Alexandria Engineering Journal (2019) xxx, xxx–xxx

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Alexandria University

Alexandria Engineering Journal

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ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Runoff hazard analysis of Wadi Qena Watershed,

Egypt based on GIS and remote sensing approach
Wael M. Elsadek a,b,*,1, Mona G. Ibrahim c,d, Wael Elham Mahmod e,f
a
Environmental Engineering Dept., School of Energy Resources, Environment, Chemical and Petrochemical Engineering,
Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology, E-JUST, Alexandria, Egypt
b
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, South Valley University, Qena, Egypt
c
Dean of School of Energy Resources, Environment, Chemical and Petrochemical Engineering, Egypt-Japan University of
Science and Technology, Egypt
d
Environmental Health Department, High Institute of Public Health, Alexandria University, Egypt
e
Environmental Engineering Department, School of Energy Resources, Environment, Chemical and Petrochemical
Engineering, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology, E-JUST, Alexandria, Egypt
f
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Assiut University, 71515 Assiut, Egypt

Received 10 September 2017; accepted 16 February 2019

KEYWORDS Abstract The geomorphological characteristics of the basin are more commonly used for flood
Wadi Qena; hazard mapping of the watersheds suffering from scarcity of data. In this study, Geographic Infor-
Eastern Desert; mation System (GIS) techniques have been used to carry out the morphometric analysis of Wadi
Morphometry analysis; Qena watershed. The morphometric parameters considered for analysis are Drainage intensity
Morphometric parameters; (Di), Form factor ratio (FFR) and Circularity ratio (Rc). Each parameter has been categorized into
Flood hazard five grades ranking from 1 for the lowest hazard grade to 5 for the highest hazard grade. The anal-
ysis shows that with respect to the values of Di, FFR, and Rc, the highest three hazard degree areas
covered about 24.2%, 56.9%, and 46.82% of the total area respectively. Consecutively, the number
of sub-basins which are classified at the highest three hazard degrees equals 6, 32 and 38 sub-basins.
The overall assessment map indicates that the sub-basins with hazard degree from moderate to high
are equal 34 sub-basins with total area equals 9779.04 km2 (about 63.14% of the total area of Wadi
Qena watershed). The final developed flood hazard map can initiate appropriate measures to mit-
igate the flood hazards in the area and helps for watershed management.
Ó 2019 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria
University. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction

* Corresponding author. A lot of rainfall comes in a small amount of time (flash flood)
E-mail addresses: wael.elsadek@ejust.edu.eg, Wsadek91@eng.svu. and makes the water rush in really quick as a result of the
edu.eg (W.M. Elsadek), mona.gamal@ejust.edu.eg (M.G. Ibrahim), topography of the Red Sea Mountains nature. Floods are dis-
wael.elham@ejust.edu.eg, wdpp2006@aun.edu.eg (W.E. Mahmod). tinguished by rapid occurrence and lack of time to issue warn-
1
Assistant lecturer, South Valley University. ings. Many parts of Upper Egypt, Sinai and Red Sea areas were
Peer review under responsibility of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria hit by severe flash floods (Ex. In March 1976, April 1983, April
University.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2019.02.001
1110-0168 Ó 2019 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Please cite this article in press as: W.M. Elsadek et al., Runoff hazard analysis of Wadi Qena Watershed, Egypt based on GIS and remote sensing approach, Alex-
andria Eng. J. (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2019.02.001
2 W.M. Elsadek et al.

