Running head: PPA 4038: EXAMINATION 1

PPA 4038 Examination

Eric Omutimu
Institution Affiliation
PPA 4038 EXAMINATION 2

PPA 4038 Examination

Question 1

Some of the major elements contained in a problem definition according to (Slide I) are

 The problem itself that is supposed to be clearly stated with adequate contextual detail to

institute the reason why it is important

 The method involved in solving the problem which is commonly stated as a working

thesis.

 The purpose, statement of the objective as well as the scope of the script the author is

preparing. These three elements need to be brief to avoid the reader from getting lost.

A problem definition influences discussion of a public issue in that it is significant to

define as well as state the problem specifically in order to be able to write about it. Its significant

is in ensuring that one avoids investigating broad or multiple problems. Without a definition of a

problem, it results in an unsuccessful proposal that is characterized by the vagueness of the

problem definition (From Slide I). The main actors in public policy can be categorized into two

groups which are official actors and unofficial actors. Under the official actors (who have

constitutional or statutory responsibilities) we have the Legislative, executive, and judiciary.

Conversely, the unofficial actors towards a public policy are different interest groups and media.

These actors participate with no explicit authority.

The policy actors inform and influence policy through subsystems that constitute forums

to discuss policy issues, persuade each other and bargain in hunt of their interest in public policy.

For example, the legislature influences policy through lawmaking. The executive informs and

influences policy by having the authority to make and implement a policy into practice while the

judiciary interprets the policies and applies them to different cases in the public. The role of
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interest groups and media in public policy is to contribute to obtaining favorable decisions and

giving knowledge about areas of concerns.

Considering and deciding policy takes certain steps for it to be confirmed as a public

policy. First, there is agenda setting, policy formulation for example through the legislative

assembly where a bill presented in the house is subjected to a debate, then there is the adoption

of the policy a stage where the decision is made, and lastly implementation (Slide L). The

implementation, in this case, takes an example of a member of the executive signing the bill into

law upon being evaluated by the judiciary. For example, an issue such as legalization of

marijuana presented as a bill in the house of representative will have to be tabled and debated by

the members. The bill can be voted and then passed to the president who can either reject or sign

the bill after which interest groups can appeal in the judiciary to evaluate its significance to the

public and make the final decision.

Question 2

“All politics is local” is a common statement in the United States politics which

illustrates that for a politician to be successful, he or she must have been able to satisfy his

immediate constituents. Equally, it can be interpreted that the success of a politician is directly

tied to how he/she is capable of influencing and understanding issues pertinent to individuals

who elected the leader into the office (Slide on Federalism and Intergovernmental Relations). It

is of importance therefore for politicians to be of significance to the ordinary, simple, and

concerns of their people rather than intangible ideas since the simple concerns are what voters

carefully observe according to this statement.

PPA 4038 EXAMINATION 4

The theory of “All politics is local” has an impact on federal, state, and county levels. In

regards to federal, there are some years for example in the United States politics that theory

seemed not to apply (Slide on Federalism and Intergovernmental Relations). These are the years

where national themes and issues were principal over local issues. A good example is 2002 when

terrorism was a major issue that dictated public policy and also the 2006 Iraq war. The theory has

lost a grip in recent politics and public policies in the United States because elections in the U.S.

have been nationalized rather than being local. The reason behind this development is that the

federal government plays a significant role in the aspects of citizens’ concerns. For example, a

state senator or a county representative securing a seat in a congress can easily be superior and

safely protect the seat provided you have the skills to prevent one’s district from being

gerrymandered.

It is difficult to achieve consensus in federal legislation because the law stipulates that

legislation needs to be proposed by a two-thirds majority in the senate and house of

representative. Interesting enough, if the legislation makes it through any of the two, there is the

ratification by three-quarters of the states a scenario that has been explained as a “pig passing

two pythons” hence it requires supermajority twice(Slide on Federalism and Intergovernmental

Relations). Politics role in promoting and preventing legislation centers on the fact that

legislation as a foundation of law is categorized to be highly political which is also a product of a

procedure of coming up with officials that are commonly destined into party politics. For

example in the United States politics, most legislations are effected based on realignment of

members of the senate and house representatives to parties mainly being Democrats and

Republicans. Legislations passed sometimes are determined by the numbers a particular party

enjoys in the Senate and House of Representatives.

