Universidad del Norte

Instituto de Idiomas

(image from: http://driscoll-class.wikispaces.com/Global+Studies)

Exigencia Inglés VIII: Intercultural

Communication

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 Guided discovery: What’s in the book?

Work with a partner and find out the following information about what you will learn in
this course.

1. How many modules are there? What are some of the themes you will study in
each module? How is this course different from previous ones from the English
Language Program?

2. Look at “How to categorize culture” and “The Dangers of a Single Story” from
module 1. What are the different English language skills you will need in order to
complete each exercise?

3. Look at some of the To Be Dominican is to not be Haitian article from module 2.

Is it long or short? Do you think you will be asked to read it in the class or outside
of class? Why?

4. Module 3 is about verbal and non-verbal communication. Read the first

paragraph of each article. What will they discuss and why do you think it’s
important to Intercultural Communication?

5. What do you think is the overall objective of this book?

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 Table of Contents
MODULE 1: CULTURE ................................................................................................................ 5
Definitions of Culture ...................................................................................................................... 7
Stereotypes and Generalizations .................................................................................................. 10
Stereotyping .................................................................................................................................. 11
The Danger of a Single Story ......................................................................................................... 17
Stereotypes in Korea ..................................................................................................................... 20
Gender, Stereotypes and Commercials ........................................................................................ 21
How to categorize culture? ........................................................................................................... 27
The Hofstede Model for Cultural Understanding ......................................................................... 37
Exam 1: Compare and Contrast..................................................................................................... 41
Contrast Signal Words ................................................................................................................... 50
Contrast Signal Words Practice ..................................................................................................... 51
Comparison Signal Words ............................................................................................................. 52
Comparison Signal Words Practice ............................................................................................... 53
MODULE 2: SUBCULTURE ........................................................................................................ 54
Subculture ..................................................................................................................................... 56
A Brief Summary of the Major World Religions ............................................................................ 59
TED TALK: Majede Najar – Why I wear a hijab .............................................................................. 64
Burkini ban: Why is France arresting Muslim women for wearing full-body swimwear and why
are people so angry? ......................................................................................................................... 65
Afro-Latinos: Race and Racism in Latin America ........................................................................... 72
To Be Dominican is to Not Be Haitian: .......................................................................................... 73
Divided island: How Haiti and the DR became two worlds ................................................... 78
Bend It Like Beckham – Extension................................................................................................. 80
MODULE 3: NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION ........................................................................... 81
“Nonverbal Communication as Intentional Communication” ...................................................... 82
Paralanguage ................................................................................................................................. 85
Grammar Focus: Adjectives vs adverbs ........................................................................................ 88
Modern Family .............................................................................................................................. 90
Proxemics ...................................................................................................................................... 91
Kinesics .......................................................................................................................................... 93

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 Gestures ........................................................................................................................................ 97
Etiquette in West Africa: Four Gestures to Avoid ......................................................................... 98
Different Concepts of Time ......................................................................................................... 100
DANCING WITH THE DEAD IN MADAGASCAR ............................................................................. 105
Twenty Common Verb Preposition Collocations ........................................................................ 106
Phrasal Verbs............................................................................................................................... 107
WRITING SKILLS .................................................................................................................... 108
Research ...................................................................................................................................... 109
Fragments.................................................................................................................................... 110
Run-on Sentences & Comma Splices........................................................................................... 111
Passive Voice (Review) ................................................................................................................ 112
Avoiding Plagiarism ..................................................................................................................... 114
APA Referencing Format ............................................................................................................. 116
Parenthetical Citations ................................................................................................................ 120
Integrating Research ................................................................................................................... 124
Timed Writing for Citations (20 minutes) ................................................................................... 125
Peer Editing ................................................................................................................................. 127
References................................................................................................................................... 128

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MODULE 1: CULTURE
________________________________________________________
Objectives for Module 1: Students will…
• Have a better understanding of concept of culture
• Describe other cultures using descriptive, objective language instead of
subjective, ethnocentric, or stereotypical language
• Be familiar with cultural theory
• Be more familiar with grammar concepts such as past tenses, hedging, the passive
voice, split phrasal verbs and compare/contrast language.

________________________________________________________

What is culture?
A nation's culture resides in the hearts
and in the soul of its people. –Gandhi

(image from: http://www.swccd.edu/~ssh/Disciplines/index.asp?D654)

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Think about these questions and then write your answers…

• What do you think of when you hear the word “culture”? Write your definition of
“culture” here:

• Do you think we learn culture, or is culture innate? Do you think culture is directly
related to a country? If not, where does culture come from?

• What do we learn about

culture from this iceberg?

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 http://opengecko.com/interculturalism/visualising-the-iceberg-model-of-culture/

While you read the following text “Definitions of ‘culture”, underline the aspects of
culture you identified on the previous page. Please also underline what you think is a
key sentence from each definition and then answer the questions that follow.

Definitions of Culture
“In 1952, two anthropologists surveyed the work of existing researchers in some 300
studies in an attempt to come up with a unified definition of culture. They failed in their
attempt. Through their investigation, however, they did uncover three general
characteristics of culture: its historical dimension, its interdependency of components,
and its complex nature (Kroeber and Kluckhorn, 1952).

In 1999, the National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project issued standards
for foreign language teaching in the United States. This project based its definition of
culture on three interrelated components: products, practices, and perspectives—which
can also be described as artifacts, actions, and meanings (Morgan 2011: 23). Other
researchers define culture as a set of basic ideas, practices, and experiences that a group
of people share. DeCapua and Wintergerst (2004:11) describe culture as shared beliefs,
norms, and attitudes that guide a group of people’s behavior and help explain their world.

Communication scholar Stella Ting-Toomey (1999:10) defines culture as “a complex frame

of reference that consists of patterns of traditions, beliefs, values, norms, symbols, and
meanings that are shared to varying degrees by interacting members of a community.”
Just like Peterson (2004). Ting Toomey compares culture to an iceberg. In this analogy, the
deeper layers of culture consisting of traditions, beliefs, and values are hidden from our
view below the surface. Uppermost layers of culture consist of fashion, trends, and pop
music, as well as verbal and nonverbal cues which can be easily observed.

Cross-cultural communication trainer Rober Kohls (1996:23) offers the following

comprehensive definition.

Culture = an integrated system of learned behavior patterns that are

characteristic of the members of any given society. Culture refers to the
total way of life of particular groups of people. It includes everything that a
group of people thinks, says, does and makes—its systems of attitudes and
feelings. Culture is learned and transmitted from generation to
generation.”

(excerpt from: McVeigh, J. & Wintergerst, A. (2011). Tips for Teaching Culture: Practical Approaches to
Intercultural Communication. Pearson Education, Inc: NY, USA. Pp. 3-4).