1985, January 2010, and January 2013). According to the loca-

tion of the study area as an arid zone, monitoring systems are
lacked which lead to severe damage in the region. Floods often
happen in arid areas as a result of heavy rains, which sometimes
cause significant loss of life and infrastructure. Natural catas-
trophes happen frequently and their effect and frequency
appear to have greatly increased in recent decades, mostly
because of environmental degradation [1–5]. Flood hazard
mapping is needed to appropriate land use and development
in flooded areas where the created maps mitigate their effect.
Also, flood hazard mapping is very necessary for managements
of water resources and the sustainable development of water-
shed in addition to the protection from the flood hazard and
drought. There are many factors which are affecting the flood
such as topography, climate, engineering structures, geomor-
phology and drainage climate. There are some other related
factors in the desert regions which affect the severity flash
floods. Some of these factors include environmental and human
processes, drainage networks, drainage characteristics, and
rainfall characteristics [6]. The human activities and highway
in many areas in Gulf of Suez are affected seriously by the fre-
quent flash floods [7]. Several other studies have focused on the
risks of flooding in different regions of Egypt, such as the Red
Sea drainage basins along the Qena-Safaga highway and the
Red Sea basins between Latitudes 24°410 and 25°260 [8–10].
Flood hazard assessment studies are necessary to mitigate the
probable damage. In the current study, the morphometric char-
acteristics have been analyzed to estimate the flood risk of the
sub-watersheds within Qena watershed using Morphometric
Analysis. A detailed hazard degree map is presented based on Fig. 1 Egypt map and the location of study area [11].
the final hazard degree. This map can be used as basic data
for the assessment of flood mitigation and planning.

2. Study area description

The study area is located at the eastern side of Qena meander

in the Upper Egypt. Wadi Qena is located between Red Sea in
the east and River Nile in the west within latitudes 26°100 to
28°050 N and longitudes 32°200 to 33°360 E (Fig. 1).
The area of Wadi Qena watershed is approximately
15455 km2 [12]. Based on Köppen climate classification [13],
the climate of the study area is classified as hot summers and cold
winters as it is located in the dry desert. According to Egyptian
meteorological Authority (EMA), the rainfall in the study area
is scarce with an average value of 3.2 mm a year and in summers
the highest recorded temperature reached to 41° in July. For
winter season, the lowest temperature reached in January to
7.5° at night. The climatic data for Wadi Qena drainage basin
are traditionally acquired from the closest weather station which
is located at 26°300 N and 33°060 E in the south of the watershed.
The mountainous area which located in the eastern boundary is
varies in elevation by ranges from 77 m to 1866 m Above the
Mean Sea Level (AMSL) (Fig. 2).

3. Materials and methodology

3.1. Materials (Data source)

3.1.1. Digital elevation model (DEM)

The present study deals with the available data that are useful
in order to do the work about the area such as Digital Fig. 2 Topography of the study area.

