter Five: Fractures and Faults at Depth

Topics
• Faults, Fractures and Fluid Flow
• Wellbore Imaging
• Stereonets, Tadpoles and 3-D Mohr Circles
• Earthquake Focal Plane Mechanisms
 Key Points
1. Pre-existing fractures and faults are very important in controlling permeability
in many reservoirs

2. Mode I fractures (opening mode joints) are unlikely to be as important in

controlling flow as mode II and III shear fractures (faults) in many reservoirs
unless effective stress is extremely low (i.e., pore pressure is close to
lithostatic).

3. Wellbore image logging is available to provide detailed information about

fractures at depth.

4. A variety of techniques are available to characterize fracture distributions in 3-

D as well as to assess the shear and normal stresses acting on shear fractures.

5. Earthquake focal plane mechanisms (measures of fault slip in an earthquake)

are useful for determining relative stress magnitudes and approximate stress
orientations.
Pre-existing Crack Orientation
Flow Through a Single Fracture
(Parallel Plate Approximation)

b3
Q= ∇P
12η

Q = Volumetric flow rate

η = Fluid viscosity
∇P = Pressure gradient
b ≡ separation of plates

Equation 5.1 – pg.142

Fluid Flow Through an Elliptical Crack

2(Pf − S3 )(2c )(1 − ν )

2

bmax =
E
π ⎛ b⎞ 3
Q= ⎜ ⎟ ∇P
8η ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎡ 2c(1− ν 2 )(P − S )⎤ 3
π ⎢ 3 ⎥
Q= ∇P
f
⎢
8η ⎣ E ⎥
⎦
Equations 5.2-5.4 – pg.142

But, there is a problem!

Fluid Flow Through an Elliptical Crack

2(Pf − S3 )(2c )(1 − ν )

2

bmax =
E
π ⎛ b⎞ 3
Q= ⎜ ⎟ ∇P
8η ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎡ 2c(1− ν 2 )(P − S )⎤ 3
π ⎢ 3 ⎥
Q= ∇P
f
⎢
8η ⎣ E ⎥
⎦
Equations 5.2-5.4 – pg.142

if (Pf-S3) ~ 0.2 MPa

and E ~40 GPa, ν=0.25
bmax ~ 0.01 mm
 From a Joint to a Fault

Figure 5.2 a – pg.144

Faulting is key to increasing the permeability of a formation

Figure 5.2 b – pg.144
Figures 5.1 a-d – pg.141
BHTV Schematic

Figures 5.3 a-d – pg.147

Temperature Anomaly in Dixie Valley Well
Schlumberger FMI™ Tool

• Pad configuration: 4 pads/4 flaps each w/ two rows of 24 buttons (192 in all)
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• Pad curvature: 8.5-in.
• Minimum/Maximum hole diameter: 6.5-in./21-in.
• Toolstring Diameter/Makeup Length: 5-in./316-in. (26.3-ft.)
 Mapping Natural Fractures
Electrical and Acoustic Borehole Images
Formation Micro Resistivity at Bit ™ Ultrasonic Borehole
Imager™ Imager ™

RAB

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Definition Strike, Dip, & Rake

Figure 5.5 – pg.150

Stereonets

Figure 5.6 – pg.151

Various Displays of Fault Data Distribution

Figures 5.7 a-d – pg.152

Pt. Arguello Wells

Figure 5.8 – pg.153

Hydrocarbon Saturated Breccia Zones
From Pt. Arguello Area
DST’s in Well A
3-D Mohr Circle

Figures 5.9 a,b – pg.155

 Cajon Pass Well
Poles to Fracture Planes 1800 – 3500 m

Figures 5.10 a,b – pg.158

Anderson Classification of Relative Stress Magnitudes
Figures 5.1 a-d – pg.141
Focal Plane Mechanism Theory

Figures 5.11 a-c – pg.160

Figures 5.12 – pg.162