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Cultures are not synonymous with countries. Cultures do not respect political boundaries.
Border cities such as Juárez, El Paso, Tijuana, and San Diego can develop cultures that in
some ways are not like Mexico or the United States.

[Culture can refer to the following:]

▪ A community or population sufficiently large enough to be self-sustaining, that is,

large enough to produce new generations of members without relying on outside
people.

▪ The totality of that group’s thought, experiences, and patterns of behavior and its
concepts, values, and assumptions about life that guide behavior and how those
evolve with contact with other cultures. Hofstede (1994) classified these elements
of culture into four categories: symbols, rituals, values, and heroes. Symbols refer
to verbal and nonverbal language. Rituals are the socially essential collective
activities within a culture. Values are the feelings not open for discussion within a
culture about what is good or bad, beautiful or ugly, normal or abnormal, which
are present in a majority of the members of a culture or at least in those who
occupy pivotal positions. Heroes are the real or imaginary people who serve as
behavior models within a culture. A culture’s heroes are expressed in the culture’s
myths, which can be the subjects of novels and other forms of literature (Rushing
& Frentz, 1978). Janice Hocker Rushing (1983) has argued, for example, that an
enduring myth in U.S. culture, as seen in films, is the rugged individualist cowboy
of the American West.

▪ The process of social transmission of these thoughts and behaviors from birth in
the family and schools over the course of generations.

▪ Members who consciously identify themselves with that group. Collier and Thomas
(1988) describe this as cultural identity, or the identification with and perceived
acceptance into a group that has a share system of symbols and meanings as well
as norms for conduct. What does knowing an individual’s cultural identity tell you
about that individual? If you assume that that individual is like everyone else in
that culture, you have stereotyped all the many, various people in that culture into
one mould. You know that you are different from others in your culture. Other
cultures are as diverse. The diversity within cultures probably exceeds the
differences between cultures. So just knowing one person’s cultural identity
doesn’t provide complete or reliable information about that person. Knowing
another’s cultural identity does, however, help you understand the opportunities
and challenges that each individual in that culture had to deal with.

We can have no direct knowledge of a culture other than our own. Our experience with
and knowledge of other cultures is limited by the perceptual bias of our own culture. An
adult Canadian will never fully understand the experience of growing up an Australian. To

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begin to understand a culture, you need to understand all the experiences that guide its
individual members through life: such things as language and gestures; personal
appearance and social relationships; religion, philosophy, and values; courtship, marriage,
and family customs; food and recreation; work and government; education and
communication systems; health, transportation and government systems; and economic
systems. Think of culture as everything you would need to know and do so as not to stand
out as a “stranger” in a foreign land. Culture is not a genetic trait. All these cultural
elements are learned through interaction with others in the culture. (Excerpt from: Jandt, F.
(2007) An Introduction to Intercultural Communication: Identities in a Global Community, p. 104-105. Sage
Publications: CA, USA)

Discussion Questions for definitions of culture

1. Figure out the meaning of the following terms from the text by rereading the
sentences surrounding them:
o Frame of reference –
o Perceptual bias –
o Genetic trait –

2. There is only one right definition of culture. True or False.

3. Culture is…. (Choose all that apply)

a. food, holidays, tourist locations, music, and dancing
b. beliefs, values, ideals
c. social norms and taboos
d. behaviours within a larger society and with family and friends
e. the same everywhere, regardless of country
f. forms of government & religion
g. a genetic trait

4. Go back to your original definition of culture on page 6. Is there anything that you
would change based on what you just read?

5. “The diversity within cultures probably exceeds the differences between cultures.”
What can we infer from this quote?

6. Based on what you have read, define “intercultural communication” and discuss
why you think it is important in today’s world.

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 Stereotypes and Generalizations

Before you begin, consider these statements:

1. Chinese people are so quiet.
2. All Koreans eat dog meat.
3. People from Africa are poorly educated.
Now complete the vocabulary section and fill the gaps with the correct term from the table.

Vocabulary: Match the word to its definition

1. ___generalization a. so, as a result
2. . ___stereotype b. general statement based on fact
3. . ___othering c. treatment to show that someone is not “one of us”
4. . ___originate d. traits, descriptions
5. . ___ethnocentric e. a generalization, often judgmental, based on incomplete
evidence
6. . ___thus f. the belief in the inherent superiority of one’s own culture
7. . ___characteristics g. to come from
When does a generalization become a stereotype? What are the differences between generalizations and
stereotypes? Do they have different origins? Different functions? Different effects?

Generalizations:
All statements of fact or truth require . A generalization is a statement based on a finite set of
observations and experiences and yet which claims to hold true for the larger set, even for those cases that
have not been seen or experienced. All generalizations, then, can be said to be theoretical. They offer a
theory about how things are in general. , the statement "All trees have leaves" is a useful
generalization, though no one person has ever been able to validate it by inspecting every tree on earth or
every tree that has ever existed, and no one knows what trees will be like in the future. And of course most
trees do not have leaves at various times of the year, and some trees are evergreens with needles instead of
leaves. The generalization originates in a rational effort to categorize, not in an irrational effort to judge or
to other. means treating individuals and groups in a manner to show that they are “not one of us.”
The function of the generalization is to allow people to work better with trees, not to harm trees.
Stereotypes:
A is a particular kind of generalization, a subset of generalization. According to sociologist Joel
Charon, they can be distinguished by several points:
1. stereotypes pass judgment.
2. stereotypes leave little or no room for exceptions.
3. stereotypes create categories that often dominate all other features of a person not allowing for other
to be seen and appreciated.
4. stereotypes do not tend to change, even when proven wrong, which supports the idea that it is not
backed by empirical evidence after all.
5. stereotypes are also not formed by said empirical evidence to begin with, but instead through anecdote
or otherwise.
6. stereotypes do not help people understand their differences.
7. stereotypes other individuals.
8. stereotypes are recycled and accepted as truth to the point that some people who are subject to the
stereotypes accept them as well.
9 . stereotypes are often . This is the implicit belief that one’s own culture is superior.

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 A. Complete the sentence: ____________________are descriptive and based on facts,
______________are judgmental and based on few if no facts or direct experience.
B. After reading the article, how do you think we can use language to help us to generalize
rather than stereotype?

Stereotyping

You are going to read a conversation between a British woman (Kath) and an American man
(Jeremy) who live in Barranquilla. Answer the following question:

• Does Kath like living in Barranquilla? Why/Why not?

Kath: So how long have you been living in Barranquilla?

Jeremy: Oh, let me see, about three years. You?

Kath: I’ve only been here a year.

Jeremy: Do you like it?

Kath: Not really.

Jeremy: Why not?

Kath: Well, I’m not used to seeing so much poverty. It’s a bit of a shock.

