Table of Contents

S.
Page No.
No Description
.

I Introduction 2-08
i) Concept of Anxiety 2

II Review of Literature 09-30

1.2 Academic anxiety and achievement 9
1.3 Academic Performance 13
1.4 Sex & Academic Anxiety 26
1.5 Age & Anxiety 28
1.6 Influence of birth order on anxiety
29

III Objectives 31-44

2.1. to investigate the relationship between anxiety and aspiration among students 31
2.2. to find out the level of anxiety among the learners and its relationship with the
achievement of students at secondary level 34
2.3. to study also aims to dig out the relationship between student’s aspiration and
their academic achievement 38
2.4. to study also aims to find out that as higher the level of anxiety is the harbinger of
higher aspiration among studies 43

IV Research Methodology 45-48

3.1 Statement of research problem 46
3.2 Research Design 47

V Conclusion and Discussions 49-50

Bibliography

1|P ag e
 Chapter 1

Introduction
Concept of Anxiety
Anxiety is one of the most studied phenomena in psychology. Although
progress has been in the theoretical analysis of anxiety, the identification
of conditions of its development, the construction of tools to diagnose
anxiety as well as the invention of therapeutic techniques, the concept of
anxiety has not been clearly defined and agreed upon. The perception of
anxiety is differentiated from fear as it is described as a response to an
unidentifiable danger or a predictable danger. Additional more, anxiety
responses are over and over again more intense and frequent than is
authorized by perceived threat the fear response is balanced to the
objective danger. According to Spielberger (1983) “anxiety as the
subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry
related with an encouragement of the autonomic nervous system.” It can
refer to not only a person’s stable personality but also his transitory
emotional state. Accordingly, two anxiety constructs have been developed
trait anxiety and state anxiety. Because they are more likely to interpret a
wider range of situations as threatening; people with high trait anxiety
tend to produce state anxiety more frequently than those with low trait
anxiety (Head & Knight, 1988). Types of Anxiety There are basically two
types of anxiety (a) State and Trait anxiety (b) Test (Examination)
Anxiety or Academic anxiety - - (a) State and Trait Anxiety Many of the
difficulties in defining anxiety stemmed from the failure to distinguish
between state anxiety and trait anxiety. With state-trait distinction in
view, state anxiety can most adequately be define as an disagreeable
emotional state or form which is characterized by subjective feelings of
tension, anxiety and worry, and by activation or arousal of the autonomic
nervous system.
Trait anxiety to the impending hazard from the surroundings of the

2|P ag e
academic organizations including teacher, particular subjects like
Mathematics, English, etc.(Singh & Sen Gupta ,1984). Anxiety is a
common phenomenon in people’s learning process. It prevents learners
from completing academic tasks successfully, and so it interrupts
learning. Academic anxiety then refers to the anxiety that occurs during
the learning process (Garcia, 1998). High levels of academic anxiety have
a debilitating effect on concept learning, academic performance, and
environmental adaptation, and so leading lower learning efficiency (Clark
& Schwartz, 1989). According to Craig et al. (2000) test anxiety stand for
the degree to which a student’s experience fear, apprehensiveness,
nervousness, panic agitation and stress while even thinking of a future test
or examination. Anxiety can in addition be seen as a product of doubt,
uncertainty about a future occasion or situation. Bandura (1997) think that
people experience anxiety when they recognize a situation as dangerous
and away from their control. In the era of extreme competitiveness,
academic anxiety has become a significant stressor for the Indian
adolescents. Due to high parental expectation, social demands, anxiety of
social disapproval, uncertainty in the job market and ever rising level of
aspiration this group is becoming highly vulnerable. For the parents too it
is a period of severe anxiety. The parents suffer admission mania as their
children struggle to cope with the great demand supply hiatus in
prestigious professional institutions. –
- Concept of Academic Anxiety Parents craving that their children climb
the steps of presentation to as high as a level possible. This craving for a
high level of success puts a lot of presser on students that can be a cause
of academic anxiety (Pandey & Ahmad 2008).This high parental
expectation, social demands, anxiety of social disapproval. Peer rising
level of aspiration all these factors contribute in developing anxiety in
academic situation, sometimes it may be situational such as in the ease of

3|P ag e
test or examination or else it may be exhibits during stage fear. In this
way academic anxiety is experienced when the characteristics of anxiety
are associated with academic or evaluative situation. In school every
student fells some anxiety at some point of time, but for some students
anxiety may inhibit learning or performance especially in academic
situation. It has been observed that the students who often have test
anxiety exhibits inadequate study habits, negative non productive attitude
towards academic work (Culler & Holahan,1980 ) and poor test taking
skills (Topman & Jansen, 1984).This characteristic may also be
applicable in the case of students having academic anxiety. The academic
anxiety may also develop as a result of parental criticism and punishment
when one fails to perform satisfactorily. Thus academic anxiety seem to
hamper the performance of students in academic situation. Cognitive,
affective, and behavioral are the three major components of test anxiety.
Students who feel test anxiety from the cognitive perspective have low
self confidence. They can be preoccupied with negative thoughts and they
have doubt about their academic ability and intellectual competence
(Sarason & Sarason, 1990). –
- Students are more likely to overemphasize the potential negative
results. In testing situations they feel helpless (Zeidner, 1998). Some
students can feel the need to answer every question on the test correctly.
They feel incompetent if they fail to do so, thus fueling negative thoughts.
From the affective perspective, test anxiety may cause some physiological
effects in some students. Those effects may be increased heart rate,
feeling nauseated, increased sweating, cold hands, dry mouth frequent
urination, , and muscle spasms (Zeidner, 1998). These effects can appear
before, during, and even after the test is over some emotions such as
worry, fear of failure, and panic may accompany with the physiological
reactions. Students can feel higher levels of stress if they are unable to

4|P ag e
control their emotions, which may result in lack of concentration. Test
anxious students exhibit anxiety behaviourally by habit of delaying and
having incompetent preparation and test solving skills. Due to inadequate
healthy diet, bad sleeping habits, and lack of regular exercise some
students can physically feel tired or exhausted during test administration
Zeidner (1998). Factors Affecting Academic Anxiety There are so many
factors that might be leading to academic anxiety among school students
such as the geographical area, both the school and the students
environment, socio-economic status, culture, religion, educational status,
(Forchard et. al. 1991), status of the family, type of family, size of family,
individual’s personality, occupation of the parents, parental involvement
and parental motivation, limited facilities - - around the school
environment for the students hence causing all the kin - 8 - Concept of
Personality Personality is a very diverse and complex behavioural
response pattern. It represents the whole person’s concept. It includes
perception, learning, etc. and more. Personality is a field that studies
individual difference and their interaction with environmental conditions
in order to help us predict and understand complex human behaviour.
Every person has different tasks and temperament, likes and dislikes
interests and attitudes. An as a self-help group member show all these
difference in her behaviour. The socialization process of personality
development is also relevant to understand the self-help group’s
behaviour. Woodworth (1947) defined personality as the quality of the
individuals’ total behaviour. According to Dashiell (1949), “an individual
personality is the total picture of his organized behavior, especially as it
can be characterized by his fellow men in a consistent way”. According to
Allport (1961), “personality is the dynamic group in the person of those
psychophysical systems that decide his characteristic behaviour and
thinking”. According to Plotnick (1993), “personality refers to a mixture

5|P ag e
of permanent and distinctive behaviors, thinking and emotions that
express how we respond and adapt to other people and situations”. A
person can be evaluated and understood by knowing his personality.
Personality of a person depends on his nature, character, intelligence,
interest, attitude, aptitude, expectation, ideals etc. Personality of an
individual is strongly determined by the heredity factors. But the
environmental factors also play a vital role. The early experience in home,
neighbourhood and School laid foundations for the personality. The - 9 -
personality pattern is the specific character or a group of consistent
reactions which describe the individual’s typical style of personal and
social adjustment. Each cultural group has established behavioural
patterns appropriate for the members of two sexes. Within these culturally
accepted confine every person is predictable to develop a basic
confirming personality pattern. as personality is a product of cultural
influences and is formed by pressures from the social group. The person
normally comes to think of himself as a part of a particular group and his
confirming behaviour becomes habitual, (Sujata, 2005). Concept of
Culture Unlike other animals the human one is unique because its
intelligence give it the ability to change its environment by learning. It
doesn’t have to change into a new species to adapt to the changed
environment. It learns fresh ways of existing in the new environment and
then fixes then by social tradition. These social customs from the culture
of the applicable groups are transmitted to new members of the group.
According to Tylor (1924), “culture is that complex entire which contains
information, faiths, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities
and customs acquired by man as a part of society”. Argyle (1978) to
speak about that culture has also been compared to social interaction,
rules about behaviour, perception thoughts, language and nonverbal
communication. These aspects of culture affect social interactional

6|P ag e
behavior both directly and indirectly. - - Different types of classification
of culture have been made. Culture has been distinguished on the basis
locale also. Taking this “Locale” into consideration culture may be
divided into two types: (a) Tribal Culture Tribal Culture depends upon
knowledge, law, and social interaction opinion, or moral capacities, belief
etc. of tribe. A tribe viewed traditionally or developmentally, formed of a
social group existing before the development of states. According to
common imagination, tribes reflect a way of life that predates and was
more natural than that in modern states. Tribes also privilege primitive
social ties, are clearly bounded, identical, parochial, and stable. Thus,
many believed that tribes organize links between families and make them
available with a social and ideological basis for unity that is in some way
more limited than that of an ethnic group or of a nation. Anthropological
and ethnohistorical research has challenged all of these notions.
According to Majumdar (1958) a group of people which has a name,
endogamous in nature, lives in common region, has a common traditional
culture with an spoken language, is structurally and culturally distinctive,
relatively homogenous, largely self governing, with no area of functions,
pervasively self sufficient, and has a shared consciousness of cultural
identity and of belonging jointly. According to Ralph (2009) tribe is a
group of crowds live in a contiguous territory and having a feeling of
unity deriving from many similarities in a culture, frequent get in touch
with and a definite community of interests.
(b) Urban Culture According to Pirenne (1925) two characteristics were
fundamental to the development of an urban culture a middle class, that
depends on trade for equally wealth and political self-sufficiency from
non urban feudal power owners and a communal organization of the
urban citizenry that makes the municipal integration necessary to free the
city from control by local feudal religious authorities. According to

