Prehistory

The prehistory of Oceania is divided into the prehistory of each of its major areas: Polynesia,
Micronesia, Melanesia, and Australasia, and these vary greatly as to when they were first
inhabited by humans—from 70,000 years ago (Australasia) to 3,000 years ago (Polynesia).

Polynesia theories

See also: Polynesia § History of the Polynesian people, and Early history of Tonga

The Polynesian people are considered to be by linguistic, archaeological and human genetic
ancestry a subset of the sea-migrating Austronesian people and tracing Polynesian languages
places their prehistoric origins in the Malay Archipelago, and ultimately, in Taiwan. Between
about 3000 and 1000 BCE speakers of Austronesian languages began spreading from Taiwan
into Island South-East Asia,[1][2][3] as tribes whose natives were thought to have arrived
through South China about 8,000 years ago to the edges of western Micronesia and on into
Melanesia, although they are different from the Han Chinese who now form the majority of
people in China and Taiwan. There are three theories regarding the spread of humans across
the Pacific to Polynesia. These are outlined well by Kayser et al. (2000)[4] and are as follows:

 Express Train model: A recent (c. 3000–1000 BCE) expansion out of Taiwan, via the
Philippines and eastern Indonesia and from the north-west ("Bird's Head") of New
Guinea, on to Island Melanesia by roughly 1400 BCE, reaching western Polynesian
islands right about 900 BCE. This theory is supported by the majority of current
human genetic data, linguistic data, and archaeological data
 Entangled Bank model: Emphasizes the long history of Austronesian speakers'
cultural and genetic interactions with indigenous Island South-East Asians and
Melanesians along the way to becoming the first Polynesians.
 Slow Boat model: Similar to the express-train model but with a longer hiatus in
Melanesia along with admixture, both genetically, culturally and linguistically with
the local population. This is supported by the Y-chromosome data of Kayser et al.
(2000), which shows that all three haplotypes of Polynesian Y chromosomes can be
traced back to Melanesia.[5]

In the archaeological record there are well-defined traces of this expansion which allow the
path it took to be followed and dated with some certainty. It is thought that by roughly 1400
BCE,[6] "Lapita Peoples", so-named after their pottery tradition, appeared in the Bismarck
Archipelago of north-west Melanesia. This culture is seen as having adapted and evolved
through time and space since its emergence "Out of Taiwan". They had given up rice
production, for instance, after encountering and adapting to breadfruit in the Bird's Head area
of New Guinea. In the end, the most eastern site for Lapita archaeological remains recovered
so far has been through work on the archaeology in Samoa. The site is at Mulifanua on
Upolu. The Mulifanua site, where 4,288 pottery shards have been found and studied, has a
"true" age of c. 1000 BCE based on C14 dating.[7] A 2010 study places the beginning of the
human archaeological sequences of Polynesia in Tonga at 900 BCE,[8] the small differences
in dates with Samoa being due to differences in radiocarbon dating technologies between
1989 and 2010, the Tongan site apparently predating the Samoan site by some few decades in
real time.
Within a mere three or four centuries between about 1300 and 900 BCE, the Lapita
archaeological culture spread 6,000 kilometres further to the east from the Bismarck
Archipelago, until it reached as far as Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa.[9][10] The area of Tonga, Fiji,
and Samoa served as a gateway into the rest of the Pacific region known as Polynesia.[11]
Ancient Tongan mythologies recorded by early European explorers report the islands of 'Ata
and Tongatapu as the first islands being hauled to the surface from the deep ocean by
Maui.[12][13]

Haʻamonga ʻa Maui is a stone trilithon on the Tongan island of Tongatapu. It is constructed

of three coral limestone slabs each weighing at least 30–40 tons.[14] It was built at the
beginning of the 13th century under the 11th Tuʻi Tonga Tuʻitātui.

The "Tuʻi Tonga Empire" or "Tongan Empire" in Oceania are descriptions sometimes
given to Tongan expansionism and projected hegemony dating back to 950 CE, but at its
peak during the period 1200–1500. While modern researchers and cultural experts attest to
widespread Tongan influence and evidences of transoceanic trade and exchange of material
and non-material cultural artifacts, empirical evidence of a true political empire ruled for any
length of time by successive rulers is lacking.[15]

Modern archeology, anthropology and linguistic studies confirm widespread Tongan cultural
influence ranging widely[16][17] through East 'Uvea, Rotuma, Futuna, Samoa and Niue, parts
of Micronesia (Kiribati, Pohnpei), Vanuatu, and New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands,[18]
and while some academics prefer the term "maritime chiefdom",[19] others argue that, while
very different from examples elsewhere, ..."empire" is probably the most convenient term.[20]

Pottery art from Fijian towns shows that Fiji was settled before or around 3500 to 1000 BC,
although the question of Pacific migration still lingers. It is believed that the Lapita people or
the ancestors of the Polynesians settled the islands first but not much is known of what
became of them after the Melanesians arrived; they may have had some influence on the new
culture, and archaeological evidence shows that they would have then moved on to Tonga,
Samoa and even Hawai'i.