Jeremy: Yes, I know what you mean. And there seems to be so much trash everywhere! I
remember the first time I went to the beach. After lunch, the family next to me just threw all their
empty packaging away. I couldn’t believe it! I asked them to pick it up but they just laughed at me.

Kath: If you ask me, Costeños are kind of inconsiderate. It’s not just the trash. For example, I used
to live in a poor area of town. There was a festival one evening and my neighbour has these
massive speakers. He set them up on his balcony and turned the volume up. Everybody had to
listen to his Vallenato the whole evening. It was a Wednesday and I had to work the next day so at
about 1am I asked my neighbour to turn the volume down because I couldn’t sleep. What did he
do? He told me to go back to the States and turned the volume up even more! It got so bad that I
even called the police. The police just laughed and hung the phone up. Unbelievable!

Kath: But do you think that it’s a Costeño thing? I mean, you can find inconsiderate people
everywhere, can’t you?

Jeremy: Perhaps. Or perhaps it’s a developing country thing. Everybody knows that the police in
Colombia are only there to protect the interests of the rich because they don’t get paid enough to
care about the poor. That’s why they do nothing if someone plays loud music in a poor area.

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Kath: Yeah. But if it’s in a rich area it’s kind of different.

Jeremy: Absolutely.

Kath: So maybe it’s not a Costeño thing. It’s possible that it’s like this in all countries where there’s
a lot of poverty.

SPEAKING

Discuss the following questions in groups.

a) Do you think that police in Colombia care about the poor? Why/Why not?
b) Do you think that there is a lot of trash in Barranquilla? Why do you think this is?
c) What do you think about Kath and Jeremy’s experiences in Barranquilla?
a. Do you think their experiences would be different in other parts of Colombia?
Why/Why not?
b. Do you think their experiences would be different in other developing countries?
Why/Why not?
d) Think about your own stereotypes of people from the following countries. What are these
stereotypes based on, do you think?
o China
o France
o The U.K.
o The U.S.
o Saudi Arabia
o Nigeria
o India

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GRAMMAR: SEPARABLE PHRASAL VERBS

Phrasal verbs are verbs that consist of a verb + preposition or adverb (a particle) that gives the
verb a special meaning. With some phrasal verbs the verb and the particle can be separated. For
example:

“I made the story up to protect my sister”.

a) Underline all the phrasal verbs from the reading about stereotypes. Compare with your
partner.

b) Now match them with the synonyms below:

1. to increase

2. to arrange

3. to discard/dispose of

4. to lift something off something

5. to decrease

6. to end a phone call

c) Three of the sentences below are incorrect. Which sentences are incorrect? Why?

1. The music was very loud. He turned up it when I asked him to turn down it.

2. I dropped my keys. My wife picked up them from the floor.

3. He set his speakers up on his balcony.

4. The police hung the phone up.

5. When they had finished the bottle, they threw it away.

6. He put off the meeting because of the protests.

7. They offered her a promotion but she turned down it.

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d) Now decide if the following are true (T) or false (F):

1. If the phrasal verbs are separable, you must put the object between the phrasal verb and the
particle. (T/F)

2. If the object is a pronoun, you must put the pronoun after the particle. (T/F)

3. A phrasal verb must have at least two parts (T/F)

SEPARABLE PHRASAL VERBS: PRACTICE

e) Write each expression using a pronoun as the object of the phrasal verb. The first one has
been done for you as an example.

1. Look up the new words. Look them up.

2. She called off the wedding. _____________________________________

3. Please write down this number.__________________________________

4. She tore up the letter. _________________________________________

5. Don’t turn the TV on now. ______________________________________

6. He handed out the exams. _____________________________________

7. I left out two questions. ________________________________________

8. Did you fill out the form?________________________________________

f) Complete the gaps in the dialogue below:

Jeremy: Yes, I know what you mean. And there seems to be so much trash everywhere! I
remember the first time I went to the beach. After lunch, the family next to me just 1. _________
all their empty packaging away. I couldn’t believe it! I asked them to pick 2. _______ up but they
just laughed at me.

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Kath: If you ask me, Costeños are kind of inconsiderate. It’s not just the trash. For example, I used
to live in a poor area of town. There was a festival one evening and my neighbour has these
massive speakers. He set 3. _______ up on his balcony and 4. ______ the volume up. Everybody
had to listen to his Vallenato the whole evening. It was a Wednesday and I had to work the next
day so at about 1am I asked my neighbour to 5. ______ the volume down because I couldn’t sleep.
What did he do? He told me to go back to the States and 6. ______ the volume up even more! It
got so bad that I even called the police. The police just laughed and hung the phone up.
Unbelievable!

CONSCIOUSNESS RAISING: HEDGING

a) Compare the following pairs of sentences. How certain is the speaker in sentence A? How
certain is the speaker in sentence B?

1. A) I’m not used to seeing so much poverty. It’s a bit of a shock.

B) I’m not used to seeing so much poverty. It’s a shock.

2. A) There seems to be so much trash everywhere!

B) There’s so much trash everywhere!

3. A) Costeños are kind of inconsiderate.

B) Costeños are inconsiderate.

4. A) Perhaps it’s a developing country thing.

B) It’s a developing country thing.

5. A) If it’s in a rich area it’s kind of different.

B) If it’s in a rich area it’s different.

6. A) It’s possible that it’s like this in all countries where there’s a lot of poverty. B) It’s like
this in all countries where there’s a lot of poverty.

b) We use hedging or “vague language” to qualify or “soften” the claims we make. Identify the
examples of vague language in the sentences above.

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GRAMMAR PRACTICE: HEDGING

c) Use “vague language” to qualify or soften the claims below. Some examples of vague
language are given in the box below:

sort of kind of tend to

perhaps it’s possible that might/could/can/should/may
possibly there seems to be there appears to be
a bit of a likely

1. Culture is learned and transmitted from generation to generation.

2. The diversity within cultures exceeds the differences between cultures.
3. Culture is not a genetic trait.
4. Colombians people are less interested in schedules or punctuality.
5. Germans, like the Swiss, are really serious people.
6. Germans are very conscious of their history and their past

d) Now discuss with your partner how many of the statements above you agree with. Give
reasons for your answers.

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The Danger of a Single Story
By Chimamanda Adichie
Watch the TED talk called “The Danger of a Single Story” by
Nigerian author Chimamanda Adichie, and answer the questions
below. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D9Ihs241zeg

1. (0:53) When Chimamanda Adichie was a child she wrote

stories. What were those stories about?

2. (2:50) In her youth, Adichie discovered African writers.

She said that discovering African writers “saved me from having a ___________________
of what books are.” What does she mean?

3. (3:01) What was Adichie’s home life like as a child?

4. (3:45) Adichie went to Fide’s village and saw that his brother had made a beautiful basket.
This startled her. Why?