7|P ag e
Weber (1921) an urban community has to possess a fortification, market,
a low code and court system of its own, an association of urban citizenry
creating a sense of municipal corporation, and enough political self-
sufficiency for urban citizens to choose the city’s governors. How Urban
And Tribal Cultures Can Affect Academic Anxiety? Urban Culture The
educational environment of urban area is totally different from tribal area.
Parents are more aware in cities, who encourage their child to perform the
best. If students are unable to perform well they provide good facilities
like coaching, books and other facilities. If they are not able to achieve
the target they feel anxiety. So in this way anxiety level can be high in
urban students. Tribal Culture Students’ parents are not aware in tribal
areas. Parents are not worried about what their children are studying, what
type of material they need or require. Therefore, - - students learn with
their own efforts. When results are declared, they fell happy if they pass
in the examination. Many a time there is no reaction if they fail. They
think that ‘ok next time’. They don’t worry about their results which may
minimize their anxiety. The concept of academic anxiety is an important
and widely used phenomenon in the study of educational behaviour.
Though being an important aspect in the field of education, it is extremely
complex to understand its real nature. Various researches have been
conducted to study the various aspects of academic anxiety. Though an
extensive literature has been accumulated over several decades but its
theoretical and empirical aspects are yet to be understood. However, some
of the important studies in the field of academic anxiety are reviewed
here.

8|P ag e
 Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Anxiety and Academic Achievement
Sarason (1957) studied that the correlation of anxiety as measured by the
Test Anxiety and General Anxiety questionnaires to entrance exams and
grade point averages. Results revealed that Test Anxiety scores tended to
correlate negatively with measures of academic achievement. General
Anxiety scores failed to correlate considerably with entrance examination
scores, but tended to correlate positively with grade point averages, from
these and other results, the authors concluded that relationships between
anxiety and success variables depend to a great extent on the nature of the
instrument employed to measures anxiety. - - Gaudry and Spielberger
(1971) studied that high test anxiety is considered as one of the major
factor for low presentation of students at university level. Chapell et al.
(2005) conducted a study to explore the relationship between test anxiety
and academic performance and result found a significant and negative
relationship between test anxiety and academic achievement. Nicholson
(2009) studied that the effects of test anxiety on student’s success of
grade students, result showed that anxiety and achievement are related to
each other. Khalid and Hasan (2009) conducted a studied that the
relationship between test anxiety and academic achievement and the
results revealed that students with academic achievement have low test
anxiety scores and vice versa. Grover and Smith (1981) examined that
academic anxiety, locus of control, and achievement in medical school.
Results revealed that the correlation between academic anxiety and
achievement may be curvilinear. Locus of control was found to correlate
considerably with academic anxiety and tended to shift in a direction of
greater externality during the first year of medical school. Guida, (1983)
studied that academic anxiety, time-on-task and achievement, a structural
model considerable research has been conducted on the effect of anxiety

9|P ag e
on academic achievement. The results revealed that high anxiety is related
with low performance, particularly at the elementary school level. Singh
and Nigam (1984) studied that neuroticism, anxiety and academic
achievement. The results showed that more number of high achievers had
high anxiety than the low achievers. The correlation between high
achievers and anxiety was calculated, it was found that high achievers had
high anxiety. - - Fincham (1989) conducted a study on longitudinal
analysis on Learned helplessness, test anxiety and academic achievement,
where the stability of individual differences in test anxiety and learned
helplessness over 2 year period and their relation to concurrent and future
school achievement were examined . Results revealed that both test
anxiety and helplessness in III grade was related to achievement test
scores in the V grade. Sudhir (1989) examined that achievement
motivation in relation to select personality and socio-educational factors.
The results revealed that student with high test anxiety were found to
have higher achievement motivation than those having low test anxiety.
The mean difference indicated that test-anxiety was positively related to
achievement motivation Verma (1990) studied that the effect of anxiety
on academic achievement. The study revealed that high achievers had
significantly greater academic motivation as compared to their low
achiever counter parts. However, no significant differences were found
between high achievers and low achievers. Mishra (1992) studied that
adjustment, self-concept, test anxiety and wanted study habits: as
predictors of academic achievement. The results revealed that academic
achievement was related with test anxiety and most of achievement was
due to test anxiety, self-concept and study habits. Roy and Roy (1994)
examined that the interaction effects between mathematics preferences,
trait anxiety in mathematics achievement. Results showed significant
interaction effect of both variables on mathematics achievement. Trait

10 | P a g e
anxiety inhibits - - mathematics achievement score of low mathematics
liking group and facilitates mathematics achievement score for high and
reasonable liking groups. Shanmuga (1995) examined that the effect of
anxiety on academic achievement. The results revealed that there was
negative relationship between anxiety and academic achievement of
students. Low anxiety students were high academic achievers and high
anxiety students were low academic achievers. Hancock (2001) studied
that the effects of students’ test anxiety and teacher’s evaluation practices
on students’ achievement and motivation at post the secondary level.
Result revealed that all students with high anxiety level performed badly
and were less motivated to learn. Thus conclusion was that when students
who are mainly test-anxious are showing to a highly evaluative
assessment environment in their educational institution, they perform
badly and are not as much of motivated to perform. Cassady and Johnson
(2002) studied that the effects of cognitive test anxiety on students’
academic performance and found that cognitive test anxiety exerts a
significant secure and depressing impact on academic performance
measures. Albero, Brown, Eliason and Wind (1997) studied that students
having high test anxiety had significantly lower scores. Oludipe (2009)
examined that how test anxiety affects students’ performance levels in the
sciences, especially in Physics, and result showed that low test anxious
students performed better as compare to high test-anxious students in
Physics. Schonwetter, (1995) studied that how high test anxious students
were unable to advantage straight from structured instruction, which
finally affected their performance in class. - 16 - Lucangeli and Scruggs
(2003) studied that text anxiety, supposed capability and academic
achievement in secondary school students. Result revealed that state
anxiety highly correlated however, trait anxiety was not statistically
related to academic achievement in both math and literature. Males have

11 | P a g e
higher on the test of trait anxiety than females. Mokashi, (2007) studied
that correlates of anxiety and scholastic achievement of residential school
.The results showed that greater part of the respondents were high in their
anxiety level and also in their scholastic achievement. Boys scored higher
in anxiety while girls were higher in scholastic achievement. There was
no significant difference between the boys and girls of class 10th, 9th and
8th on anxiety. Finally the results revealed that as anxiety increases
scholastic achievement of the respondents’ decreases. Yeh et al. (2007)
examined that correlation among academic achievement and anxiety and
depression in medical students. The results revealed that there was no
significant correlation among academic achievement and overall anxiety
and depression. The results indicated that there are both positive and
negative correlations among academic achievement and anxiety and
depression in medical students. Levine (2008) examined a Foucaultian
Approach to Academic Anxiety. Result revealed that significant positive
correlations between the mother and child schemas held by the child and
his academic achievement. Even though the schema was also related to
anxiety, holding anxiety even did not significantly reduce the correlations
between the schema and achievement. - - Kumar,et.al. (2009), studied
that memory as intermediary between test-anxiety and academic
achievement in high school students and found that academic
achievement and mental health be developed in school settings, during the
use of maintain strategies such as educational direction and counselling,
teaching life expertise programs and psychiatric therapy. Peleg, (2009)
studied that test anxiety, academic achievement, and self-esteem
surrounded by Arab adolescents. Result showed that, students with
learning disability reported superior levels of test anxiety and lower levels
of self-esteem than nondisabled adolescents. Fayegh Yousefi et al. (2010)
studied that the relationship between test-anxiety and academic

12 | P a g e
achievement surrounded by Iranian. Result revealed that there is a
significant correlation between test anxiety and academic achievement
among adolescents. Additional evidence is presented which suggests that
there is a significant difference of academic achievement between male
and female students whereby female shows higher in their academic
achievement. Rana and Nasir (2010) studied that the relationship between
test anxiety and academic achievement. Results revealed that a cognitive
feature i.e. worry contributes more in test anxiety than expressive feature
i.e. emotional. Thus, it is fulfilled that test anxiety is one of the factors
which are dependable for students’ underachievement and low
performance. Lama Al-Qaisy (2011) studied the comparative study of
depression and anxiety in academic achievement among university
students. The results revealed that females - - shoes higher anxiety than
males, whereas males are more depressed than females. In addition, the
results indicated that there is a positive relationship between achievement
and anxiety, though a negative relationship was found with depression.
Mokashi, et al. (2012) studied the gender difference on anxiety and
academic achievement among selected residential high school children.
Results revealed that residential children were high in their anxiety and
academic achievement. Boys were considerably having higher anxiety
whereas girls were higher in academic achievement. Results also account
no significant difference between boys and girls of 8th, 9th and 10th
standards on their anxiety and significant difference on their academic
achievement. A noteworthy negative relationship between lack of self-
sentiment, guilt proneness and overall anxiety with the academic
achievement of children was reported. Ahmad, et al.(2012) studied that
the correlation of educational self-efficacy to self-regulated learning,
school recognition, test anxiety and academic achievement on secondary
school. Gender was not significant on measures of self-efficacy faiths at