The first settlements in Fiji were started by voyaging traders and settlers from the west about
5000 years ago. Lapita pottery shards have been found at numerous excavations around the
country. Aspects of Fijian culture are similar to the Melanesian culture of the western Pacific
but have a stronger connection to the older Polynesian cultures. Across 1,000 kilometres
(620 mi) from east to west, Fiji has been a nation of many languages. Fiji's history was one of
settlement but also of mobility.

Over the centuries, a unique Fijian culture developed. Constant warfare and cannibalism
between warring tribes were quite rampant and very much part of everyday life.[21] In later
centuries, the ferocity of the cannibal lifestyle deterred European sailors from going near
Fijian waters, giving Fiji the name Cannibal Isles; as a result, Fiji remained unknown to the
rest of the world.[22]

Moai at Ahu Tongariki on Rapa Nui (Easter Island)

Early European visitors to Easter Island recorded the local oral traditions about the original
settlers. In these traditions, Easter Islanders claimed that a chief Hotu Matu'a[23] arrived on
the island in one or two large canoes with his wife and extended family.[24] They are believed
to have been Polynesian. There is considerable uncertainty about the accuracy of this legend
as well as the date of settlement. Published literature suggests the island was settled around
300–400 CE, or at about the time of the arrival of the earliest settlers in Hawaii.

Some scientists say that Easter Island was not inhabited until 700–800 CE. This date range is
based on glottochronological calculations and on three radiocarbon dates from charcoal that
appears to have been produced during forest clearance activities.[25]

Moreover, a recent study which included radiocarbon dates from what is thought to be very
early material suggests that the island was settled as recently as 1200 CE.[26] This seems to be
supported by a 2006 study of the island's deforestation, which could have started around the
same time.[27][28] A large now extinct palm, Paschalococos disperta, related to the Chilean
wine palm (Jubaea chilensis), was one of the dominant trees as attested by fossil evidence;
this species, whose sole occurrence was Easter Island, became extinct due to deforestation by
the early settlers.[29]

Micronesia theories

See also: Nan Madol, History of the Federated States of Micronesia, and Saudeleur Dynasty

Micronesia began to be settled several millennia ago, although there are competing theories
about the origin and arrival of the first settlers.[30] There are numerous difficulties with
conducting archaeological excavations in the islands, due to their size, settlement patterns and
storm damage. As a result, much evidence is based on linguistic analysis.[31] The earliest
archaeological traces of civilization have been found on the island of Saipan, dated to 1500
BCE or slightly before.[32]

The ancestors of the Micronesians settled there over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized
chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious
culture centered on Yap and Pohnpei.[33] The prehistory of many Micronesian islands such as
Yap are not known very well.[34]
Central Nan Madol

Nan Madol, capital of the Saudeleur Dynasty

On Pohnpei, pre-colonial history is divided into three eras: Mwehin Kawa or Mwehin Aramas
(Period of Building, or Period of Peopling, before c. 1100); Mwehin Sau Deleur (Period of
the Lord of Deleur, c. 1100[35] to c. 1628);[note 1] and Mwehin Nahnmwarki (Period of the
Nahnmwarki, c. 1628 to c. 1885).[36][39] Pohnpeian legend recounts that the Saudeleur rulers,
the first to bring government to Pohnpei, were of foreign origin. The Saudeleur centralized
form of absolute rule is characterized in Pohnpeian legend as becoming increasingly
oppressive over several generations. Arbitrary and onerous demands, as well as a reputation
for offending Pohnpeian deities, sowed resentment among Pohnpeians. The Saudeleur
Dynasty ended with the invasion of Isokelekel, another semi-mythical foreigner, who
replaced the Saudeleur rule with the more decentralized nahnmwarki system in existence
today.[41][42][43] Isokelekel is regarded as the creator of the modern Pohnpeian nahnmwarki
social system and the father of the Pompeian people.[41][44]

Construction of Nan Madol, a megalithic complex made from basalt lava logs in Pohnpei
began as early as 1200 CE. Nan Madol is offshore of Temwen Island near Pohnpei, consists
of a series of small artificial islands linked by a network of canals, and is often called the
Venice of the Pacific. It is located near the island of Pohnpei and was the ceremonial and
political seat of the Saudeleur Dynasty that united Pohnpei's estimated 25,000 people until its
centralized system collapsed amid the invasion of Isokelekel.[43] Isokelekel and his
descendants initially occupied the stone city, but later abandoned it.[39]