5. (4:22) Adichie’s roommate was surprised that Adichie listened to ________________.

Why?

6. (6:35) Adichie says that Westerners have “a single story” about Africa. Where does this
“single story” come from?

7. (7:40) Adichie’s advisor tells her that her first novel was not “authentically African.” Why
do you think the advisor said that?

8. (8:25) Adichie visited Mexico and saw people going to work, rolling up tortillas in the
market place, smoking, laughing. This surprised her, and then she felt ashamed. Why did
she feel that way?
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 9. (9:25) Adichie says that to create a single story, you “Show a people as
____________________________, as only ____________________________, over and
over again, and that is what they become.” What does she mean?

10. (10:22) Adichie quotes Palestinian poet Murid Barghouti - “if you want to dispossess a
people, the simplest way to do it is to tell their story and start with “’secondly’.” What
examples does she give?

11. (11:30) Adichie says that it would never occur to her to believe that Americans are serial
killers just because she read the book American Psycho. Why?

12. (13:10) Adichie says that “the single story creates stereotypes, and the problem with
stereotypes is not that they are untrue, but that they
are____________________________. They make ______________________________
become _________________________________. What does she mean?

13. (13:45) The consequence of the single story is that it

a. it robs people of _______________________

b. it makes our recognition of our _______________________ difficult

c. it emphasizes how we are ___________________ rather than ___________________.

14. From minute 14:38 to 16:46, Adichie mentions several other examples of stories about
Nigerians she knows. What are the examples she gives?

Adichie, C. (2009, Oct 7). The Danger of a Single Story. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D9Ihs241zeg

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Discussion Questions
After you watch, discuss the following questions.

15. What is the danger of a single story?

16. Adichie says that (10:10) “Power is the ability not just to tell the story of another person,
but to make it the definitive story of that person.” What doe she mean? When you watch
the news about Nigeria or Egypt or China, who tells those stories? When you see stories
about the U.S. who tells those stories?

17. Adichie quotes Palestinian poet Murid Barghouti - “if you want to disposess a people, the
simplest way to do it is to tell their story and start with “secondly” What does she mean?
Can you give examples of stories from life that change dramatically if you start with
“secondly”?

18. (13:47) Adichie says that “it is impossible to engage properly with a place or a person
without engaging with all of the stories of that place or that person.” What does she
mean?

19. When we reject the single story, when we realize there is never a single story about a
place, we regain a kind of paradise. What does she mean?

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 Stereotypes in Korea

Watch the following video about stereotypes of Koreans:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=90Y4jx38DF4

Now, watch the following video about stereotypes of

foreigners in Korea:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B_adFiVWYvQ&list=UU
3r_jLc_l6x11rYWcutmhUQ&index=7&feature=plcp

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/flags/flagtemplate_ks.html

1. Based off the posters in the videos, what stereotypes can you infer these people
disagree with about themselves?

2. Why do people think these untrue things about them?

3. Think about stereotypes of Costeños or Colombians. Make a sign with your partner
to show the class.

4. How do these videos help fight stereotypes? What do we learn about Intercultural
Communication through these videos?

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Gender, Stereotypes and Commercials
Adapted from http://krytyka.org/gender-stereotypes-in-mass-media-
case-study-analysis-of-the-gender-stereotyping-phenomenon-in-tv-
commercials/

1. Think about commercials and telenovelas here in

Colombia. How are men portrayed? How are women
portrayed? Give some examples.

2. Commercials and advertisements show us images

of what a “real man” and a “real woman” are like.
Write a few adjectives to complete the sentences:

A “Real Woman” is_________________________________________________________.

A “Real Man” is____________________________________________________________.

Read the following excerpt about gender stereotypes in the media.

Commercials are the vast source of gender stereotyping, because they are adapted to the specific,
either male or female target, and are “the reflection of the recipient”. The aim of the modern
commercial is not only the satisfaction of needs but also their creation.
Women are more often presented in commercials, because they are seen as responsible for
making everyday purchases. Men generally advertise cars, cigarettes, business products or
investments, whereas women are shown rather in the commercials with cosmetics
and domestic products. They are also more likely portrayed in the home environment, unlike men,
who are shown outdoors. Another important distinction is the face-ism phenomenon in the
commercials, which consists in showing the entire figure in case of women and close-up shots in
case of men (Matthews, J. L. 2007). The first method lowers the receiver’s estimation of the
intelligence of the person on the photo. The second one more often evokes positive associations.

According to Steve Craig’s research (1997), women can be presented in commercials in several
variants. The first one is the most popular: a housewife obsessed by a steam on a new tablecloth
or a woman whose main problem is lack of ideas for dinner. The other examples are less
traditional, however, they are still very stereotypical. One can distinguish commercials with female
vamps – sexy seductresses, the objects of desire of every man. They mostly advertise cosmetics,
but they also appear in the commercials directed to men. When a beautiful woman accepts and
praises the male cosmetics, it is treated by men as a guarantee of its quality. Another type is a
woman, whose major concern is to preserve her beauty. Hence, she presents a healthy life style, is
physically active, uses a wide range of body and facial cosmetics. However, one can observe
mainly the presence of very thin actresses in this type of commercials, which can lead to the
assumption, that only thin women can be beautiful and healthy. As a result, many female receivers
fall into the obsession with their weight, which sometimes can have negative effects.

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Male stereotypes are also various. The first model is “a real man”, athletic, successful,
professional, seducer with a beautiful woman by his side. He also has a branded car and a
smartphone. The other type is less popular and presents men devoted to their families who can
save enough time for them. Men are very rarely presented during housecleaning. And if they are,
it is rather a satirical image – e.g. in the Mr. Muscle commercial – or they appear as the experts
and they advise women, for instance, how to do laundry properly. Advertising specialists also use
the stereotype of male friendship, which can be called “buddy narratives”; men are presented as
acting together, for instance by going to a football match or to the pub. They share the same
interests and opinions, and they enjoy spending time together by doing something extremely
interesting and adventurous (Pawlica, Widawska 2001).

More and more commercials are directed to children. They indicate “the proper place” in the
society for girls and boys. Girls are shown as babysitters nursing dolls or cleaning house with a pink
cleaning kit, whereas boys do sports or play computer games (ibid).

If men and women appear in the commercials together, they are mainly presented as a couple or
marriage. A sexual subtext is also often used in this case, even if the advertised product has
nothing in common with the erotic sphere. In the situation of competition, women appear to be
weaker than men (Lukas 2002).