13 | P a g e
academic field, school identification, and anxiety. Girls were found
higher academic achievement than the boys. Isanejad, et al. (2012)
studied that early maladaptive system and academic anxiety. The results
showed that there is a noteworthy difference between students with high
academic anxiety and low academic anxiety in the early on maladaptive
system and students who experience higher anxiety shows high levels of
early maladaptive system.
Language Anxiety
Teh-fuan wan, Chapman and Donald (1991-1992) investigated that the
factor with the academic Stress experienced by international students
attending graduate school in the United State. Results revealed that the
main language skills and, to a less important degree, cultural distance
were the predictors of main appraisal, self-apparent English language,
academic and difficulty-explain skills and social support network. Cheng
(2004) studied that a measure of second language writing anxiety: scale
development and beginning validation .The results revealed that both the
total scale and the individual subscales of the second language writing
anxiety inventory have good consistency and sufficient validity. Daniel
Yu-ching Chan and Guo-cheng Wu (2004) conducted a study on foreign
language anxiety of elementary School Students in Taipei County. The
results revealed that the English learning experience were found that
might affect learners’ anxiety, low proficiency, fear of negative
evaluation, competition of games, anxious personality, and pressure from
students themselves and their parents were the five sources of language
anxiety, tests, speaking in front of others, spelling, incomprehensible
input, and speaking to native speakers were the five anxiety-provoking
situations, both teachers and students in this study thought that the
balance of instructional languages helped lower foreign language anxiety
and the study showed that teachers’ awareness of foreign language

14 | P a g e
anxiety is insufficient. Ying Zheng (2008) studied that Anxiety and
Second/Foreign Language Learning Revisited. The possible causes and
effects of language anxiety and the relationship - 20 - between anxiety
and second/foreign language learning was examined on the basis of
cognitive, curriculum, and cultural perspectives. Possible educational
implications of the anxiety research are indicated. . Peng Hui (2009)
studied the connection between students’ english learning anxiety and
learning achievement in a Chinese senior high school. The results
revealed that, students are more or less negatively partial by language
anxiety. There is negative association between outcomes and anxiety. The
factors contributing to diverse anxiety are self-esteem, cultural differences
and personality. Meihua Liu and Wenhong Huang (2011) studied on
exploration of foreign language anxiety and english learning motivation.
Results revealed that the students did not feel anxious in english and were
more or less motivated to learn English, foreign language anxiety and
english learning motivation were considerably negatively correlated with
each other, and both foreign language anxiety and english learning
motivation were considerably correlated with students' presentation in
English. Personality and Anxiety Entwistle and Entwistle (1970)
examined the effect of extraversion on academic achievement appears age
dependent. Similarly Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, (2003) found that
before the age of 11–12 years extraverted children seem superior to
introverted children, among adolescents and adults introverts show higher
achievement than extraverts. Extraverts and introverts also differ in
consideration of information processing such as speech creation,
attention, and reflective problem solving (Zeidner & Matthews, - 21 -
2000), extraverts have been shown to be better at oral contributions to
seminars introverts have been shown inferior at essay writing (Furnham
& Medhurst, 1995). Gupta (1973) studied the relative importance of some

15 | P a g e
correlates of academic achievement. The results showed that that
intelligence seemed to be the best single predictors of academic success.
Other variables among those considered that contribute to academic
success through of small magnitude were achievement motivation and
fathers expectation. Socio-economic status was independent of academic
achievement. Sinha (1973) examined that extroversion and neuroticism in
relation to academic achievement. Results showed that extroversion
scores were negatively related to achievement scores at 0.05 level of
confidence and that upon extraversion scores, high and low achievers
could be substantially differentiated. Neuroticism scores were positively
related to achievement and also upon neuroticism scores, high and the
low achievers could be substantially differentiated. Caplan, and Jones
(1975) studied that type-A personality (hard driving, persistent, involved
in work) as a conditioner of the outcomes of quantitative work load and
role of ambiguity (stresses) on anxiety, depression, resentment, and heart
rate. Results showed that role of ambiguity was positively associated with
anxiety, depression, and resentment and individual work load was
positively associated only with anxiety. Anxiety was positively linked to
heart rate. The correlation between work load and anxiety was greatest for
type-A persons, and a similar but insignificant trend showed for the
effects of anxiety on heart rate. - - Pandey and Singh (1978) examined
that correlation between school examination marks, intelligence and
achievement scores. The results showed that a significant positive
correlation between school examination marks and verbal intelligence.
Upamanyu, et al. (1980) studied that the anxiety of male post graduates
students of the faculty of social sciences. The results showed that anxiety
was associated negatively with academic achievement and intelligence.
Similar, results were found by the study of Srivastava et al. (1980) the
high school examination anxiety and academic achievement was

16 | P a g e
negatively correlated. Sharma and Gupta (1988) studied the interactive
effects of trait anxiety and verbal intelligence on anagram performance of
9th grade boys and girls. Results revealed that the incapacitating effects
of high anxiety and ego-stress on the performance of anagrams of
reasonable difficulty are nested at the high level of intelligence, whereas
assurance is most valuable in improving anagram performance of high
intelligent high anxious collections. Sontakey (1988) examined
personality factors of high and low achievers in biological sciences. The
results revealed that, higher levels of perseverance, and assurance
contributed to higher achievement of girls in biological sciences. The high
achieving boys scored better than low achieving boys in biological
sciences. Singh (1990) examined that affiliation motive as related to
personality ergs and sentiments. The results revealed that significant
correlations for affiliation with Factor A (warm hearted participating),
Factor N (forthright), Factor M (venturesome), and Factor I (sensitive)
drive for self assertion and chronological age. These correlations suggest
that - - high scores on the projective measure of affiliation motive tended
to be participating, warm hearted, forthright, venturesome, sensitive and
assertive. Roy (1995) conducted a study on differences in personality
factors of understanding teachers, physicians, bank managers and fine
artists. Results revealed that teachers were significantly more extroverted
and anxious; physicians were more intelligent, introverted and anxious.
Bank managers were more extroverted, relaxed, tough minded and
intelligent, artists were introverted and tender minded. Prins and
Hanewald (1997) examined that self statements of test anxious children
through thought listing and questionnaire approach methods, under
naturalistic test taking conditions. The level of cognition, its content and
its relation to level of anxiety and task performance were examined.
Results found that, relative to the questionnaire and thought listing

17 | P a g e
procedure underestimated positive and coping cognition. Gershuny, et al .
(1998) studied the personality dimensions of neuroticism, extraversion,
and psychoticism prospectively predicted universal anxiety. Results
indicated that personality, in exacting the combination of high
neuroticism and low extraversion, may play an important predisposing,
etiological role in anxiety. Lee (1999) examined that test anxiety and
working memory Robust Findings from test anxiety research in the past
few decades indicate that highly test-anxious individuals act upon badly
when a task is tough or when performance is to be evaluated ( Hembree,
1988). During exams, highly test-anxious individuals are likely to engage
in a negative, self-deprecatory internal conversation or bothersome
thoughts about themselves - - and about test consequences (Hembree,
1988). Research on test anxiety and working memory suggests that
performance deficits caused by test anxiety can be explained by the extent
to which individuals are able to use their working memory capacity
(Darke, 1988) Wachelka and Katz (1999) studied that tumbling test
anxiety and improving academic self-esteem in high school students and
college students through learning disabilities. Results showed that the
treatment considerably decreased students’ anxiety levels, get bettered
their study habits, and increased their academic self-confidence. Aysan, et
al. (2001) studied that test anxiety, coping strategies, and perceived health
in a collection of high school students and found that students by way of
high test anxiety used less effective coping mechanisms and tended to
have reduced perceptions of their health. Previous to the exams, juniors
showed greater test anxiety and used less effective coping mechanisms
than seniors. After the exam periods, improvements were seen for both
age collections on recognized health. Haral et al. (2001) examined that
efficacy of Bach-flower remedies in test anxiety and found that there was
no significant difference between the groups, but a significant reduce of

18 | P a g e
test anxiety in all groups was present. It concluded that Bach-flower
remedies are an valuable gesture for test anxiety and dont have a specific
effect. Hong and Karstensson (2002) studied that those antecedents of
state test anxiety a structural equation model of relationships among state
test anxiety. Result revealed that females showed greater trait test anxiety
and statistics course anxiety than males. Math skill had a optimistic
association with statistics achievement. Students with low math aptitude
recognized statistics courses as difficult, which in rotate powerfully
influenced - - their level of statistics course anxiety. Trait worry had a
noteworthy straight effect on state worry and similarly occurred with trait
state emotionality. Trait worry was positively related to statistics course
anxiety. Student’s coverage high statistics course anxiety recognized the
final exam as not easy; though, statistics achievement and state test
anxiety was not influenced by statistics course anxiety. Students' insight
of statistics course difficulty had an impact on their insight of test
difficulty, which in rotate had significant direct effects on equally state
worry and emotionality. As expected, achievement on statistics midterm
exams had a direct effect on state worry but not on state emotionality
Cognitive processes have attracted considerable interest in research on
anxiety disorders. The majority psychological models of anxiety disorders
assume that cognitive processes are critical for the origin of these
disorders (Eyesenck, 1992). Sujata (2005) studied the influence of
aptitude and personality profile on academic achievement of
undergraduate students of UAS, Dharwad. Verbal reasoning, statistical
ability, abstract reasoning and space relations considerably influenced
academic achievement of students. Most of the personality factors had a
considerable influence on skill of the students. Most of the students were
in the lower range of all seven areas of aptitude. Home Science students
were considerably higher in verbal reasoning and mechanical reasoning,

