Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
TOPICS : MOTIVATION
LEARNING
ATTITUDE
STANDARD : T.Y.B.M.M.
DATE : 14 / 08 / 2010.
GROUP MEMBERS:
KADHIJA BURHANPURWALA – 07
ANUJA DATE – 10
DEEPA JATANIA – 20
HEENA JATANIA – 21
ABHISHEK NAIK – 31
MONA PAHUJA – 33
SADAF RAJPUT – 41
PIYUSH WASNIK – 56
INDEX
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SR.NO. TOPICS PAGE NO.
1 Motivation 3
5 Motivational Needs 9
9 Behavior Learning 12
10 Classical Conditioning 13
11 Operant Conditioning 14
13 Reinforcement 16
15 Functions of attitudes 17
19 Case Study 23
20 Bibliography 25
Motivation:
Motivation is defined as “the stimulation of any emotion or desire operating upon one’
will and prompting or driving it to action”. Motivation is thus the driving force behind an
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individual’s action. Motivation refers to all the process that initiate the drive in a person
to perceive a need and pursue a course of action to fulfill that need.
For example, an athlete with the ambition to surpass the world record in, say, javelin
throw , identifies the distance that he has to cover in order to beat the world and then
works and undergoes the training to achieve that distance . he persistently practices till
that day in the competition when he ahs to perform. Thus , the drive to surpass the world
record drove him to identify the target, it enabled him to make and sustain efforts to reach
that goal and he continued his endeavors in order to achieve that target.
Types of motives
Some needs or motives are innate – such as the need for air, food , water , shelter,
clothing(primary needs.) As they are related to our biological needs they are called
biogenic or physiological needs. Those needs that we acquire through our experiences or
we learn from our environment such as the need for self esteem , power , affiliation ,
prestige , etc. are called psychogenic needs. They are consider to be psychological needs
or secondary needs. For example we all buy clothes(its one of our primary needs how
ever the type of clothes we buy like designer wear , traditional pr western clothes and
their price range etc depends on our physiological needs.
when a customer makes a purchase, based on the functional or tangible features of the
product , such as quality , services and price , he is said to be objective in his judgment . a
customer will evaluate all the available alternatives and finally choose the product that
gives him or her maximum utility. Here , the customer is said to be making a utilitarian
purchase or is being driven by rational motives.
When a person is aware of the motives they are called conscious motives. For instance if
a person is asked to tell why he likes to play golf; he might immediately answer thet he is
playing it because it is good sport and it is interesting. These are called manifest motives .
but the same person may not be aware that he likes to play the golf, for reasons like
sattus,or because it projects him as a young, upscale executive. Hence , the second set of
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motives also influences the person’s need to play golf, but they are not obvious or known
to every one. In fact , as in the above example the person him self is not conscious about
them , these are called unconscious or latent motives.
1. Self-actualization
“What a man can be, he must be.” This forms the basis of the perceived need for self-
actualization. This level of need pertains to what a person's full potential is and realizing
that potential. Maslow describes this desire as the desire to become more and more what
one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming. This is a broad definition
of the need for self-actualization, but when applied to individuals the need is specific. For
example one individual may have the strong desire to become an ideal parent, in another
it may be expressed athletically, and in another it may be expressed in painting, pictures,
or inventions. As mentioned before, in order to reach a clear understanding of this level
of need one must first not only achieve the previous needs, physiological, safety, love,
and esteem, but master these needs.
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2. Esteem
All humans have a need to be respected and to have self-esteem and self-respect. Also
known as the belonging need, esteem presents the normal human desire to be accepted
and valued by others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an
activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-
valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-
esteem or an inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem need respect from others.
They may seek fame or glory, which again depends on others. Note, however, that many
people with low self-esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply
by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves
internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from
obtaining self-esteem on both levels.
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs are
social and involve feelings of belongingness. This aspect of Maslow's hierarchy involves
emotionally based relationships in general, such as:
• Friendship
• Intimacy
• Family
4. Safety needs
With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take
precedence and dominate behavior. These needs have to do with people's yearning for a
predictable orderly world in which perceived unfairness and inconsistency are under
control, the familiar frequent and the unfamiliar rare. In the world of work, these safety
needs manifest themselves in such things as a preference for job security, grievance
procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts,
insurance policies, reasonable disability accommodations, and the like.
• Personal security
• Financial security
• Health and well-being
• Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts
5. Physiological needs
For the most part, physiological needs are obvious—they are the literal requirements for
human survival. If these requirements are not met (with the exception of clothing, shelter,
and sexual activity), the human body simply cannot continue to function.