Please cite this article in press as: W.M. Elsadek et al., Runoff hazard analysis of Wadi Qena Watershed, Egypt based on GIS and remote sensing approach, Alex-
andria Eng. J. (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2019.02.001
Runoff hazard analysis of Wadi Qena Watershed
elevation model (DEM). DEM is a digital representation of the
topographic surface. It is used for analysis of topography,
modelling of surface processes, as well as providing flood risk
zone. DEM map is representing the altitude of the study area.
The DEM is used in ArcGIS 10.4 software as input data to
extract the topography map and drainage network and there-
fore know the direction of the flow of floods. The DEM is
essential for evaluation both hydrologic parameters such as,
flow direction, flow accumulation, watershed delineation, drai-
nage networks, and flow length as well as topographic param-
eters for example slopes, slope length and shape and aspects.
Accordingly, both flow accumulation and flow length would
be used to find out the surface runoff. DEMs can be used to
extract drainage networks and basin extents [14]. Identification
of drainage networks can be achieved using remote sensing
and DEMs [15,16]. The United States Geological Survey web-
site (www.usgs.gov) offers the Shuttle Radar Topography Mis-
sion (SRTM) data which is required to extract and generate
The DEM of Wadi Qena drainage basin (Fig. 3).
3.1.2. Methodology
Morphometric analysis of the study area is based mainly on
morphological parameters. To carry out these analyses, the
digital elevation model (90 m resolution DEM) has been used
to extract the drainage network. Based on Strahler method
[17], streams are ordered and after that hydrological parame-
ters were calculated and measured based on [18,19].The study
of ungauged watershed for estimating the flash flood hazard is
evaluated morphometrically based on morphometric parame-
ters. The watershed basin of the study area has been created
by utilizing terrain pre-processing. This pre-processing used
Fig. 3 Digital Elevation Map (DEM) of Wadi Qena watershed.
Please cite this article in press as: W.M. Elsadek et al., Runoff hazard analysis of Wadi Qena Watershed, Egypt based on GIS and remote sensing approach, Alex-
andria Eng. J. (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2019.02.001
3
the digital elevation model (DEM) of Wadi Qena watershed.
These processes are clipping the boundary of the watershed
to derive the drainage network of the study area in addition
to create flow direction raster by using flow direction algo-
rithms after remove small imperfections [20]. After that, the
flow accumulation could be created to get the watershed basin
(Fig. 4). The post-processing involved using the DEM in a GIS
environment for estimation the morphometric parameters
(stream order (u), area (A), stream number (Nu), stream length
(Lu), drainage density (D), stream frequency (F), Drainage
intensity (Di), Form factor ratio (FFR) and Circularity ratio
(Rc)).
Stream ordering is the major parameter of qualitative and
quantitative analyses of any drainage basin. The area (A) of
the watershed has a direct effect on surface runoff, where lar-
ger the watershed, larger runoff and storage of water in basin.
The law proposed by [19] has been used to calculate Stream
length (Lu). Drainage density (D) is the ratio between the total
distance where the streams run in the sub-basin to total sub-
basin area thus it has units of reciprocal of length. Drainage
density points the nearness of spacing of streams. There are
many factors which affect drainage density such as relief, cli-
matic changes, type and permeability of rocks and vegetation
that controls the characteristic length of the stream [21]. Also,
it is worth mentioning that the higher value of drainage density
with large amount of rainfall resulted in runoff where high
density of streams and rapid stream response. The stream fre-
quency (F) of a drainage basin is the total number of streams
of all orders per square kilometer where it reflects the texture
of the drainage network.
The drainage intensity (Di) is defined as the proportion of
the stream frequency to the drainage density [22]. Low values
of drainage intensity indicate that the drainage density and
stream frequency have a small influence on the extent to which
the surface has been lowered by agents of denudation. Small
drainage densities are frequently associated with widely spaced
streams because of the presence of fewer resistant rock types.
Accordingly, the surface runoff is not speedily removed from
the watershed, or those of high drainage intensity with high
infiltration capacities that give well chance from groundwater
recharge. The form factor ratio (FFR) is defined as the ratio
of basin area to square of the basin length. Form factor is a
dimensionless number. Low values of form factor indicate that
the basins are more elongated, have less intense rainfall and
lower peak runoff of longer duration over its entire area than
an area of equal size with a large form factor while the water-
shed with high form factors have high peak flows of shorter
duration. Based on [23], the circularity ratio represents the
proportion between the area of the basin and the area of a cir-
cle whose circumference is equal to the basin perimeter. The
circularity ratio is affected by many factors such as the length
and frequency of the stream, land use, climate, land cover, geo-
logical composition, relief and slopes of the basin. All maps
have been divided by reference line geometrically to north
and south.
To evaluate the flash flood hazard of the study area, a haz-
ard scale that ranges from 1 (the lowest) to 5 (the highest) is set
for all parameters. The hazard degrees for the sub-basins are
distributed as follows:
– Finding out of the minimum and maximum values of each
morphometric parameter for the sub-basins.
4 W.M. Elsadek et al.

Fig. 4 Flow chart of methodology.

Fig. 5 Sub-basins of the study area. Fig. 6 Stream order of the watershed.