19 | P a g e
while girl students of agriculture were considerably higher in numerical
ability, abstract reasoning, clerical speed and accuracy and language.
Most of the students were in moderate range of all personality factors
home science students were more socially conscious than other students.
Agriculture boys were considerably higher in the factors viz., anger,
moralistic, imagination self sufficient and - - aptitude marketing students
were considerably more outgoing enthusiastic, doubtful, insecure and self
controlled than the other two groups. Most of the students were in fair
category of academic achievement. Academic achievement of students of
agriculture was better as compared to the other two faculties. Young
students were having more enthusiastic tender minded and better
numerical ability as compared to older students; on the other hand clerical
speed and accuracy of older students were better as compared to younger
students. Younger ones were more mature than older ones. Students from
small families were more bright and moralistic as compared to larger
families. Students of nuclear families were more grown-up and
considerably better in space relation as compared to joint families.
Moutafi et al. (2006) studied the correlation between trait neuroticism,
state anxiety and intelligence. Results showed that trait neurotics were to
be affected by test anxiety and by induced anxiety, and that the high
anxious group scored lower on the intelligence test than the low anxious
group. Neuroticism was considerably correlated with intelligence for the
high anxious group but not for the low anxious group, even though these
correlations were not considerably different. It was also indicated that
when test anxiety was partially out, neuroticism did not significantly
associate with intelligence. Finally the results indicating that the
correlation between intelligence and trait Neuroticism is mediated by test
anxiety. Ginsberg (2006) examined that academic worries and its effect
on the length of sleep. The result indicated that academic worry and sleep

20 | P a g e
disturbance credited to worry were negatively connected with sleep
length. It was also indicated that academic worry does not expect sleep
length above and beyond sleep disturbance credited to worry, and - - that
academic worry was considerably negatively related to sleep length
despite of sleep disturbance credited to worry. Martin et al. (2006) studied
that childhood cognitive performance and risk generalized anxiety
disorder. Results revealed that childhood cognitive performance is related
with a diagnosis of generalized anxiety disorder in childhood and
adolescence. Jing (2007) studied that analysis on the relationship among
test Anxiety, selfconcept and academic competency. The results revealed
that self-concept negatively affected students’ self-perceived academic
competency. Further result showed that high self-perceived academic
competency was positively correlated with grade point average, a
measure of performance. Sud and Sethi (2008) examined that the
interrelation between state anxiety, trait anxiety, test anxiety, stress,
negative mood regulation, achievement motivation and selfesteem of
adolescent female students. The result showed that there was a
noteworthy interrelation between the state anxiety, trait anxiety, test
anxiety, stress, negative mood regulation and self-esteem. Though no
interrelationship was found between the achievement motivation scale
and the other variables. Qaisy and Khuffash (2012) studied that the
considerable difference between high and low achievers specific to
gender on personality traits factors. The results indicated that the high
achievers were extra intelligent and bright than the low achievers; high
achiever females showed the highest academic capability than the high
achiever males. Further result indicated that high achievers were
additional emotionally peaceful, stable and faces actuality. - - Academic
Stress Leon and Revelle (1985) studied that the effects of anxiety on
analogical reasoning. Results revealed that the relaxed condition

21 | P a g e
supported attention theory in that the more anxious students were equally
slower and less exact than were the less anxious students. In the stressed
situation, none of the three anxiety presentation theories was supported.
Higher anxious students were quicker but made additional errors than did
less anxious students. Therefore in the stressed situation, performance
differences recommended differences in speed accuracy trade off
approach rather than differences in processing abilities. Moshe (1992)
studied that socio-cultural and gender group differences in perceptions of
major sources of academic stress of in first year college students in
addition to the relationship between reported academic stress and college
achievements. Results showed that students come out to be most stressed
by pressures creating from course overload and academic assessment
procedures and least stressed by a variety of individual, familial, and
social factors. It was also indicated that students stress and achievements
factors were found to be correlated. Misra and Michelle (2000) studied
that the interrelationship along with academic stress, anxiety, time
management, and leisure satisfaction. Time management behaviors had a
higher shield effect on academic stress than leisure approval activities.
Results revealed that noteworthy gender difference existed among all the
measures. Females showed efficient time management behaviors than
males, but also experienced greater academic stress and anxiety. Males
benefited more than females from leisure activities. - - Word, Raymond
and Verena (2000) examined the relationship among academic stress,
coping, motivation and performance in college. He found that Greater
academic stress covered with loaaeer course grades; though, students who
engaged in problem focused coping were extra likely to be motivated and
achieve better than students who connected in emotion focused coping.
Eremsory et al. (2005) studied that the correlated variables of depression
and anxiety symptoms for young adults managed with the academic

22 | P a g e
Stress. Results revealed that depression, and anxiety had not be separating
predictors, such as negative habitual thoughts and hopelessness, Though,
capability of problem solving abilities appeared to be associated with
anxiety symptoms. Mathew (2006) examined that the relationship of
parental disciplinary practices to academic stress and mental health
among adolescent children. The result showed that; there is an
relationship between parental disciplinary practices and mental health
among boys; parental disciplinary practices seem to influence the mental
health of girls; Girls experience more academic stress than boy. Mathew
and Jayan (2006) studied that the academic stress and coping styles
among plus-two students. The results revealed that both boys and girls are
experiencing same kind of academic stress no significant difference was
observed. Joseph and Henry (2009) investigated that the stressors,
symptoms and effect that are likely to experience by the undergraduate
students in higher investigations. The results indicated that academic
work load inadequate resources, low motivation, poor - - performance in
academic, continues poor performance in academic, overcrowded lecture
halls, and uncertainly of getting job after graduating from the university.
Leung, et al. (2010) examined that academic stressors and anxiety in
children and found that academic stress was a danger factor that
heightened student’s anxiety and that parental emotional support was a
defensive factor that contributed to better mental health among students.
Though, paternal informational support distributed to students during
times of high academic stress showed to heighten student’s anxiety.
Academic Performance
Hill and Wigfield (1984) studied that test anxiety a major educational
problem and what can be done on it. This paper is concerned with the
educational problem of evaluation anxiety and what can be done to
eliminate its interfering effects in the school setting. This work began

23 | P a g e
with essential research investigating the causes and consequences of
anxiety and has evolved into collaborative intervention studies with
school staff that are attempting to improve anxious students positive
motivation and presentation in different evaluative school settings.
Pintrich, et al. (1990) examined that correlation between motivational
orientation, self-regulated learning, and classroom academic performance.
Self-efficacy and inherent value were positively associated to cognitive
engagement and performance. Result showed that, depending on the
product measure, self-regulation, self-efficacy, and test anxiety appeared
as the best analysts of performance. Fundamental value did not have a
direct influence on presentation but was strongly associated to self-
regulation and cognitive strategy use, regardless of previous achievement.
- 31 - Henry and Dennis (1992) examined that the connected effects of
acute test taking anxiety on the performance of a class of second year
medical students who took part I of the National Board of Medical
Examiners Examination. The results revealed that a correlation between
acute test anxiety and National Board of Medical Examiners performance,
but not to the extent related with constant anxiety, therefore constant test
anxiety may be a more critical factor affecting test performance on critical
examinations such as the National Board of Medical Examiners
Examination. Sud and Prabha (2003) studied that the academic
performance in relation to perfectionism, test procrastination and test
anxiety of high school children. Results revealed that the academic
performance was considerably and negatively related to selforiented
thoroughness, procrastination, test anxiety, worry and emotionality.
Chamorro-Premusic, and Furham, (2003) studied that the relationship
between personality traits and performance in academic examination.
Results showed that; Neuroticism was significantly correlated with
academic performance; Extroversion only correlated significantly with

24 | P a g e
first year exam marks.; Openness was not significantly correlated with
academic performance.; Agreeableness was not significantly correlated
with exam grades. Conscientiousness was moderately, positively and
significantly related to academic performance. Sansgiry, et al. (2005)
studied that test anxiety with respect to a comprehensive cumulative
assessment. Result showed that somewhat anxious with respect to the
Milemarker exam. Further, students responded that they felt competent
with respect to course content and made use of study strategies in
studying for the Mile-marker exam.
They also exhibited low test competence with respect to the cumulative
exam and were unable to manage their time effectively when studying for
the exam. Significant correlations were obtained between test anxiety and
the domains of test competence and time management. Sud and Sujata
(2006) examined that the academic performance in relation to self
handicapping, examination anxiety and study habits of high school
students. Results revealed that self-handicapping and anxiety have
unfavourable influence on academic performance of school students.
Omirin (2007) examined that the gender issue in the presentation of
students admitted during Universities and Matriculation Examination and
Pre degree into to the Nigerian Universities. Results revealed that there
was no noteworthy difference between the academic performance of male
and female students. Ndirangu, et al. (2009) examined that the
relationship between test anxiety and academic performance among
students in Kenya. High anxiety was experienced before the examination
in every subject. It was also established that girls and boys are equally
affected by test anxiety. The results revealed that teachers do not
sufficiently help students manage with test anxiety. There was no
significant correlation between test anxiety and academic performance.
Poorman, et al. (2009) studied that decreasing performance and test

25 | P a g e
anxiety in practicing nurses. Lots of nurses are being needed to go
through competency and certification examinations to keep or advance in
their positions. Unluckily, anxiety frequently dampens the nurse's
capability to demonstrate competence in a exacting area of practice.
Sex And Academic Anxiety
Durette (1965), Chatterjee et al. (1976), Nijhawan (1972) and Sharma and
Gandhi (1971), studied that gender differences on anxiety and reported
females to be more anxious than males. The overall result showed that
either females are more anxious or there are no sex differences. Reid, et
al. (1973) investigated performance in computer-assisted instruction in
scientific notation and exponentiation for 81 pairs of undergraduate
algebra students paired by sex and test anxiety. Low-anxiety and male
pairs learned faster, while mixed sex and anxiety level pairs tended
toward lesser achievement. High math aptitude pairs and high sociability
pairs performed better. Sharma and Sud (1990) examined test anxiety
among students in Asian cultures and found that female students were
experiencing higher levels of test anxiety as compared to males
irrespective of cultural background. Students from four Asian cultures
were involved in the study. Results revealed that a major causal factor
involved in the gender related differences in test anxiety among students
was a bigger role expectation conflict among females as compared to
males. el-Zahhar and Hocevar (1991) studied that examination anxiety
among students in Brazil, Egypt, and the United States. Results revealed
that test anxiety in all three cultures was greater among female students
than male students. Lawrence Stricker, Donald and Nancy (1993)
investigated sex differences in predictions of college grades from
scholastic aptitude test scores. In this study two explanations appraised
for sex differences in over and under prediction of college grades i.e. sex
related differences in the nature of the grade criterion and the variables