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Physiological needs include:
• Breathing
• Food
• Homeostasis
• Sex
Sigmund Freud was a Jewish Austrian neurologist who founded the psychoanalytic
school of psychiatry. Freud is best known for his theories of the unconscious mind and
the defense mechanism of repression, and for creating the clinical practice of
psychoanalysis for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient,
technically referred to as an "analyzing", and a psychoanalyst. Freud is also renowned for
his redefinition of sexual desire as the primary motivational energy of human life, as well
as for his therapeutic techniques, including the use of free association, his theory of
transference in the therapeutic relationship, and the interpretation of dreams as sources of
insight into unconscious desires. He was an early neurological researcher into cerebral
palsy, and a prolific essayist, drawing on psychoanalysis to contribute to the history,
interpretation and critique of culture.
While many of Freud's ideas have fallen out of favor or been modified by Neo-Freudians,
and modern advances in the field of psychology have shown flaws in some of his
theories, Freud's work remains influential in the human quest for self-understanding,
especially in the history of clinical approaches. In academia, his ideas continue to
influence the humanities and social sciences. He is considered one of the most prominent
thinkers of the first half of the 20th century, in terms of originality and intellectual
influence.
Freudian psychological reality begins with the world, full of objects. Among them is a
very special object, the organism. The organism is special in that it acts to survive and
reproduce, and it is guided toward those ends by its needs -- hunger, thirst, the avoidance
of pain, and sex.
A part -- a very important part -- of the organism is the nervous system, which has as one
of its characteristics a sensitivity to the organism's needs. At birth, that nervous system is
little more than that of any other animal, an "it" or id. The nervous system, as id,
translates the organism's needs into motivational forces called, in German, Triebe, which
has been translated as instincts or drives. Freud also called them wishes. The id works in
keeping with the pleasure principle, which can be understood as a demand to take care
of needs immediately. Just picture the hungry infant, screaming itself blue. It doesn't
"know" what it wants in any adult sense; it just knows that it wants it and it wants it now.
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The infant, in the Freudian view, is pure, or nearly pure id. And the id is nothing if not
the psychic representative of biology.
Unfortunately, although a wish for food, such as the image of a juicy steak, might be
enough to satisfy the id, it isn't enough to satisfy the organism. The need only gets
stronger, and the wishes just keep coming. You may have noticed that, when you haven't
satisfied some need, such as the need for food, it begins to demand more and more of
your attention, until there comes a point where you can't think of anything else. This is
the wish or drive breaking into consciousness.
The ego, unlike the id, functions according to the reality principle, which says "take care
of a need as soon as an appropriate object is found." It represents reality and, to a
considerable extent, reason.
However, as the ego struggles to keep the id (and, ultimately, the organism) happy, it
meets with obstacles in the world. It occasionally meets with objects that actually assist it
in attaining its goals. And it keeps a record of these obstacles and aides. In particular, it
keeps track of the rewards and punishments meted out by two of the most influential
objects in the world of the child -- mom and dad. This record of things to avoid and
strategies to take becomes the superego. It is not completed until about seven years of
age. In some people, it never is completed.
There are two aspects to the superego: One is the conscience, which is an internalization
of punishments and warnings. The other is called the ego ideal. It derives from rewards
and positive models presented to the child. The conscience and ego ideal communicate
their requirements to the ego with feelings like pride, shame, and guilt.
• attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control (e.g. the
amount of effort they put in),
• believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are
not determined by luck),
• are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good
grades.
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Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic
motivations are rewards like money and grades, coercion and threat of punishment.
Competition is in general extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat
others, not to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A crowd cheering on the
individual and trophies are also extrinsic incentives.
Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to
overjustification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one study
demonstrating this effect, children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon
and a gold star for drawing pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials in
subsequent observations than children who were assigned to an unexpected reward
condition and to children who received no extrinsic reward.
Motivational Needs:
People who have a need for affiliation prefer to spend time creating and maintaining
social relationships, being a part of groups, and desire feeling loved and accepted. People
in this group do not typically make effective managers because they worry too much
about how others will feel about them.
This motivational need stems from one's desire to influence, teach, or encourage others.
People in this category enjoy work and place a high value on discipline. The downside to
this motivational type is that group goals can become zero-sum in nature. For one to win,
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another must lose. However, this can be positively applied to help accomplish group
goals and to help others in the group feel competent about their work.
McClelland proposes that those in the top management positions should have a high need
for power and a low need for affiliation. He also believes that although individuals with a
need for achievement can make good managers, they are not suited to being in the top
management positions.
Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive to
reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a reward in itself. A goal's
efficiency is affected by three features: proximity, difficulty and specificity. An ideal goal
should present a situation where the time between the initiation of behavior and the end
state is close. This explains why some children are more motivated to learn how to ride a
bike than mastering algebra. A goal should be moderate, not too hard or too easy to
complete. In both cases, most people are not optimally motivated, as many want a
challenge (which assumes some kind of insecurity of success). At the same time people
want to feel that there is a substantial probability that they will succeed. Specificity
concerns the description of the goal in their class. The goal should be objectively defined
and intelligible for the individual. A classic example of a poorly specified goal is to get
the highest possible grade. Most children have no idea how much effort they need to
reach that goal.
Consumer Learning is the process by which individuals acquire the purchase and
consumption knowledge and experience they apply to future related behaviour.
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First the consumer starts its learning process regarding any product or services the
information that he has achieved through its learning process is called has the knowledge
after he is fully satisfied by the knowledge he uses the product or services which tends to
the experience of using the product or services after the experience comes the feedback
stage where he shares about is experience.
1) Motivation:
The concept of Motivation is important for learning theory because motivation
acts as an spur to learning. If the person wants to buy some commodity then he
should be self motivated to buy the commodity.
2) Cues:
If motive serve to stimulate learning, then cues are the stimuli that gives direction
to the motives. An advertisement for an exotic trip that includes bike riding may
serve has a cue for the bike riders to have an vacation.
3) Responses:
A response is not tied to a need in one to one fashion; that means a indivals will
somethime not response according to the cues. For e.g. riding cycle for fitness
will be cue but the response for it will be zero.
4) Reinforcement:
Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a specific response will occur in the
future as the result of particular cues or stimuli.
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Behavior Learning:
Classical Conditioning:
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neutral stimulus could be any event that does not result in an overt behavioral response
from the organism under investigation. Pavlov referred to this as a conditioned stimulus
(CS). Conversely, presentation of the significant stimulus necessarily evokes an innate,
often reflexive, response. Pavlov called these the unconditioned stimulus (US) and
unconditioned response (UR), respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired,
eventually the two stimuli become associated and the organism begins to produce a
behavioral response to the CS. Pavlov called this the conditioned response (CR).
The original and most famous example of classical conditioning involved the salivary
conditioning of Pavlov's dogs. During his research on the physiology of digestion in
dogs, Pavlov noticed that, rather than simply salivating in the presence of meat powder
(an innate response to food that he called the unconditioned response), the dogs began to
salivate in the presence of the lab technician who normally fed them. Pavlov called these
psychic secretions. From this observation he predicted that, if a particular stimulus in the
dog’s surroundings were present when the dog was presented with meat powder, then this
stimulus would become associated with food and cause salivation on its own. In his
initial experiment, Pavlov used a bell to call the dogs to their food and, after a few
repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response to the bell.
There are two competing theories of how classical conditioning works. The first,
stimulus-response theory, suggests that an association to the unconditioned stimulus is
made with the conditioned stimulus within the brain, but without involving conscious
thought. The second theory stimulus-stimulus theory involves cognitive activity, in which
the conditioned stimulus is associated to the concept of the unconditioned stimulus, a
subtle but important distinction. Stimulus-response theory, referred to as S-R theory, is a
theoretical model of behavioral psychology that suggests humans and other animals can
learn to associate a new stimulus — the conditioned stimulus (CS) — with a pre-existing
stimulus — the unconditioned stimulus (US), and can think, feel or respond to the CS as
if it were actually the US.
Operant Conditioning:
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conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that
behavior.
Operant conditioning was coined by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, which is why you may
occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning. As a behaviorist, Skinner
believed that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain behavior.
Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human
behavior.
Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the
environment to generate consequences" (1953). In other words, Skinner's theory
explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each and every day.
We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of
children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees
finishing projects to receive praise or promotions.
a) Classical conditioning of fear. During the first trials of the training, the organism
experiences both CS and aversive US (escape-trials). The theory assumed that during
those trials classical conditioning takes place by pairing the CS with the US. Because of
the aversive nature of the US the CS is supposed to elicit a conditioned emotional
reaction (CER) - fear. In classical conditioning, presenting a CS conditioned with an
aversive US disrupts the organism's ongoing behavior.
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term "Avoidance" does not really describe what the organism is doing. It does not
"avoid" the aversive US in the sense of anticipating it. Rather the organism escapes an
aversive internal state, caused by the CS.