After Reading

1. According to the article, how are women and men portrayed in advertisements?

2. Does this portrayal match what you have seen in commercials?

3. Think about the adults in your life. To what extent do they behave like the women and men on
TV?

4. Have you seen any advertisements that break these stereotypes? Give examples.

Wolska, M. (2011). Gender stereotypes in mass media. A case study: analysis of the gender stereotyping phenomenon in TV
commercials. Retrieved from http://krytyka.org/gender-stereotypes-in-mass-media-case-study-analysis-of-the-gender-
stereotyping-phenomenon-in-tv-commercials/

22
Watch the following advertisements that play with gender stereotypes and take notes.

Commercial What gender stereotypes How did it make you feel?

were broken?
Dave's #EpicStrut TV Ad |
MoneySuperMarket
https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=YQ643U7ccpM (1:00)
This Girl Can – A commercial
from England designed to inspire
women to exercise
https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=aN7lt0CYwHg (1:30)
If Women’s Roles in Ads Were
Played by Men
https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=2SrpARP_M0o (1:38)
Always Like a Girl
https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?t=165&v=XjJQBjWYDTs (3:18)

It’s Time
https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=_TBd-UCwVAY (1:55)

Discussion
1. Why do you think the commercials produced such different feelings?

2. Which ones reverse gender stereotypes? Which ones break gender stereotypes by showing real
people?

3. What was the gender message of each commercial?

4. Do you think it makes men and women uncomfortable to be portrayed in a way that breaks
gender stereotypes? Why or why not?

23
Activity: Create a Commercial

In groups, your challenge is to create a commercial that you will perform for the rest of the class.
Your commercial must challenge gender stereotypes. However, your task is to do this without
humiliating the characters (you can still be funny!). Think of the commercials you watched and the
article for inspiration. Decide what product you want to promote, and get started.

As you watch each group perform, take notes in the chart below:

Commercial What stereotypes were How did it make you

broken? feel?

Discussion

1. Did your classmate’s commercials show realistic depictions of men and women, or stereotypical
depictions?
2. Have you ever seen men get angry or defensive if someone suggests they have feminine traits?
Have you ever seen women get angry or defensive if someone suggests that they have masculine
traits? Why or why not?

24
Language input – the passive

Look at the following sentences and answer the questions below:

1. Women are also more likely portrayed in the home environment.

2. Women can be presented in commercials in several variants.

3. A woman’s praise and acceptance of male cosmetics is treated by men as a guarantee of its
quality.

a) In the sentences above, underline the subjects.

b) Who/What does the action in the sentences above?

c) Who/What receives the action?

d) Are we more interested in who/what receives the action or who does the action?

e) Is it important or necessary to say who/what does the action in the sentences above?

f) What do we call the thing or person that does the action in a passive sentence?

PASSIVE: PRACTICE

g) Rewrite the sentences so that the thing/person which does the action is the subject:

1. Women are also more likely portrayed in the home environment.

Men…

2. Women can be presented in commercials in several variants.

Men…

3. A woman’s praise and acceptance of male cosmetics is treated by men as a guarantee of its
quality.

Men…

h) What do you notice about the structure of passive and active sentences? How are they
different? What does every passive sentence need?

i) With your partner, use your mobile phones to find out the answer to the questions below. Try
to use passive structures, where appropriate.

25
j) Rewrite the sentences below in passive:

1. Bette Graham invented liquid paper in 1956.

2. Bulletproof vests have saved three thousand lives since the 1970s.

3. Women are inventing hundreds of life-changing products at the moment.

4. Babies use more than 55 million disposable nappies every day.

k) Which form of the verb “to be” do you need to make passive in the following tenses?

1. Perfect tenses
2. Continuous tenses
3. Present simple
4. Past simple

l) Are you surprised that these inventions were from females? Why? Try to use the passive in
your answer.

26
Read the first paragraph, which is an excerpt from the creator the theory. Can you
think of any cultures that follow those descriptions? Then scan the text for the
vocabulary given below and match the vocabulary with the culture type.

How to categorize culture?

Linear-Active, Multi-Active, and Reactive Cultures

Draw lines to match the adjectives from “Vocabulary to Know” to

the appropriate culture below:

Loquacious
Excel (in nonverbal communication) Reactive
Deferent
Aspire (to leadership positions)
Extrovert Multi-active
Monologue (as form of communication)
Introvert
Multi-task Linear-active
Compartmentalize tasks

“The several hundred national and regional cultures of the world can be roughly classified into
three groups: task-oriented, highly-organized planners (linear-active); people-oriented,
loquacious interrelators (multi-active); and introverted, respect-oriented listeners (reactive)…

(excerpt from: Lewis, R. (2006). When Cultures Collide: Leading Across Cultures. Nicholas Brealey
Publishing: Boston, USA. Pp. 27)

Linear Active and Multi-Active Cultures

Sven Svensson is a Swedish businessman living in Lisbon. A few weeks ago he was invited by a
Portuguese acquaintance, Antonio, to play tennis at 10:00 A.M. Sven turned up at the tennis court
on time in tennis gear and ready to play.

Antonio arrived half an hour late, in the company of a friend, Carlos, from whom he was buying
some land. They had been discussing the purchase that morning and had prolonged the
discussion, so Antonio had brought Carlos along in order to finalize the details during the journey.
They continued the business while Antonio changed into his tennis clothes, with Sven listening to
all they said. At 10:45 they got on the court, and Antonio continued the discussion with Carlos
while hitting practice balls with Sven.

27
At this point another acquaintance of Antonio’s, Pedro, arrived to confirm a sailing date with
Antonio for the weekend. Antonio asked Sven to excuse him for a moment and walked off the
court to talk to Pedro. After chatting with Pedro for five minutes, Antonio resumed his
conversation with the waiting Carlos and eventually turned back to the waiting Sven to begin
playing tennis at 11:00. When Sven remarked that the court had only been booked from 10:00 to
11:00, Antonio reassured him that he had phoned in advance to rebook it until noon. No problem.

It will probably come as no surprise to you to hear that Sven was very unhappy about the course
of events. Why? He and Antonio live in two different worlds or, to put it more exactly, use two
different time systems. Sven, as a good Swede, belongs to a culture which uses linear-active
time—that is, he does one thing at a time in the sequence he has written in his date book. His
schedule that day said 8:00 A.M. get up, 9:00 breakfast, 9:15 change into tennis clothes, 9:30 drive
to the tennis court, 10:00-11:00 play tennis, 11:00-11:30 beer and shower, 12:15 lunch, 2:00P.M.
go to the office, and so on.

Antonio, who had seemed to synchronize with him for tennis from 10:00 to 11:00, had
disorganized Sven’s day. Portuguese like Antonio follow a multi-active time system, that is, they do
many things at once, often in an unplanned order.

Multi-active cultures are very flexible. If Pedro interrupted Carlos’ conversation, which was already
in the process of interrupting Sven’s tennis, this was quite normal and acceptable in Portugal. It is
not acceptable in Sweden, nor is it in Germany or Britain.