The first people of the Northern Mariana Islands navigated to the islands at some period
between 4000 BCE to 2000 BCE from South-East Asia. They became known as the
Chamorros, and spoke an Austronesian language called Chamorro. The ancient Chamorro left
a number of megalithic ruins, including Latte stone. The Refaluwasch, or Carolinian, people
came to the Marianas in the 1800s from the Caroline Islands. Micronesian colonists gradually
settled the Marshall Islands during the 2nd millennium BCE, with inter-island navigation
made possible using traditional stick charts.[45]

Melanesia theories

Main article: Melanesians

Distribution of Melanesians

The first settlers of Australia, New Guinea, and the large islands just to the east arrived
between 50,000 and 30,000 years ago, when Neanderthals still roamed Europe.[46] The
original inhabitants of the group of islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of
the present-day Papuan-speaking people. Migrating from South-East Asia, they appear to
have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in the Solomon Islands
archipelago, including Makira and possibly the smaller islands farther to the east.[47]

Particularly along the north coast of New Guinea and in the islands north and east of New
Guinea, the Austronesian people, who had migrated into the area somewhat more than 3,000
years ago,[46] came into contact with these pre-existing populations of Papuan-speaking
peoples. In the late 20th century, some scholars theorized a long period of interaction, which
resulted in many complex changes in genetics, languages, and culture among the peoples.[48]
Kayser, et al. proposed that, from this area, a very small group of people (speaking an
Austronesian language) departed to the east to become the forebears of the Polynesian
people.[49]

Boy from Vanuatu

However, the theory is contradicted by the findings of a genetic study published by Temple
University in 2008; based on genome scans and evaluation of more than 800 genetic markers
among a wide variety of Pacific peoples, it found that neither Polynesians nor Micronesians
have much genetic relation to Melanesians. Both groups are strongly related genetically to
East Asians, particularly Taiwanese aborigines.[46] It appeared that, having developed their
sailing outrigger canoes, the Polynesian ancestors migrated from East Asia, moved through
the Melanesian area quickly on their way, and kept going to eastern areas, where they settled.
They left little genetic evidence in Melanesia.[46]

The study found a high rate of genetic differentiation and diversity among the groups living
within the Melanesian islands, with the peoples distinguished by island, language,
topography, and geography among the islands. Such diversity developed over their tens of
thousands of years of settlement before the Polynesian ancestors ever arrived at the islands.
For instance, populations developed differently in coastal areas, as opposed to those in more
isolated mountainous valleys.[46][50]

Additional DNA analysis has taken research into new directions, as more human species have
been discovered since the late 20th century. Based on his genetic studies of the Denisova
hominin, an ancient human species discovered in 2010, Svante Pääbo claims that ancient
human ancestors of the Melanesians interbred in Asia with these humans. He has found that
people of New Guinea share 4–6% of their genome with the Denisovans, indicating this
exchange.[51] The Denisovans are considered cousin to the Neanderthals; both groups are now
understood to have migrated out of Africa, with the Neanderthals going into Europe, and the
Denisovans heading east about 400,000 years ago. This is based on genetic evidence from a
fossil found in Siberia. The evidence from Melanesia suggests their territory extended into
south Asia, where ancestors of the Melanesians developed.[51]

Melanesians of some islands are one of the few non-European peoples, and the only dark-
skinned group of people outside Australia, known to have blond hair.

Australasia theories

Main article: Aboriginal Australians

Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby
islands.[52] Indigenous Australians migrated from Africa to Asia around 70,000 years ago[53]
and arrived in Australia around 50,000 years ago.[54][55] The Torres Strait Islanders are
indigenous to the Torres Strait Islands, which are at the northernmost tip of Queensland near
Papua New Guinea. The term "Aboriginal" is traditionally applied to only the indigenous
inhabitants of mainland Australia and Tasmania, along with some of the adjacent islands, i.e.:
the "first peoples". Indigenous Australians is an inclusive term used when referring to both
Aboriginal and Torres Strait islanders.

The earliest definite human remains found to date are that of Mungo Man, which have been
dated at about 40,000 years old, but the time of arrival of the ancestors of Indigenous
Australians is a matter of debate among researchers, with estimates dating back as far as
125,000 years ago.[56] There is great diversity among different Indigenous communities and
societies in Australia, each with its own unique mixture of cultures, customs and languages.
In present-day Australia these groups are further divided into local communities.[57]