Pure cognitive theory largely rejects behaviorism on the basis that behaviorism reduces
complex human behavior to simple cause and effect. However, the trend in past decades
has been towards merging the two into a comprehensive cognitive-behavioral theory.
This allows therapists to use techniques from both schools of thought to help clients
achieve their goals.
Social cognitive theory is a subset of cognitive theory. Primarily focused on the ways in
which we learn to model the behavior of others, social cognitive theory can be seen in
advertising campaigns and peer pressure situations. It is also useful in the treatment of
psychological disorders including phobias.
Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's working
memory model were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology, new
cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today,
researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load and information processing
theory. These theories of learning play a role in influencing instructional design. Aspects
of cognitivism can be found in learning how to learn, social role acquisition, intelligence,
learning, and memory as related to age.
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Reinforcement:
Reinforcement is a term in operant conditioning and behavior analysis for the delivery
of a stimulus, (immediately or shortly) after a response, that results in an increase in the
future rate or probability of that response. The response strength is assessed by measuring
frequency, duration, latency, accuracy, and/or persistence of the response after
reinforcement stops. Experimental behavior analysts measured the of rate of behaviors as
a primary demonstration of learning and performance with non-humans. For example,
rate is measured as the number of times a pigeon pecks a key in a 10 minute session.
Types of Reinforcement:
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definition describes an important property of an attitude and is critical to understanding
the role of attitudes in consumer behavior.
Functions of attitudes:
Attitudes can be classified in terms of four functions: the utilitarian function, the ego-
defensive function, the value-expressive function, and the knowledge function.
We hold certain brand attitudes partly because of a brand’s utility. When a product has
been useful or helped us in the past, our attitude toward it ends to be favorable. One wat
of changing attitudes in favour of a product is by showing people that it can serve a
utilitarian purpose that they may not have considered for example, the ad for Lysol points
out that this product kills harmful germs.
Most people want to protect their self images from inner feelings of doubt- they want to
replace their uncertainty with a sense of security and personal confidence. Ads for
cosmetics and fashion clothing, by acknowledging this need, increase both their
relevance to the consumer and the likelihood of a favorable attitude change by offering
reassurance the consumer’s self-concept.
Attitudes are an expression or reflection of the consumer’s general values, lifestyle, and
outlook. If a consumer segment generally holds a positive attitude toward owning the
latest designer jeans, then their attitudes toward new brands of designer jeans are likely to
reflect that orientation. Similarly, if a segment of consumers has a positive attitude
toward being “high tech”, then their attitudes toward thin wall-mountable HDTV sets are
likely to reflect this viewpoint. Thus, by knowing target consumers’ attitudes, marketers
can better anticipate their values, lifestyles, or outlook and can reflect these
characteristics in their advertising and direct-marketing efforts.
Individuals generally have a strong need to know and understand the people and things
they encounter. The consumer’s “need to know”, a cognitive need, is important to
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marketers concerned with product positioning. Indeed, many product and brand
positioning are attempts to satisfy the need to know and to improve the consumer’s
attitudes toward the brand by emphasizing its advantages over competitive brands.
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The first part of the tri-component attitude model consists of a person’s cognitions, that is
the knowledge and perceptions that are acquired by a combination of direct experience
with the attitude object and related information from various sources. This knowledge
and resulting perceptions commonly take the form of beliefs; that is, the consumer
believes that the attitude object possesses various attributes and that specific behavior
will lead to specific outcomes.
Affect- laden experiences also manifest themselves as emotionally charged states (e.g.,
happiness, sadness, shame, disgust, anger, distress, guilt, or surprise). Research indicates
that such emotional states may enhance or amplify positive or negative experiences and
that later recollections of such experiences mat impact what comes to mind and how the
individual acts.
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Conation, the final component of the tri-component attitude model, is concerned with the
likelihood or tendency that an individual will undertake a specific action or behave in a
particular way with regard to the attitude object. According to some interpretations, the
conative component may include the actual behavior itself.
Conducting consumer attitude research with children, especially gauging their attitudes
towards products and brands, is an ongoing challenge. What is needed are new and
effective measurement approaches that allow children to express their attitudes toward
brands. To this end, researchers have labored to develop an especially simple and short
attitude measurement instrument for questioning children between 8 and 12 years of age.