Linear-active people, like Swedes, Swiss, Dutch and Germans, do one thing at a time, concentrate
hard on that thing and do it within a scheduled time period. These people think that in this way
they are more efficient and get more done. Multi-active people think they get more done their
way.

Let us look again at Sven and Antonio. If Sven had not been disorganized by Antonio, he would
undoubtedly have played tennis, eaten at the right time and done some business. But Antonio had
had breakfast, bought some land, played tennis and confirmed his sailing plans, all by lunchtime.
He had even managed to rearrange the tennis booking. Sven could never live like this, but Antonio
does, all the time.

Multi-active people are often less interested in schedules or punctuality. They are more likely to
observe them if a linear-active partner insists. They consider reality to be more important than
man-made appointments. Reality for Antonio that morning was that his talk with Carlos about
land was unfinished. Multi-active people do not like to leave conversations unfinished. For them,
completing a human transaction is the best way they can invest their time. So he took Carlos to
the tennis court and finished buying the land while hitting balls. Pedro further delayed the tennis,
but Antonio would not abandon the match with Sven. That was another human transaction he
wished to complete. So they would play til 12:00 or 12:30 if necessary. But what about Sven’s
lunch at 12:15? Not important, says Antonio. It’s only 12:15 because that’s what Sven wrote in his
date book.

A friend of mine, a BBC producer, often used to visit Europe to visit BBC agents. He never failed to
get through his appointments in Denmark and Germany, but he always had trouble in Greece. The

28
Greek agent was a popular man in Athens and had to see so many people each day that he
invariably ran over-time. So my friend usually missed his appointment or waited three or four
hours for the agent to turn up. Finally, after several trips, the producer adapted to the multi-active
culture. He simply went to the Greek agent’s secretary in late morning and asked for the agent’s
schedule for the day. As the Greek conducted most of his meetings in hotel rooms or bars, the BBC
producer would wait in the hotel lobby and catch him rushing from one appointment to the next.
The multi-active Greek, happy to see him, would not hesitate to spend half an hour with him and
thus make himself late for his next appointment.

When people from a linear-active culture work together with people from a multi-active culture,
misunderstandings may occur on both sides. Unless one party adapts to the other,
miscommunication may continue. “Why don’t the Mexicans arrive on time?” ask the Germans.
“Why don’t they work to deadlines? Why don’t they follow a plan?” The Mexicans, on the other
hand, ask, “Why keep to the plan when circumstances have changed? Why keep to a deadline if
we rush production and lose quality? Why try to sell this amount to that customer if we know they
aren’t ready to buy yet?”

Recently I visited a wonderful aviary in South Africa where exotic birds of all kinds were kept in a
series of 100 large cages, to which the visiting public had direct access. There was plenty of room
for the birds to fly around and it was quite exciting for us to be in the cage with them. You
proceeded at your leisure, from cage to cage, making sure all the doors were closed carefully.

Two small groups of tourists—one consisting of four Germans and the other of three French
people—were visiting the aviary at the same time as we were. The Germans had made their
calculations, obviously having decided to devote 100 minutes to the visit; consequently they spent
one minute in each cage. One German read the captions, one took photographs, one videoed and
one opened and closed the doors. I followed happily in their wake. The three French people began
their tour a few minutes later than the Germans but soon caught up with them as they galloped
trough the cages containing smaller birds. As the French were also taking pictures, they rather
spoiled cage 10 for the Germans, as they made a lot of noise and generally got in the way. The
Germans were relieved when the French rushed on ahead toward the more exciting cages.

The steady German progress continued through cages 11 to 15. Cage 16 contained the owls (most
interesting). There we found our French friends again, who had occupied the cage for five minutes.
They filmed the owls from every angle while the Germans waited their turn. When the French
eventually rushed out, the Germans were five minutes behind schedule. Later on, the French
stayed so long with the eagles in cage 62 that the Germans had to bypass them and come back to
see the eagles later. They were furious at this forced departure from their linear progression, and
eventually finished their visit half an hour late. By then the French had departed, having seen all
they were interested in.

A study of attitudes toward time in a Swiss-Italian venture showed that, after some initial
quarreling, each side learned something from the other. The Italians finally admitted that
adherence at least in theory to schedules, production deadlines and budgets enabled them to
clarify their goals and check on performances and efficiency. The Swiss, on the other hand, found
that the more flexible Italian attitude allowed them to modify the timetable in reaction to
unexpected developments in the market, to spot deficiencies in the planning that had not been
evident earlier, and to make vital last-minute improvements with the extra time.

29
Germans, like the Swiss, are very high on the linear-active scale, since they attach great
importance to analyzing a project, compartmentalizing it, tackling each problem one at a time in a
linear fashion, concentrating on each segment and thereby achieving a near-perfect result. They
may be confused working with people who follow a different construction of time, such as Arabs
and those from many Mediterranean cultures.

Americans are also very linear-active, but there are some differences in attitude. As Americans live
very much in the present and race toward the near future, they sometimes push Germans into
action before the latter want to act. Germans are very conscious of their history and their past and
will often wish to explain a lot of background to American partner to put present actions in
context. This often irritates Americans who want to “get on with it.”

Reactive Cultures
Japan belongs to the group of reactive, or listening cultures, the members of which rarely initiate
action or discussion, preferring to listen to and establish the other’s position first, then react to it
and formulate their own.

Reactive cultures are also found in China, Taiwan, Singapore, Korea, Turkey and Finland. Several
other East Asian countries, although occasionally multi-active and excitable, have certain reactive
characteristics. In Europe, Finns are strongly reactive, but Britons, Turks and Swedes fall easily into
“listening mode” on occasion.

Reactive cultures listen before they leap. Reactive cultures are the world’s best listeners in as
much as they concentrate on what the speaker is saying, do not let their minds wander and rarely
interrupt a speaker while the discourse or presentation is on-going. When it is finished, they do
not reply immediately. A decent period of silence after the speaker has stopped shows respect for
the weight of the remarks, which must be considered unhurriedly and with due deference.

Even when representatives of a reactive culture begin their reply, they are unlikely to voice any
strong opinions immediately. A more probable tactic is to ask further questions on what has been
said in order to clarify the speaker’s intent and aspirations. Japanese, particularly, go over each
point many times in detail to make sure there are no misunderstandings. Finns, although blunt and
direct in the end, shy away from confrontation as long as they can, trying to formulate an
approach that suits the other party. The Chinese take their time to assemble a variety of strategies
that will avoid discord with the initial proposal.

Reactives are introverted; they distrust a surfeit or words and consequently are adept at
nonverbal communication. This is achieved by subtle body language, worlds apart from the
excitable gestures of Latins and Africans. Linear-active people find reactive tactics hard to fathom
because they do not slot into the linear system (question/reply, cause/effect). Multi-active people,
used to extroverted behavior, find them inscrutable—giving little or no feedback. The Finns are
the best example of this behavior, reacting even less than the Japanese, who at least pretend to
be pleased.