PPA 4038 EXAMINATION 5

Question 3

Elements that describe a successful policy can be best described as one, being able to

come up with a good policy design. It resides in the capability to evaluate the outcomes rather

than the actual results in producing a stamp of any success of failure. The second element is that

it has to meet the targets and achieve outcomes as well rather than gaining political mileage in its

process (Slide N). Third and most important, it must have a public value by passing three tests

which are producing value to stakeholders, legitimate to attract resources and authority from the

politics surrounding and is administratively feasible. Lastly, it should be characterized as a good

practice in the process of policy management and making.

To be persuasive, a policy argument can be organized into two components which are a

claim and the support. In a claim, there is an assertion that some action should or either, it should

not be done. Moreover, the argument can take the position based on a debated question. The

claims can be supported using interpretations, facts, and assumptions that lead to coming up with

a claim (Slide on Public Policy Arhument). As such, the argument should be purposely farmed to

convince to concur with the claim and also the position it takes.

Two possible theories of policy creation are:

 The political systems theory – this is a descriptive model which works in the form

where a government is treated as an entity or organism. This entity then responds to

diverse inputs and stimuli and then comes up with relevant outputs. Demands and support

are treated as inputs that go through the systems of government (filter) and then

processed to come out as public policy and lastly the feedback as also inputs.

 Incrementalism theory- this theory views policy creation as a perpetuation of previous

government activities which needs modifications in incremental measures. It is

PPA 4038 EXAMINATION 6

considered conservative in that existing policies, programs, and expenditures are regarded

as attention and base to come up with new policies and programs better than past policies.

An example id the Congressional budget decision making in the U.S.

Two traditional means of policy-making are the rational model and Pluralist model. The

former involved systematic gathering of evidence which was often hard to agree upon (Slide on

Public Policy Decision-making). The latter (pluralist) is a policy outcome that involves

bargaining among different interest groups in a community or social setting.

Question 4

Some of the means available for a member of the public to formally inform policymakers

are through Interest groups. Interest groups are basic units of political systems which are rarely

ignored since are said to be a source of powers. Second is through Mass Media, a crucial link

between the state and the society. Media has been used as a major influencer of the society and

government on public issues and problems. Thirdly, policymakers can be informed through civil

societies that act as a conscience to check political power (Slide on Public Policy Decision-

making).. Lastly, research organizations that engage in multi-disciplinary research on matters

affecting society have been a good source to inform policymakers. For example, issues such as

climate change and terrorism in the United States have been largely influenced by the perception

of media and how they affect American citizen.

An open government meeting involves legislative or administrative unit of state, county

or municipal government. The purpose of the meeting of the governing body or subcommittee is

to make a decision or deliberate towards a policy decision on an issue of interest upon which the

governing body expects to make an official action. These meetings might be held through a

conference, telephone, or other electric technology such as video conferencing. For example, the
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meeting summoned by the President and the United States Secretary, Department of Security to

discuss matters of terrorism and homeland security. Also, a good example can be a meeting

summoned by the president to address all ambassadors on diplomatic issues based on United

States foreign policy.

One can demonstrate community support or opposition to the government through civil

societies or through Mass media. These two bodies have been used as links between society and

the government. In addition, the aforementioned have been said to be independent entities free

from government control. For instance, civil society addresses common problems, promote

collective aspirations, and advance shared interests. On the other hand, the media shapes up

public preferences and also understands public problems (researching legislative history). Civic

engagement in significant measures has been useful in supporting and offsetting certain issues

pertaining to public policy by opening communication between the constituents and the

policymakers to have a clear well-informed policy that ensure that these policies are effectively

implemented. A good local example locally is the participation of various Non-Governmental

Organizations engaging citizens in civic education on voting practices and ways through which

voting can be used as a tool to better their lives. Civic education on voters has been of

importance in policymaking.
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References
Barrera A M. Federalism and Intergovernmental Relations. PPA 4038 Class materials
Barrera A.M. Policy Analysis and Value Debate. PA 4038 Class materials.
Barrera A.M. Policy Analysis: Policy Windows. PA 4038 Class materials
Barrera A. M. Defining the Problem: From an Advocate Perspective. PA 4038 Class materials
Barrera A.M. Introduction to Public Policy Making Process. PA 4038 Class materials
Barrera A.M. Policy Soup: Agenda Setting
Barrera A.M Barrera A.M. Formulating public policy
Barrera A.M Policy and visions of government theory
Barrera A.M Public policy arguments
Barrera A.M Public policy decision making
Barrera A.M Policy evaluation
Barrera A.M Researching legislative history