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The attitude-toward-behavior model is designed to capture the individual’s attitude
toward behaving or acting with respect to an object rather than the attitude toward the
object itself. The appeal of the attitude-toward-behavior model is that it seems to
correspond somewhat more closely to actual behavior than does the attitude-toward-
object model. For instance, knowing Sam’s attitude about the act of purchasing a Rolex
wrist-watch (i.e., his attitude toward the behavior) reveals more about the potential act of
purchasing than does simply knowing his attitude toward expensive watches or
specifically Rolex watches(i.e., the attitude toward the object). This seems logical, for a
consumer might have a positive attitude toward an expensive Rolex wristwatch but a
negative attitude as to his prospects for purchasing such an expensive wristwatch.
In accordance with this expanded model, to understand intention we also need to measure
the subjective norms that influence an individual’s intention to act. A subjective norm can
be measured directly by assessing a consumer’s feelings as to what relevant others
( family, friends, roommates, coworkers) would think of the action being contemplated;
that is, would they look favorably or unfavorably of the anticipated action? For example,
if an undergraduate student was considering cutting her hair shorter and dying it red and
stopped to asked herself what her parents or boyfriend would think of such behavior (i.e.,
approve or disapprove), such a reflection would constitute her subjective norm.
Consumer researchers can get behind the subjective norm to the underlying factors that
are likely to produce it. They accomplish this by assessing the normative beliefs that the
individual attributes to relevant others, as well as the individual’s motivation to comply
with each of the relevant others.
To manage the post-purchase stage, it is the job of the marketing team to persuade the
potential customer that the product will satisfy his or her needs. Then after having made a
purchase, the customer should be encouraged that he or she has made the right decision.it
is not effected by advertisement.
Case Study:
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Consumer motivation
The essence of the marketing concept is understanding consumer needs and developing
products that meet these needs effectively. And yet, every scores of new product are
withdrawn from the market soon after their introduction; many other products also
“fail” when their sales fall short of providing the revenues needed both to cover their
development costs and to generate profits clearly, understanding consumer needs is a
complex issue.
Most of the new products introduce, including failed products, fall within the product
categories sold in supermarkets- such as food, beverages, household maintana nce,
personal care, baby care and other categories. In an effort to pinpoint causes of
product failures in these areas, an organization named new product works maintains
a vast collection of foods, beverages, household, and personal care products that
were introduced and subsequently withdrawn from the marketplace.
Consumer Attitude
THE NOT-SO-EXTREME SPORT
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It wasn’t that long ago that skateboarding was considered to be an extreme sport-some
have even called it the “ultimate outflow road sport.” To quote a line from Sony’s new
film that deals with southern California skateboarders in the mid-1970s. “Everywhere we
go, man, people hate us.” In its early days, skateboarding was banned by many
communities and embraced by participants for its “go-to-tell attitude.”
But times have changed, and skateboarding, once a sport for bad boys, is the new Little
League. In fact, today it’s about as counterculture as yoga. Parents have embraced the
sport for their children, and there are now rules about safety. Some parents have even
taken up skateboarding as a way to bond with their children. Skateboarding has recently
been characterized as being “more fun and better organized than Little League,” and there
are now about 2,000 skateboarding parks located throughout the United States, with
about 1,000 more in the development stage. Even some churches are backing the sport by
building skate parks, and yes, June 21 has been established as National Skateboard Day.
Today’s skateboarders are typically polite and friendly, and are willing to skateboard
where helmets are required rather than on the street (which can result in a fine). For some
teens, “it’s a fashion thing,” even if they don’t skateboard. Last year, $4.4 billion was
spent on “soft goods” related to skateboarding, such as T-shirts, shorts, and sunglasses,
while actual skateboarding equipment, such as boards and helmets, had sales of $809
million.
To attract potential consumers into automobile showrooms, GM, Chrysler, and Ford have
each used buyers rebates and other promotions estimated to be about $4,000 per vehicle.
In contrast, rebates and promotions from European auto brands are averaging about
$2,300, and Asian brands are offering about $1,700 per vehicle. Compared to a year ago,
this represents an increase of 8.9% for domestic and Asian brands, and a decrease of 15%
for European brands.
A component of the current promotions employed by the three major domestic car
companies is a one-price approach. GM stated the ball rolling with their “GM Employee
Discount for Everyone” promotion, and Ford followed with its “Ford Family Plan,” and
Chrysler followed with its “Employee Pricing Plus.” Rather than haggling with the car
dealer over price, the consumer is expected to walk into the dealership and accept the
price that employees of the car manufacturer would pay if they were purchasing the
vehicle.
Bibliography:
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• www.google.com
• www.casestudy.com
• Leon Schiffman :
Chapter 5 - Motivation
Chapter 6 - Attitude
Chapter 7 - Learning
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