In reactive cultures the preferred mode of communication is monologue—pause—reflection—

monologue. If possible, one lets the other side deliver its monologue first. In linear-active and
multi-active cultures, the communication mode is a dialogue. One interrupts the other’s

30
monologue with frequent comments, even questions, which signify polite interest in what is being
said. As soon as one person stops speaking, the other takes up his or her turn immediately, since
multi-active and linear-active people tend to have a weak tolerance for silence.

People belonging to reactive cultures not only tolerate silences well but regard them as a very
meaningful, almost refined, part of discourse. The opinions of the other party are not to be taken
lightly or dismissed with a snappy or flippant retort. Clever, well-formulated arguments require—
deserve—lengthy silent consideration. The American, having delivered a sales pitch in Helsinki,
leans forward and asks, “Well, Pekka, what do you think?” If you ask Finns what they think, they
begin to think. Finns, like the Japanese, Koreans, and other reactive peoples, tend to think in
silence. An American asked the same question might well pipe up and exclaim, “I’ll tell you what I
think!” allowing no pause to punctuate the proceedings or interfere with momentum. Reactive
momentum takes much longer to achieve. One can compare reactions to shifting gears of a car,
where multi-active people go immediately into first gear, which enables them to put their foot
down to accelerate (the discussion) and to pass quickly through second and third gears as the
argument intensifies. Reactive cultures prefer to avoid crashing through the gearbox. Too many
revs might cause damage to the engine (discussion). The big wheel turns slower at first and the
foot is put down gently. But when momentum is finally achieved, it is likely to be maintained and,
moreover, it tends to be in the right direction.

The reactive “reply-monologue” will accordingly be context centered and will presume a
considerable amount of knowledge on that part of the listener (who, after all, probably spoke
first). Because the listener is presumed to be knowledgeable, Japanese, Chinese, and Finns will
often be satisfied with expressing a kind of compliment one pays one’s interlocutor. At such times
multi-active, dialogue-oriented people are more receptive than linear-oriented people, who thrive
on clearly expressed linear argument.

As reactive cultures tend to use names less frequently than multi-active and linear-active cultures,
the impersonal, vague nature of the discussion is further accentuated. Lack of eye contact, so
typical of East Asia, does not help the situation. The Japanese, evading the Spaniard’s earnest
stare, makes the latter feel that they are being boring or saying something distasteful.
Inscrutability (often appearing on a Finn’s face as a sullen expression) adds to the feeling that the
discussion is leading nowhere. Finns and Japanese, embarrassed by another’s stare, seek eye
contact only at the beginning of the discussion or when they wish their partner to take their “turn”
in the conversation.

Small talk does not come easily to reactive cultures. While Japanese and Chinese trot out well-
tried formalisms to indicate courtesy, they tend to regard questions such as “Well, how goes it?”
as direct questions and may take the opportunity to voice a complaint. On other occasions their
overlong pauses or slow reactions cause multi-active and linear-active cultures to think they have
nothing to say. Turks, in discussion with Germans in Berlin, complained they never got the chance
to present their views fully, while the Germans, for their part, thought the Turks had nothing to
say. A high-ranking delegation from the Bank of Finland once told me that, for the same reason,
their group found it hard to get a word in at international meetings. “How can we make an
impact?” they asked. The Japanese suffer more than any other people in this type of gathering.

Finally, reactive cultures excel in subtle, nonverbal communication, which compensates for the
absences of frequent interjections. Finns, Japanese and Chinese alike are noted for their sighs,

31
almost inaudible groans and agreeable grunts. A sudden intake of breath in Finland indicates
agreement, not shock, as it would in the case of a Latin. The “oh,” “ha” or “e” of the Japanese is a
far surer indication of concurrence than the fixed smile they often assume.

Reactive people have large reserves of energy. They are economical in movement and effort and
do not waste time reinventing the wheel. Although they always give the impression of having
power in reserve, they are seldom aggressive and rarely aspire to leadership (in the case of Japan,
this is somewhat surprising in view of its economic might).

32
Now, having read the article for gist, go back and read for detail, filling in the chart.

General Time Conversation Examples

Characteristics Characteristics Characteristics
Linear-
Active

Multi-
Active

Reactive

33
Read the following extract from your handbook and answer the following question:
• Why is Sven unhappy? Sven is linear-active and plans things to be done in a sequence.
This was getting in the way of his plan.
• How many people are in the story? 4
Sven Svensson is a Swedish businessman living in Lisbon. A few weeks ago he was invited by a
Portuguese acquaintance, Antonio, to play tennis at 10:00 A.M. Sven turned up at the tennis court
on time in tennis gear and ready to play.
Antonio arrived half an hour late, in the company of a friend, Carlos, from whom he was buying
some land. They had been discussing the purchase that morning and had prolonged the
discussion, so Antonio had brought Carlos along in order to finalize the details during the journey.
They continued the business. While Antonio was changing into his tennis clothes, Sven was
listening to all they said. At 10:45 they got on the court, and Antonio continued the discussion with
Carlos while he was hitting practice balls with Sven.
At this point another acquaintance of Antonio’s, Pedro, arrived to confirm a sailing date with
Antonio for the weekend. Antonio asked Sven to excuse him for a moment and walked off the
court to talk to Pedro. After chatting with Pedro for five minutes, Antonio resumed his
conversation with Carlos, who was waiting, and eventually turned back to Sven, who was also
waiting, to begin playing tennis at 11:00. When Sven remarked that the court had only been
booked from 10:00 to 11:00, Antonio reassured him that he had phoned in advance to rebook it
until noon. No problem.
It will probably come as no surprise to you to hear that Sven was very unhappy about the course
of events. Why? He and Antonio live in two different worlds or, to put it more exactly, use two
different time systems. Sven, as a good Swede, belongs to a culture which uses linear-active
time—that is, he does one thing at a time in the sequence he has written in his date book. His
schedule that day said 8:00 A.M. get up, 9:00 breakfast, 9:15 change into tennis clothes, 9:30 drive
to the tennis court, 10:00-11:00 play tennis, 11:00-11:30 beer and shower, 12:15 lunch, 2:00P.M.
go to the office, and so on.
Antonio, who had seemed to synchronize with him for tennis from 10:00 to 11:00, had
disorganized Sven’s day. Portuguese like Antonio follow a multi-active time system, that is, they do
many things at once, often in an unplanned order.

34
Grammar - MIXED PAST TENSES: GUIDED DISCOVERY
a) Which of these sentences do you remember from the story? What is the difference in
meaning between these sentences?