– Calculations of the actual hazard degree for all parameters – Assuming a straight linear relation exists between samples
that are situated between the minimum and maximum points and intermediate values of hazard degree can be cal-
values. culated from the geometric relationship according to[24]

Please cite this article in press as: W.M. Elsadek et al., Runoff hazard analysis of Wadi Qena Watershed, Egypt based on GIS and remote sensing approach, Alex-
andria Eng. J. (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2019.02.001
Runoff hazard analysis of Wadi Qena Watershed 5

0.25 – For the parameters, have directly proportional relationship:

0.20
Drainage intensity (km-3)

4ðX  XminÞ
Hazard degree ¼ þ1 ð1Þ
0.15 ðXmax  XminÞ
0.10
– For the parameters, have inverse proportional relationship:
0.05

0.00
1 2 3 36 42 62 4ðX  XmaxÞ
Hazard degree ¼ þ1 ð2Þ
Sub-basin ID
ðXmin  XmaxÞ
Fig. 7 Di values for sub-basins which are classified at the highest
three hazard degrees. where (x) is the value of the morphometric parameters. xmax
and xmin are the maximum and minimum values of the param-

Fig. 8 Map of Drainage intensity classification. Fig. 10 Map of Form factor ratio classification.

0.6

0.5
Form Factor Ratio (km-1)

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1
2
3
8
11
12
15
21
26
31
34
35
36
38
42
43
46
48
49
51
53
55
56
57
58
59
63
64
65
66
68
69

Sub-basin ID

Fig. 9 FFR values for sub-basins which are classified at the highest three hazard degrees.

Please cite this article in press as: W.M. Elsadek et al., Runoff hazard analysis of Wadi Qena Watershed, Egypt based on GIS and remote sensing approach, Alex-
andria Eng. J. (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2019.02.001
6 W.M. Elsadek et al.

0.7

0.6

Circularity ratio (Rc)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1
2
3
7
8
11
12
13
15
16
18
21
26
31
32
34
35
40
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
53
55
56
57
58
59
63
64
65
66
68
70
Sub-basin ID

Fig. 11 Rc values for sub-basins which are classified at the highest three hazard degrees.

eters of all sub-basins, respectively. Hazard degree maps of
each parameter for all sub-basins have been achieved accord-
ing to Eqs. (1) and (2).
4. Results and discussion
The study area contains 70 sub-basins (Fig. 5) and the areas of
these sub-basins in the range from 28 km2 to 1465 km2 with
total area of the watershed equals to 15,488 km2. The stream
order of the watershed related to 5th order (Fig. 6).
The watershed has altogether 273 streams linked with 5
order of streams. The total number of stream is the maximum
in the first order (210 streams) and gradually decreases with the
increase of stream order. The total length of streams in the
watershed is 3073.81 km. the minimum length is with the
fifth-order stream which equals to 81.4 km where the first
order shows the maximum length and equals to 1631.88 km.
Drainage density (D) which indicates the landscape dissection,
infiltration capacity of the land, runoff potential, climatic con-
ditions, and vegetation cover of the basin is in the range from
0.176 km1 to 4.85 km1. On the other hand, the values of
bifurcation ratio reached to 2.667. Moreover, the values of
stream frequency of the sub-basins have a range varies from
0.11 km2 to 0.71 km2. The low values of stream frequency
of the sub-basins point to the fact that the watershed includes
scarce plant cover. Stream frequencies of the sub-basins have a
small variation which comes from the similarity in lithology of
the sub-basins. The lower values of drainage density and
stream frequency of the sub-basins declared that the runoff
is slower and flooding is less likely to occur.

Fig. 12 Map of Circularity ratio classification. Fig. 13 The final flood hazard map.

Please cite this article in press as: W.M. Elsadek et al., Runoff hazard analysis of Wadi Qena Watershed, Egypt based on GIS and remote sensing approach, Alex-
andria Eng. J. (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2019.02.001
Runoff hazard analysis of Wadi Qena Watershed 7