26 | P a g e
associated with academic performance. An entire freshman class at a
large state university was studied. Women's grade point average was
under predicted and men's grade point average was over predicted. When
we adjusted the grade point average for differences in grading standards
for individual courses, over and under prediction were not affected, but
when sex differences controlled in individual differences variables
concerned with academic preparation, studiousness, and attitudes about
mathematics, over and under prediction. Usually, epidemiological studies
account a higher occurrence of anxiety among girls. High neuroticism
was prognostic for all symptom groups. Neuroticism was connected with
anxiety at baseline (Clark et al., 1994). Muris et al. (2001) examined that
anxiety and depression as relates of selfreported behavioral reserve in
usual adolescents where they studied the correlation among self-reported
behavioral inhibition, anxiety and depression indications. Results revealed
that greater levels of behavioral reserve, depression and anxiety
indications were found among girls than boys. Seeley et al. (2001) studied
that the anxiety levels and gender differences in social volleyball players
earlier than and throughout the game and found that there was no
significance between gender and anxiety levels throughout the game.
Kerry and Nigar ( 2002) examined Gender Differences in Anxiety: A
study of the Symptoms, Cognitions, and Sensitivity towards Anxiety in a
Nonclinical Population .Result showed that females reported higher
concern as compared to males regarding the cognitive misconception of
the symptoms and beliefs of anxiety. In the context of these results, it
would emerge that cognitive factors play the most vital role towards our
understanding of gender differences in anxiety within the nonclinical
population. Essau et al. (2004) studied that the frequency of anxiety
symptoms and their association with gender and age in Japanese and
German children using the Spence children’s anxiety scale. Results

27 | P a g e
showed that, in both the countries girls scored higher than boys. Locker et
al. (2004) examined that anxiety, depression and self esteem in secondary
school children and result found that females showed higher levels of
anxiety and negative influence immediately before the examinations,
while males showed higher positive influence and self-esteem, inferior
depression and anxiety within the week previous to the examinations. Rai
(2005) examined that the gender effect on achievement values and
anxiety and found that the girls manifested better indices on achievement
related factors. The high scores on unrelated to achievement among boys
tend to show some kind of avoidance motive or achievement anxiety as
compared to girls. Devi et al. (2006) studied that the anxiety among
college going students and results revealed that almost of the college
going students had low anxiety and there were noteworthy sex differences
in the anxiety, with girls obtaining greater anxiety than boys. Bhansali
and Trived (2008) examined in a gender specifics, a comparative study.
Results found that girls as compared to boys were high on this difficulty.
This supports the point that, the significance of difference between the
genders is at considerable high level on academic anxiety where girls
found greater academic anxiety than boys. Many researchers examined
that gender differences with respect to test anxiety and found that females
have greater levels of test anxiety than males (Bandalos et al.1995;.
Cassady & Johnson, 2002; .Chapell et al., 2005;; Mwamwenda, 1994).
Zeidner (1990) on the basis of his research found that difference in test
anxiety scores of male and female is due to gender difference in academic
ability. Cassady and Johnson, (2002) explained that one clarification for
differences in test anxiety on the basis of gender is that males and females
experience same levels of test worry.
Age and anxiety
Soric (1999) examined that anxiety and coping in the context of a school

28 | P a g e
examination Cognitive assessment and state anxiety. The results showed
that the social evaluation trait anxiety expects state anxiety both before
and after the school examination.
Abe and Masui (1981) examined that age sex trends in phobic and anxiety
indications in adolescents. The students aged 11-23 years were comprised
in the study. fearful indications specially fear of going out of doors alone
and feeling of impending death tended to reduce with age. Results also
revealed that anxiety indications which hit the highest pointed in
adolescence happened at an earlier age in girls than boys. Fava and
Molloy (1988) studied that factors associated with test anxiety in
childhood. Results revealed that fifth grade children occurrence more test
anxiety than third grade children. Sastry (1990) examined that anxiety,
sex role orientation and age. The results indicated to age and anxiety that
20 to 30 years age group has a considerably greater anxiety score as
compared to the 31 to 45 years age group. George and Devads (1971);
Singh (1972) studied that relationship of age to anxiety and they found
the first born to have higher level of anxiety, similarly Jawa (1973) also
concluded no differences to total anxiety score. However, age was related
to overt anxiety. Khalek (2002) examined that age sex differences in
anxiety in relation to family size birth-order, religiosity among Kuwait
adolescents. Results revealed that mean anxiety scores greater than before
across age groups from 14 to 18 years. For girls at all ages but 14 years
mean sores anxiety was significantly greater than the boys. Turner and
Barrett (2003) studied that test single, double and tri models for anxiety
and depression in a cross-sectional design. The results revealed that little
facts of increasing differentiation. All models provided a moderate fit to
the data, with some evidence that a correlated 3 factor model was
favoured model in all age groups. Anxiety and depression symptoms do
not demonstrate much differentiation with the age.

29 | P a g e
Influence of birth order on anxiety
Kushnir (1978) found that birth order differences in association survive
only in females and only in circumstances that produce greater anxiety in
first born than in later born. Schachter (1959) has found a positive
association between influenced anxiety and affilitative responses this
relationship, though held for first born and only subjects but not for later
born and was most clearly showed with females. Similarly Eisenman
(1992) studied that first born are more fearful and that some first born
show more anxiety and creativity. These findings could be due to parents
being more warning and anxious with first born as well as to first born
having more time alone with their parents. Hermans, et al. (1972)
observed high and low anxious children working with their parents on a
problem solving task. Result revealed that parents of high anxious
children provided less support for their efforts, showed fewer responses
when their children expressed insecurity, and more reinforcements after
correct answers than parents of low anxious children who were more
helpful and helped their children find the correct strategies to use.
Suedfeld (1969) studied that based upon the hypothesis that birth order
interrelates with the affective tone of take on an orientation material, in
that first born are more conforming with such set inducing managements.
Results revealed that there was no difference between the ordinal location
groups on the social desirability response style scale. The first born
anticipated less anxiety than did later born when the materials were
anxiety affecting.

30 | P a g e
 Chapter 3

Aims and objectives

1 to investigate the relationship between anxiety and aspiration among
students
Examination stress and test anxiety are pervasive problems in modern society.
Every year, millions of students underperform in school and university because
of heightened test anxiety, which is set of phenomenological, physiological and
behavioral responses that accompany concern about possible negative
consequences or failure on an exam or similar evaluative situation (Zeidner,
1998). Many psychologists are often interested in knowing the factors that cause
individual differences in academic performance individually. Anxiety as the
achievement of effort is now seen as possible factor that affects a person's
academic ability. It varies markedly from one individual to another. Thus, some
individuals will be relatively calm when it comes to completing a test, whilst
others will generally perceive examinations as more dangerous or threatening
and experience more intense levels of state anxiety when taking tests
(Spielberger & Vagg, 1995). Aspiration of the students is a term used frequently
in education. Early research helped us understand the aspirations, as an
expression of the will to achieve and improve. Aspirations can be defined as the
student's ability to identify and set goals for the future, while breathing in the
present to work toward those goals (Quaglia and Cobb, 1996). This view the
aspirations of students is the only one that combines the components of this
motivation (inspiration) in the future (ambitions). There is considerable research
on the association of the results and academic motivation (cited in Hornery,
Craven, Yeung, & Ali, 2008) for high school students, two important academic
results are as follows: aspirations of high grades and the desire for further
education, these aspirations are an additional engine that could affect student
motivation and academic achievement. According to McInerney, Yeung, and
McInerney (2001) a sense of purpose of learning is an important psychological
construct that provides two aspects of the effort, namely anxiety and motivation.