4.1. Drainage intensity (Di) 4.2. Form factor ratio (FFR)

The values of Di have a range varies from 0.011 to 0.2 km3.
There are 6 sub-basins which have been classified at the highest
three hazard degrees based on drainage intensity (Fig. 7).
Three of these sub-basins (ID 1, 2 and 3) are located at the
north of the watershed regarding to the reference line which
divides the watershed geometrically to southern and northern
parts. However, at the south of the reference line there are
two sub-basins (ID 42 and 62) and sub-basin with ID 36 is
located at the middle of the watershed (Fig. 8). The total area
of these six sub-basins equals 3753.15 km2 represent about
24.2% of the total area of the watershed. The values of Di
for these sub-basins are in the range from 0.0886 km3 for
sub-basin with ID 42 to 0.2089 km3 for sub-basin with ID
2 which is classified as the highest hazardous sub-basin. The
high values od Di for these sub-basins indicate that the drai-
nage density and stream frequency have a high influence on
the extent to which the surface has been affected by agents
of denudation. In addition, these sub-basins have a high drai-
nage densities which are often associated with narrow spaced
streams and the surface runoff is speedily removed from the
watershed.
The values of FFR are found in the range of 0.06–0.51 km1.
Based on form factor ratio, the number of sub-basins which
are classified at the highest three hazard degrees equals 32
sub-basins with total area about 8809.42 km2 (56.9% of the
total area of the watershed) (Fig. 9). From these 32 sub-
basins, there are 23 ones which are located at the southern part
of the reference line (three of them with ID 49, 59, and 66 are
classified as the highest hazardous sub-basins), 8 sub-basins in
the north and sub-basins ID 36 is located at the middle
(Fig. 10). The values of FFR for these sub-basins are in the
range from 0.2317 km1 for sub-basin with ID 15 to
0.509 km1 for sub-basin with ID 66. The values of sub-
basins 49, 59 and 66 (the highest hazard degree) are 0.4702,
0.4769 and 0.509 km1 respectively which means that they
are the least elongated, have the most intense rainfall and have
high peak flows of shortest duration.
4.3. Circularity ratio (Rc)
The values of circularity ratio in the range from 0.11 to 0.62.
There are 38 sub-basins have been classified at the highest

Table 1 The overall assessment of sub-basins which classified at the highest three hazard degrees.
Sub-basin ID Area (km2) Drainage Form factor ratio Circularity Hazard degree Location Regarding to reference line
intensity ratio
2 230.55 0.2089 0.3632 0.4297 5 North
12 325.86 0.0384 0.4464 0.4220 4 North
26 45.06 0.0145 0.3531 0.5227 4 South
34 152.76 0.0316 0.3762 0.4591 4 South
36 759.31 0.1122 0.3483 0.2887 4 South
49 37.25 0.0340 0.4702 0.5409 4 South
53 148.84 0.0436 0.3509 0.5113 4 South
55 28.81 0.0242 0.3759 0.5593 4 South
59 168.26 0.0240 0.4769 0.6156 4 South
63 104.65 0.0763 0.3215 0.4710 4 South
66 93.47 0.0557 0.5091 0.4913 4 South
1 830.77 0.0917 0.3096 0.3063 3 North
3 842.76 0.0893 0.2653 0.3173 3 North
7 234.04 0.0321 0.2272 0.3164 3 North
8 76.78 0.0138 0.2958 0.3815 3 North
11 65.35 0.0139 0.2809 0.3583 3 North
15 52.37 0.0142 0.2317 0.4589 3 North
21 32.02 0.0145 0.2922 0.4528 3 North
31 28.25 0.0145 0.2935 0.4600 3 South
35 114.45 0.0134 0.2469 0.3349 3 South
42 488.05 0.0886 0.2741 0.3148 3 South
43 40.51 0.0345 0.2801 0.3219 3 South
46 43.79 0.0141 0.3518 0.3521 3 South
47 232.49 0.0571 0.2122 0.3340 3 South
48 106.65 0.0271 0.3374 0.4230 3 South
51 991.29 0.0570 0.2627 0.2931 3 South
56 72.02 0.0232 0.2803 0.3567 3 South
57 304.24 0.0612 0.3046 0.4166 3 South
58 783.12 0.0750 0.2542 0.3017 3 South
62 601.71 0.0943 0.2184 0.1661 3 South
64 83.86 0.0418 0.2487 0.3546 3 South
65 163.60 0.0239 0.2700 0.3256 3 South
68 668.20 0.0636 0.2624 0.3404 3 South
69 827.90 0.0746 0.3809 0.2813 3 South

Please cite this article in press as: W.M. Elsadek et al., Runoff hazard analysis of Wadi Qena Watershed, Egypt based on GIS and remote sensing approach, Alex-
andria Eng. J. (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2019.02.001
8 W.M. Elsadek et al.
three hazard degrees based on circularity ratio with total area
equal 7250.9 km2 and represent about 46.82% of the total area
of Wadi Qena watershed and have values of Rc in the range
from 0.3017 to 0.6156 (Fig. 11). From these 38 sub-basins,
there are 26 ones which are located at the south of the refer-
ence line (two of them with ID 55 and 59 are classified as
the highest hazardous sub-basins and have values of Rc equal
0.5593 and 0.6156 respectively) and 12 sub-basins in the north-
ern part (Fig. 12). The sub-basins with low values of circularity
ratio are concentrated in the middle of the watershed. The sub-
basins with high values of circularity ratio are located in the
southern and northern parts which in turn enhance the collec-
tion of runoff water.
4.4. Overall assessment
The final flood hazard map was produced by calculation the
summation of the hazard degrees for each sub-basin
(Fig. 13). The prevailing feature of hazard degree is the low
and medium hazard. The sub-basins characterized by high
slope degree and big areas have been classified as moderate haz-
ard degree and due to the effect of other parameters not only
the slope and area, but also some sub-basins with small areas
have been classified as high hazard degree. The sub-basins with
hazard degree from moderate to high are equal 34 sub-basins
and present 48.6% of the total numbers of sub-basins where
the lowest hazards sub-basins represent 51.4% and concentrate
in the middle of the watershed. These 34 sub-basins have total
area equals 9779.04 km2 (about 63.14% of the total area of
Wadi Qena watershed) (Table 1). From these 34 sub-basins,
there are 25 ones which are located at the south of the reference
line and 9 sub-basins in the north (one of them with ID 2 is clas-
sified as the highest hazardous sub-basins).
5. Conclusion
In the present study, GIS based morphometry and remote
sensing data were used for the flash flood risk mapping for
Wadi Qena watershed, Eastern Desert, Egypt. Morphometry
approach is used to determine the flash flood prone areas using
flood risk analysis by the meaning of morphometric parame-
ters. The watershed consists of 70 sub-basins have areas in
the range from 28 km2 to 1465 km2 with total area equals to
15,488 km2. The watershed has altogether 273 streams linked
with 5 order of streams with total length 3078.81 km. Flood
hazard map was prepared to delineate flood-prone areas.
The results show that based on the values of Di, FFR, and
Rc the numbers of the highest three hazard degree areas are
6, 32 and 38 sub-basins and covered about 24.2%, 56.9%,
and 46.82% respectively of the total area of the watershed.
The overall assessment map indicates that the sub-basins with
hazard degree from moderate to high are equal 34 sub-basins
with total area equals 9779.04 km2 (about 63.14% of the total
area of Wadi Qena watershed). Most of the hazard areas are
located in the southern part by 25 areas. Such map helps the
decision makers to evaluate the potential impacts of natural
risks quickly and assist further to initiate appropriate measures
for impact reduction. It also helps them during post-disaster
activities for the assessment of damages and losses occur due
to flooding. The results shown in this research can help the
developers, planners and engineers for effective planning and
Please cite this article in press as: W.M. Elsadek et al., Runoff hazard analysis of Wadi Qena Watershed, Egypt based on GIS and remote sensing approach, Alex-
andria Eng. J. (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2019.02.001
developments and to minimize the harmful effects of flash
floods.
Acknowledgments
The first author would like to thank Egyptian Ministry of
Higher Education (MoHE) for granting him the Ph.D. schol-
arship. Also, thanks and gratitude for E-JUST and JICA for
their support and for offering the tools needed for this
research.
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