31 | P a g e
There are the traditional Chinese students and their parents believe in the
traditional thinking of strong associations with the aspirations of work and
effort (Tsang, 1992). An aspiration level can be interpreted as a result, it takes a
special position in the decision process. Topic of code in the claim level results
as the successes and results below the level of aspiration as a failure. It values
the overall probability of success and the total probability of failure(Diecidue
and Van de Ven, 2008). Achievement aspiration is believed to be one of the
driving forces for the development of a concept or idea and yours is like a virus
to spiritual people to be competitive, work hard and causes more resistance.
Educational aspirations relating to the early presentation of their own academic
abilities and the highest level of education of individuals expected to achieve
(Furlong & Cartmel, 2005).
Educational aspirations were developed early in a student's academic career and
are generally theorized to influence academic achievement is improving the
ability to participate in educational opportunities. Students who have high
academic aspirations are more likely to take advantage of educational
opportunities that can lead to academic success. Also, students with low
academic aspirations are less likely to take advantage of these opportunities,
thus limiting their future educational opportunities (Arbona, 2000).
Achievement is definitely as a result of emotional conflict between striving for
success and avoiding failure (Covington, 2004; Heafner, 2004). If a student
does not feel afraid he will not be able to do work harder to achieve the goal
(Seligman, 2002). As aspiration for success has been the focus of a large
amount of research in studies of personality, has a way to measure work
motivation has become a source for researchers to explore their representation
in the population (Pigatt, 2009). The most common technique for high academic
achievement is the skills of time management, homework, get help when
needed and build a relationship with the teachers, and reading. Time
management involves organizing school supplies, self-efficacy, control beliefs,
anxiety and aspirations and beliefs that maintain the behavior towards a
32 | P a g e
particular goal (as cited in Creasey, Jarvis & Knapcik,2009). Why an individual
completes a task, the value component of motivation focuses on the reasons
why students become involved (or not involved) in an instructional activity
(Pintrich & DeGroot, 1990). It defines students’ beliefs about the importance or
value of a task and why students approach or avoid a task (Brophy, 1983). Self-
worth theory rests upon the perception that students are motivated to establish,
maintain, and promote a positive self-image (Covington, 2000). Stipek (1997)
found that there is a personality dimension that is directly associated with
greater success in education, to feel the need for individual achievement. And
one of the perennial or in other words, continuous education problem a lack of
motivation. The only needs that will be relevant here will be those that the
absence of the condition is also motivated by the situation. Although many
studies have been conducted, one conclusive research work is a meta-analysis
study conducted by Covington, Omelich, and Schwarzer (1986) results support
the anxiety resulting from the disruptive effects of perceptions of reduced
capacity, instead of the disturbing influence of diffuse emotional arousal.
Hernandez (1994) examined the best predictors of academic success was the
ability to self-concept and educational aspirations. High performance grew in
self-concept of ability and learning aspirations in relation to literacy skills.
Brown, Robinson, and Kurpius (1997) results suggest that the academic
preparation and aspirations, academic performance and interaction with the best
difference between faculty and staff students who persisted in school and those
who do not. Mousavi, Haghshenas, and Alishahi (2008) identified the causes of
poor school performance included poor grades or down as a result of a yield
spread ability, the early repetition lacks school, disinterest in learning, low self-
esteem, anxiety, failure to complete school or at home, disruptive behavior and
school dropouts. Bendura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, and Pastorelli (1996) analyzed
the children's belief in their efficacy to regulate their own learning and learning
outcomes in turn contributed to student success both independently and through
the promotion of high educational aspirations and prosocial behavior and
33 | P a g e
reducing vulnerability to feelings of depression. Heafner and McCoy (2001)
study found that feelings of effectiveness and therefore motivation to switch
tasks is maximized not only by the amount of success, but manages the difficult
tasks optimally. In other words, motivation depend on the best fit between
difficulty and skill. It was also found that high self-perceived academic
competence was positively correlated with GPA (weighted average, a measure
of performance). Although external motivation was negative predictive of
academic success for young Indian immigrants in Canada. There was no
significant predictor of academic success of Indian youth in India
(Areepattamannil, Freeman, & Klinger, 2011). Differences in the anxiety level
of education were also related to differences in study habits, and these in turn
linked to the GPA. Results recommend the use of specific scales, rather than
general anxiety as predictors of academic performance and involve learning
habits as a process of mediation can (Otello & Patricia, 1969). Culler and
Holahan (1980) studied quality of study habits and how much study time
positively related to academic performance, while the missing classes and delay
test was inversely related to performance. The results are discussed in terms of
dominant interference model of test anxiety. McKeachie, Karabenick, Wilbert,
and Lin (1998) found the exact relationship between test anxiety and self-
regulation in students' motivation and use of learning strategies. Yeunga and
McInerney (2005) studied Grade 7 students were significantly higher in the
direction of effort and work and career aspirations that from 9 to graders, and
higher scores in praise orientation than 11th students. The apparent decreased
motivation may from Grade 7, especially in the direction of work and effort,
both related to a mastery orientation dimension that was supposed to be a major
driving force for excellence, requiring immediate attention students' motivation
in college classes in the secondary.

34 | P a g e
2. To find out the level of anxiety among the learners and its relationship with
the academic achievement of the students at secondary level
Anxiety is a common phenomenon that constitutes a universal cause of poor
academic performance among students worldwide. It is a common undisputable
fact in human life’s that influence an individual’s accomplishment in numerous
situations, an average level of anxiety is useful in sustaining people
hardworking and being responsible of what they have to do (Kahan, 2008 &
Donnelly, 2009). Anxiety was defined by (Asadullapoor, Fati, & Gharaee,
2010) as feeling that undesirable and unclear like when person predicts a danger
situation. Extreme level of anxiety impends individual’s mental and physical
health and also has a negative effect on their personal, social, familial,
occupational, and educational performance (Zahrakar, 2008). One of the
broadest research areas in recent years has been test anxiety and its dimensions.
It is a kind of anxiety which turn out especially during examination. Test
anxiety has been overwhelmingly identified as a two-factor construct, consisting
of the cognitive (often referred to as “worry”) and emotional (or affective)
components. The prime view of the association between these two factors
suggests the cognitive component that directly influences the performance of
students in exams, while the emotionality component is associated but does not
directly persuade test performance (Cassady, 2001). The individual might
experience a feeling of distress that their performances are being prudently
observed out to be assessed (Cheraghian, Fereydouni, BarazPardejani &
Bavarsad, 2008). Sometimes this can lead to low confidence or poor academic
performance (Moadeli & Ghazanfari, 2005). Taking on new knowledge, roles,
concepts and attitudes eventually leads to period of stress and dissatisfaction.
Stress and recognition of impending stressors among nursing students were
given a large extent of attention in the literature (Nicholl & Timmins, 2005).
University students face challenges like adaption to new outset altering the
routines and habits of life, also there is a great challenge and demand for
success to achieve the highest level of academic performance which in turn can
35 | P a g e
affect student performance and lead to situation of stress, depression and
anxiety (Shamsuddin, Fadzil, Ismail, Shah, Omar & Muhammad,
2013).Undergraduate students have a great possibility of developing anxiety
during examination. Anxiety disorders are rising among students (Leta, 2001).
Recent studies on anxiety and related fields showed that anxiety disorders are
prevalent in American society. Test anxiety is one of these fields (Amiri-Majd
& Shahmoradi, 2008). This form of anxiety most of the time tends to weaken
students’ test taking ability. Also, their ability to exhibit knowledge about the
content in the course being evaluated decreases, consequently leading to poor
performance in the test that in turn affects the test scores and overall grades
(Markman, Balik, Bercovitz & Ehrenfeld, 2010). Test anxiety is an undesirable
reaction toward evaluation. It’s the most important problem that is faced by the
students in their education worldwide (Khosravi & Bigdeli, 2008). Test anxiety
is a psychological condition in which students experience extreme distress and
anxiety in test situations. A little anxiety during exams is required that will help
students to get motivated and learn. Mounting up so much of anxiety will not
help the student to perform rather it will influence the academic performance
negatively (Coon & Mitterer, 2009). The psychological symptoms that build up
in students before a test includes restlessness, unusual body movements,
difficulty in concentrating, insomnia, fatigue, muscle contraction, abdominal
pain, and tremors (Porto, 2013). These symptoms have negative consequences
on student lives and professional growth (Ferreira, Almondes, Braga, Mata,
Lemos & Maia, 2014) Most of the nursing students experience high level of
anxiety during final exam even though their marks are good throughout the
semester (Akbary-boorang & Aminyazdi, 2009). Driscoll Evans, Ramsey &
Wheeler (2009) identified that nursing students have nearly double the rate for
moderately high to high test anxiety in comparison to the general public and
high school students. Nursing programs can be viewed as highly stressful
settings. Nursing students are under pressure for taking various tests throughout
their college and professional lives. Nursing students have clinical exams,
36 | P a g e
which is highly stressful, that needs more preparation before facing the clinical
exams (Mahat, 1998). In addition, nursing students are also under the stress that
even a slight inaccuracy cause fatal effect to a patient as well as affect a
student’s own career (Driscoll et al., 2009). Nursing students experience higher
levels of test anxiety than other, especially because of struggle to balance
multiple works, career adjustment and family responsibilities with the long
study hours that are required for success. Over time these stressor may put
student in chronic stress (Beggs, Shields & Goodin 2011). Test anxiety affects
30% of all nursing students (Driscoll et al., 2009). A technique that can be used
as support and treatment that benefit to manage and reduce anxiety is
progressive muscle relaxation (Mailloux, 2006). The activities acquired from
religion or spirituality can also reduce anxiety (Stanley, 2012). The residential
type of school system tends to improve students academic performance.
Residential school system prepares students academically, physically and
mentally to develop the good qualities of mind, body and character by using
high discipline. Complex curriculum, heavy loads of restricted movements in
the campus and compulsory participation in extracurricular activities sometimes
creates high pressure and anxiety in some students which may in turn affect
their academic performance. Some of the researchers reported that gender also
contributes significantly to the performance of the children in the school.
Vijaylaxmi and Nateson (1992), Pomernatz et al. (2002), Dwyer and Johnson
(1997), and Kimball (1989) in their studies reported that girls were superior to
boys in their academic performance are less prone to the development of
anxiety.

37 | P a g e
3. to study also aims to dig out the relationship between student’s aspiration
and their academic achievement
Every people want to set up the route for their best aims, desires and wishes
from the beginning stage. From the research it is found that every people want
to become successful in near future. Some of the respondents even didn’t select
their fields and aims for future but their desire is to earn lots of money, do some
social work, and be successful person. In next way, so that every coming
generation remember them due to their social earning and effort for society. In
this research, researcher found too many ambitions of respondents after getting
their higher qualification. Some of the respondents want to earn lot of money,
social prestige after the completion of class ten. Similarly, some want to
contribute a lot for nation but for this they know about the way of achievements
that is continuous work to achieve their dream. They explained “thousand of
journey starts from single step”. They have already March on step and time will
come to conquer over their aspirations. Aspirations begin to be shaped early in a
child’s life, but are modified by experience and the environment. Aspirations
tend to decline as children mature, in response to their growing understanding
of the world and what is possible, and to constraints imposed by previous
choices and achievements. This decline is particularly marked for those facing
multiple barriers (Akerman, 2008). The study conducted by Dwivedi showed
that there was no correlation between level of aspiration and achievement. He
discussed about the reason may be that most of the students were found to be
over aspirant, i.e., they expect more and do less. In such a situation one may
expect a negative correlation. The reason for non-significant results may be that
the students are over aspirant but not so over aspirant to warrant a negative
correlation (2012). Aspirations regarding completion of secondary school that
predict achievement outcomes are related to factors amenable to intervention.
Relationships were found among academic achievement and self-reported
educational aspirations, motivation, affiliation with peers and teachers, and
attributions. Students who indicated no aspiration to complete a school
38 | P a g e
qualification were indistinguishable from those with low or moderate
aspirations, and the analyses supported only two divergent groups comprising
students with either low or high aspiration to complete qualifications.
Aspirations were significantly related to different patterns of motivation,
affiliation, and attributions predictive of academic achievement. Students of
different ethnicity and gender also fell unequally across the two groups. These
results suggested that promoting low or even moderate expectations and
aspirations for student achievement reinforced lower academic achievement
(Walkey, 2013). From the rigorous review of the previous study, the study got
the knowledge of concept of dietary habit, study habit and level of aspiration.
The findings of various studies supported to develop the research problem and
objective and hypothesis of this study. The study identified the various theories
related to this study and adopted the ‘Social Learning Theory’ to conduct this
study. The previous study showed that there was significant relationship
between the dietary habit and academic achievement, study habit and academic
achievement and level of aspiration and academic achievements. The study
found the research gap in the context of Nepalese students. So, the study set the
major research question to explore the practices of dietary habit, study habit and
level of aspiration and its effect on the academic achievement of SLC students
of government and private schools of J&K.
This sex-differential pattern is especially apparent in the school and academic
environment, and has been observed throughout the educational life cycle: in
elementary schoolchildren’s aspirations for college attendance (Wylie, 1963),
high school students’ levels of occupational ambition (Marini and Greenberger,
1978), college students’ predictions of course grades (Vaughter et al., 1974),
and graduate students’ aspirations for a university versus a junior college
teaching career (Feldman, 1974). Although these studies clearly document
male-female differences in the level at which achievements translate into
aspirations, they ignore both the multidimensional meaning and the mediating
process of the achievement-aspiration relationship. In contrast, our study
39 | P a g e
considers both the meaning of achievement and aspiration, and the mediating
process as factors that influence and explain the achievement-aspiration
relationship and its sex variation. In general, the mediating process refers to the
intra-psychic and interpersonal events that affect the levels at which
achievements translate into aspirations. For example, the intra-psychic
mediating process might include the effect of self-confidence and sense of
competence on the achievement aspiration relationship. Interpersonally, the
mediating process might include the cues received from others regarding the
importance of prior achievement as an indicator of ability level. Hence, we
hypothesize that the achievement-aspiration translation occurs not only at a
lower level for women, but that it is different also with respect to the type of
aspiration sought, and the process mediating the relationship. More specifically,
in a sample of graduate students, we examine sex differences in the
achievement-aspiration relationship
(1) as it varies with type, or meaning, of academic achievement and professional
aspirations, and
(2) as it is mediated by individuals’ perceptions of their professional roles and
their faculty’s support.
Our model of the achievement-aspiration relationship unfolds in three
theoretical and analytical stages, each with related issues and questions: Stage 1.
First, we consider sex differences in the achievement-aspiration relationship, as
it varies with specific achievements and types of aspirations. In career choice
and role performance, the sexes have been identified as having different work
values and goals. Men have valued salary, prestige, and advancement
opportunity. Women, on the other hand, have been relatively more concerned
with the opportunity to help others, express personal identity, and make social
contributions (Astin, 1975). Moreover, compared to men, women tend to be
more interested in the affinitive aspects of achievement (Stein and Bailey,
1977), the intrinsic nature of the task (Astin, 1975), and the process, rather than
simply the goal, of achievement (Veroff, 1977). These gender differences in
40 | P a g e
work values are consistent with the more global differences identified by
achievement is characterized by self-protection, assertion, and mastery, while
communal achievement emphasizes the motive and the value to be with rather
than apart from others, and to gain rewards through interaction, rather than
competition, with others.2 Such identification of sex-differential values and
goals suggests that, in the academic environment, men and women may have
quite different aspirations. More specifically, men may aspire to advancement,
high salary, and prestige, while women may desire social contribution,
accomplishment through collaboration, and the intrinsic rewards of task
involvement. Yet, by largely overlooking this multidimensional, and sex
differential, meaning of accomplishments and goals, researchers may have
underestimated the level at which women’s achievements translate into
aspirations. However, by distinguishing accomplishment and goal categories,
our study determines at this stage: (1) whether the achievement-aspiration
relationship varies for different types of academic achievements (e.g., GPA,
paper publication) and different types of professional aspirations (i.e.,
traditional versus alternative), and (2) whether there are systematic gender
differences in these relationships.
Stage 2. Maintaining the distinction between types of achievements and
aspirations, we next consider sex differences in the effects of certain social
psychological variables on the achievement-aspiration relationship. Little is
known about the process by which external, structural possibilities and
limitations affect one’s internal motivations and aspirations. Nonetheless,
certain aspects of the literature on professional development and its sex
variation indicate, and prompt us to consider, the following factors as they
mediate students’ achievement-aspiration relationship:
( 1 ) Clarity of educational and professional objectives: Although they are good
students, women have not typically been socialized for career preparation. Thus,
they have often entered graduate school by 1974 edition (because of few
suitable alternatives or encouragement from professors) rather than by (clear-cut
41 | P a g e
career objectives; see Angrist and Almquist, 1975; Bernard, 1964). We expect
that lack of clear-cut objectives is likely to depress the level at which prior
achievements translate into future aspirations. (2) Certainty about the
significance of one’s field and one’s prospects within it:
(a) If, as the literature on work values suggests (Astin, 1975), women are more
concerned with the social and personal significance of their work, then personal
beliefs about the significance of one’s field should exert a stronger effect on the
achievement-aspiration relationship for women than for men.
(b) Further, because aspiration level is related to the prospects for advancement
(Kanter, 1977), and because women’s prospects are limited both in graduate
school (Holmstrom and Holmstrom, 1974) and in their academic careers
(Hornig, 1979), we expect aspirations, relative to achievements, to be especially
depressed among women.
(3) Perceived control over educational and professional prospects and
outcomes: Research suggests that individuals’ expectations for future success
are affected by their causal attributions to internal or external factors (i.e., by
their sense of internal versus external control; Frieze et al., 1978). Likewise, we
might expect individuals’ perceived control over outcomes to mediate the
conversion of achievement into aspiration. More specifically, we expect that a
strong sense of personal efficacy (perceived control over outcomes) will raise
an individual’s aspirations for professional achievement relative to prior
demonstrated competency and success.
(4) Commitment to the fulfillment of educational and professional objectives: It
seems obvious that aspiration level is related to an individual’s commitment to
the preparation for and pursuit of a career. Yet, despite demonstrated
commitment, female graduate students report that their dedication is not taken
seriously by their departments (Holmstrom and Holmstrom, 1974). As a
consequence, we might expect female students, accordingly, to lower their
aspirations, despite high achievements.

42 | P a g e
4. To study also aims to find out that as higher the level of anxiety is the
harbinger of higher aspiration among studies
Finally, we consider sex differences in the effects of perceived faculty support
on the achievement-aspiration relationship. We determine, that is, the effect of
faculty support variables on the achievement-aspiration relationship of the
previous analysis stage. Faculty sponsorship and support are central components
of graduate students’ socialization into, and hence aspirations for, the
professional academic role. Student-faculty interaction not only raises
aspirations directly (Feldman, 1974), but may also operate indirectly (Reskin,
1978) by enhancing professional certainty, clarity, commitment, and control.
Yet, faculty support is not comparable for male and female students. To begin
with, female students have less contact and communication with faculty
members and research advisers (Holmstrom and Holmstrom, 1974). Moreover,
women’s interaction with faculty is limited not only in quantity, but also in
quality. In their faculty interaction, women tend to relate as students, while men
interact as colleagues or apprentices (Feldman, 1974), in a far more relaxed,
informal, and egalitarian relationship with their advisers (Kjerulff and Blood,
1973). Accordingly, male graduate students are more likely to be invited by
faculty members to co-author papers, attend conferences, and meet members of
the profession (Brodsky, 1974). Examining the faculty support effects at this
stage, we ask specifically
( 1 ) whether the effect of faculty support on the achievement-aspiration
relationship varies with type of achievement and aspiration;
(2) whether faculty support alters the mediating effects of the social
psychological variables; and
(3) whether there are systematic gender differences in these relationships.
While the achievement-traditional aspiration relationship is stronger for men,
higher achievers do tend to have higher traditional aspirations among both
sexes. But alternative aspirations represent another matter: For these, higher
achieving women tend to have higher aspirations, but men do not. Hence, for
43 | P a g e
women, achievements tend to translate into both traditional and alternative
aspirations; for men, high achievements are associated with traditional, but not
with the alternative, aspirations. Further, we find that, as separate
accomplishments, certain achievements are related to traditional and others to
alternative aspirations, and that these patterns also vary by sex. Finally, we find
that the achievement-aspiration relationship is subject to variation in the
students’ commitment, clarity, certainty, and control over professional goals and
objectives, and to variation in the quality and level of faculty support and
interaction.
For both sexes, there is a positive relationship between achievement and
aspiration for traditional academic rewards, but as indicated by the R2 values,
the relationship is stronger among males. Moreover, specific achievements have
sex-differential effects on aspirations: Professional paper experience is the most
important predictor of traditional aspirations for both sexes, but the importance
of the particular type of experience differs for the two sexes. For men, it’s paper
publication that is associated with high aspirations; for women, it is
presentation. Yet, only for males is the paper experience a statistically
significant variable.

44 | P a g e
 Chapter 4

Methodology & Research Design

Researcher implied descriptive survey method for the present study.
Sample and Sampling Procedure The sample comprised 300 secondary school
students studying in Jammu & Kashmir. Stratified random sampling technique
was employed in the selection of the sample. The details of the sample are given
in the table1.

From the above table-2, the co-efficient of correlation between Academic

Achievement and Academic Anxiety of secondary school students shows a
significant negative relationship with obtained 'r' value - 0.311 at 0.01 levels.
Hence the null hypothesis is rejected and an alternate hypothesis is accepted.
Hence we can say that low anxiety level students have higher achievement and
vice versa. With respect to the academic achievement and different levels of
academic anxiety the above table reveals that the obtained’t’ value 1.993 is
greater than the table’t’ value 1.98 at 0.05 level of significance. It indicates that
there is significant difference between academic achievements of secondary
school students belonging to low and moderate academic anxiety levels. Hence
the null hypothesis is rejected and an alternate hypothesis is accepted. The table
further reveals that secondary school students belonging to low academic
anxiety level (M=341.586) had better academic achievement in comparison to

45 | P a g e
the students belonging to moderate academic anxiety (M=324.876). Form the
table it becomes clear that the obtained’t’ value 2.813 is greater than the table’t’
value1.98 at 0.05 and 2.56 at 0.01 level of significance. It indicates that there is
significant difference between academic achievement of secondary school
students belonging to low and high academic anxiety levels. Hence the null
hypothesis is rejected and an alternate hypothesis is accepted. The table further
reveals that secondary school students belonging to low academic anxiety level
(M=341.586) had better academic achievement in comparison to the students
belonging to high academic anxiety (M=314.020). With respect to the academic
achievement and gender, the above table reveals that the obtained’t’ value 2.468
is greater than the table 't' value 1.98 at 0.05 level of significance. It indicates
that there is significant difference in academic achievement between secondary
school boys and girls. Hence the null hypothesis is rejected and an alternate
hypothesis is accepted. The table further reveals that the secondary school boys
(M=339.715) have higher achievement than girls (M=321.234)
With respect to the academic achievement and type of management, the above
table reveals that the obtained 't' value 4.720 is greater than the table 't' value
1.98 at 0.05 level of significance. It indicates that there is significant difference
between academic achievement of secondary school students studying in private
aided and private unaided. Hence the null hypothesis is rejected and an alternate
hypothesis is accepted. The table further reveals that secondary school students
studying in private aided (M=346.370) had better academic achievement in
comparison to the students belonging private unaided schools (M=301.600).
With respect to the academic achievement and type of management the above
table reveals that the obtained 't' value 3.317 is greater than the table 't' value
1.98 at 0.05 and 2.59 at 0.01 level of significance. It indicates that there is
significant difference in academic achievement of secondary school students
studying in government and private aided schools. Hence the null hypothesis is
rejected and an alternate hypothesis is accepted. The table further reveals that
secondary school students studying in government schools (M=333.290) had
46 | P a g e
better academic achievement in comparison to the students belonging private
aided schools (M=301.600).

Findings
1. There was a significant negative relationship between academic achievement
of secondary school students and their academic anxiety
2. There was a significant difference in academic achievement of secondary
school students having low and moderate academic anxiety level.
3. There was a significant difference in academic achievement of secondary
school students having low and high academic anxiety level.
4. There is a significant difference in academic achievement between secondary
school of boys and girls.

47 | P a g e
5. There is a significant difference in academic achievement of secondary
school students studying in private aided and private unaided schools.
6. There is a significant difference in academic achievement of secondary
school students studying in government and private unaided schools.

48 | P a g e
 Chapter 5

Conclusion & Discussion

The results revealed that there is a significant negative relationship between
academic achievement of secondary school students and their academic anxiety.
Hence there is a need to work out a strategy so as to reduce the academic
anxiety of the students. High academic anxiety can be reduced by motivating
students to study. Students may experience anxiety about tests and may
experience heightened anxiety before a testing situation. A certain degree of test
anxiety is normal and may help students prepare more effectively, work more
efficiently and remain focused during testing. Too much anxiety, however, can
negatively affect performance. Type of management also affects the academic
performance of the secondary school students. Private aided school students
have higher achievement than government and private unaided school students.
Government and private unaided school management should reduce their
students' academic anxiety and create environment to improve their
achievements by discussing the purpose of the test and how it can help students
progress academically, having realistic expectations of students' performance
while encouraging students to do their best, allowing students to express their
anxiety verbally or in writing. Care should be taken not to over emphasize the
importance of the test and developing positive attitude and confidence about
themselves.
The results clearly indicated that residential high school children were high on
anxiety and also on scholastic achievement. Boys were significantly having
higher anxiety level than girls while girls were higher in their academic
achievement. Strict residential school environment may have generated higher
anxiety and pressure for boys than girls. Majority of the boys had developed
lack of self sentiment, ego-weakness, suspiciousness, guilt-proneness and
frustration-tension to a higher level and a significant negative relationship was
observed between lack of self-sentiment development, guilt-proneness and
overall anxiety with the academic achievement of the residential high school

49 | P a g e
children. So there is a need for counselling these residential children to cope up
with the highly competitive school environment and to overcome their anxiety.
Children must be guided by the school personnel at every stage of their
schooling to perform well in their academics. Moreover, the really notable net
effect of women’s traditional aspiration model is a certainty variable-certainty,
that is, of job prospects. Women with optimistic perceived job prospects tend to
have high traditional aspirations, independent of how they are currently faring
in achievement level, faculty support, or the other indicators of professional
clarity, control, and commitment. We find, that is, that job-prospect certainty
represents a significant effect net of achievements, and net of all other variables,
as well. Job certainty emerges as the critical female factor, impervious to the
influence of the other variables in the traditional aspiration model, and thus
further indicates the importance of access and opportunity in the formation of
women’s aims and aspirations. In summary, our multistage model for traditional
aspirations both supports and expands prior research on the sex differential
achievement-aspiration relationship. For these traditional benchmarks of
success, we find that male achievements2 do translate into aspirations at a
higher than female level. Of the achievements included in our model,
professional paper publication and teaching assistantship are important
determinants of men’s aspiration levels. For women, however, high
achievement does not convert automatically into traditional aspirations. Instead,
the women’s aspirations for the traditional rewards of academia are largely a
function of their perception of the structural availability of those rewards in the
job market; hence, our data suggest that the women’s weaker achievement-
aspiration relationship is strongly related to their largely accurate (Hornig,
1979) perceptions of limited opportunity.

50 | P a g e
 Bibliography
ANGRIST, S. S. and M. E. ALMQUIST(1975) Careers and Contingencies: How College
Women Juggle with Gender. New York: Dunellen.
ASTIN, H. (1975) "Women and work." Presented at New Directions for Research on
Women, Madison, WI.
BAKAN, D. (1966) The Duality of Human Existence. Skokie, IL: Rand McNally.
BERNARD, J. (1964) Academic Women. New York: New American Library.
BRODSKY, A. (1974) "Women as graduate students." Amer. Psychologist 29 (July): 523-
526. DOWDALL, J. A. and E. BONEPARTH, (1979) "Mentors in academia: the perceptions
of proteges." Presented at the meetings of the American Sociological Association, Boston.
FELDMAN, S. D. (1974) Escape From the Doll’s House: Women in Graduate and
Professional School Education. New York: McGraw-Hill.
FRIEZE, I. H., J. E. PARSONS, P. JOHNSON, D. N. RUBLE, and P. ZELLMAN, (1978)
Women and Sex Roles. New York: Norton.
HOLMSTROM, E. and R. W. HOLMSTROM (1974) "The plight of the woman doctoral
student." Amer. Educ. Research J. 11 (Winter): 1-17.
HORNIG, L. (1979) Climbing the Academic Ladder. Washington, DC: National Academy of
Sciences. 463
KANTER, R. M. (1977) Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Basic Books.
KJERULFF, K. H. and M. R. BLOOD (1973) "A comparison of communication pat- terns in
male and female graduate students." J. of Higher Education 44 (November) : 623-632.
LIPMAN-BLUMEN, J. and H. J. LEAVITT (1976) "Vicarious and direct achievement
patterns in adulthood." The Counseling Psychologist 1: 26-32.
MANDELL, R. (1977) The Professor Game. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
MARINI, M. M. and E. GREENBERGER (1978) "Sex differences in occupational
aspirations and expectations." Sociology of Work and Occupations 5 (May): 151- 174.
PARSONS, J. and S. B. GOFF (1978) "Achievement motivation and values: an alternative
perspective." Michigan Occasional Paper III (Fall).
RESKIN, B. (1978) "Sex differentiation and the social organization of science." Sociological
Inquiry 48: 6-37.
SELL, L. W. (1973) "Preliminary report on the status of graduate women: University of
California, Berkeley." Graduate Assembly of the University of California, Berkeley.
STEIN, A. H. and M. N. BAILEY (1977) "Socialization of achievement orientation in
females." Psych. Bull. 80: 345-366.

51 | P a g e
VAUGHTER, R., D. GUBERNICK, J. MATOSSIAN, and B. HASLETT, (1974) (1974)
"Sex differences in academic expectations and achievement." Presented at the meetings of the
American Psychological Association, New Orleans.
VEROFF, J. (1977) "Process vs. impact in men’s and women’s motivations." Psychology of
Women Q. 1: 283-293.
WILLIAMS, T. H. (1972) "Educational aspirations: longitudinal evidence on their
development in Canadian youth." Sociology of Education 45 (Spring): 107-138.
WYLIE, P. C. (1963) "Children’s estimates of their schoolwork ability as a function of sex,
race, and socioeconomic level." J. of Personality 63: 202-224.

52 | P a g e