A) 1. Antonio arrived half an hour late

2. Antonio had arrived half an hour late
B) 1. Antonio was buying land from Carlos
2. Antonio bought land from Carlos
C) 1. Antonio and Carlos had been discussing the purchase that morning.
2. Antonio and Carlos were discussing the purchase that morning.
D) 1. Antonio had brought Carlos in order to finalize the details
2. Antonio was bringing Carlos in order to finalize the details
E) 1. Antonio had disorganized Sven’s day.
2. Antonio was disorganizing Sven’s day.

b) From the sentences above, identify an example of each of the following:

1. Past perfect continuous/progressive
2. Past simple
3. Past continuous/progressive
4. Past perfect

c) Which of the tenses in b) are used:

1. To talk about completed actions, events and states in the past
2. To talk about an extended or repeated activity which started or took place before a
particular point in the past (and which may or may not have finished)
3. To make it clear that something that took place and finished before another action in the
past
4. To describe something which began before a particular point in the past and is still in
progress at that point.

35
MIXED PAST TENSES: PRACTICE
d) How would you make the negative and question form of each of the sentences below?
1. Antonio arrived half an hour late
2. Antonio was buying land from Carlos
3. Antonio and Carlos had been discussing the purchase that morning.
4. Antonio had brought Carlos in order to finalize the details.

e) Complete the gaps in the sentences below using the word given. Pay attention to the tense.
Sometimes more than option is possible with a change in meaning.

1. By the time Sven arrived at the tennis court, Antonio………………… (leave).

2. While Antonio………………… (play) tennis, his phone rang.
3. The tennis court was still wet when Carlos arrived. It…………………(rain) heavily.
4. Antonio and Sven…………………(talk) for hours before Carlos arrived.
5. After they…………………(finish) playing tennis, they went for a beer.
6. Pedro…………………(discuss) a new business deal with Antonio before Sven and Antonio
started playing tennis.

f) Make some notes on the following:

When was the last time a meeting with an acquaintance/friend made you unhappy?
• Where were you?
• What were you doing?
• What made you feel unhappy about the situation?
• How did you react?
• What lesson did you learn?

g) Tell your partner your story: who was unhappier? Why?

36
The Hofstede Model for Cultural Understanding
Match the vocabulary to their definitions, then read the following article and fill the gaps with one of
the terms from the box.

Vocabulary: Match the words to their definitions

1. ___inequalities a. to show, offer, present
2. ___exhibiting b. as a whole; in general
3. ___strive c. the condition of being unequal; lack of equality; disparity
4. ___at large d. with the use of; owing to
5. ___ambiguity e. to try hard
6. ___thrift f. doubtfulness or uncertainty as regards interpretation:
7. ___by means of g. wise economy in the management of money and other resources; frugality
Geert Hofstede measures cultures according to the following six criteria.

Power Distance Index (PDI)

This dimension expresses the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and
expect that power is distributed unequally. The fundamental issue here is how a society handles
…………….. among people. People in societies …………….. a large degree of Power Distance accept a
hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. In
societies with low Power Distance, people …………. to equalise the distribution of power and
demand justification for inequalities of power.

Individualism Versus Collectivism (IDV)

The high side of this dimension, called individualism, can be defined as a preference for a loosely-
knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of only themselves and their
immediate families. Its opposite, collectivism, represents a preference for a tightly-knit framework
in society in which individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular in-group to
look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. A society's position on this dimension is
reflected in whether people’s self-image is defined in terms of “I” or “we.”

Masculinity Versus Femininity (MAS)

The Masculinity side of this dimension represents a preference in society for achievement,
heroism, assertiveness and material rewards for success. Society …………….. is more competitive.
Its opposite, femininity, stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and
quality of life. Society at large is more consensus-oriented. In the business context Masculinity
versus Femininity is sometimes also related to as "tough versus gender" cultures.

Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)

The Uncertainty Avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which the members of a society
feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and …………….. The fundamental issue here is how a society
deals with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just
let it happen? Countries exhibiting strong UAI maintain rigid codes of belief and behaviour and are
intolerant of unorthodox behaviour and ideas. Weak UAI societies maintain a more relaxed
attitude in which practice counts more than principles.

Long Term Orientation Versus Short Term Orientation (LTO)

Every society has to maintain some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the
present and the future. Societies prioritize these two existential goals differently.

37
Societies who score low on this dimension, for example, prefer to maintain time-honoured
traditions and norms while viewing societal change with suspicion. Those with a culture which
scores high, on the other hand, take a more pragmatic approach: they encourage …………. and
efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future.
In the business context this dimension is related to as "(short term) normative versus (long term)
pragmatic" (PRA). In the academic environment the terminology Monumentalism versus
Flexhumility is sometimes also used.

Indulgence Versus Restraint (IND)

Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human
drives related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for a society that suppresses
gratification of needs and regulates it …………….. strict social norms.

Predictions:

Draw a bar-graph to predict how you think Colombia scores in each category.

Explanation:
PDI: A high score means people accept social inequality. A low means people do not.
IDV: A high score means a society is very individualistic. A low means very it is more collectivist.
MAS: A high means success and achievement are important. A low means that consensus,
modesty, and caring for the weak is more important.
UAI: A high means there is a rigid code of belief and a suspicion of unorthodox ideas. A low means
a more relaxed attitude regarding new ideas.
LTO: A high score means people prepare for the future through thrift and efforts in education. Low
means people prefer to stick to traditions and view social change with suspicion.
IND: A high score means it is ok to seek gratification and pleasure. Low means that people should
control their desires through strict social norms.

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 PDI IDV MAS UAI LTO IND

38
Case Study: Colombia – match the titles with their description:

Power Distance Index (PDI) Individualism Versus Collectivism (IDV)

Masculinity Versus Femininity (MAS) Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)

Long Term Orientation V Short Term O.. (LTO) Indulgence Versus Restraint (IND)

1. …………………………………….
At 67 Colombia scores high on the scale of this dimension, so it is a society that believes that
inequalities amongst people are simply a fact of life. This inequality is accepted in all layers of
society, so a union leader will have a lot of concentrated power compared to his union
management team, and they in turn will have more power than other union members. A similar
phenomenon will be observed among business leaders and among the highest positions in
government.

2. …………………………………….
With a low score of 13, Colombian culture is classified as normative. People in such societies have
a strong concern with establishing the absolute Truth; they are normative in their thinking. They
exhibit great respect for traditions, a relatively small propensity to save for the future, and a focus
on achieving quick results.

3. …………………………………….
At 64 Colombia is shown as a highly success oriented and driven country. Colombians are
competitive and status-oriented, yet collectivistic rather than Individualist. This means that
competition is directed towards members of other groups (or social classes), not towards those
who are perceived as members of your own in-group.
People seek membership in groups which give them status and rewards linked to performance,
but they often sacrifice leisure against work, as long as this is supported by group membership and
by power holders.

4. …………………………………….

Colombia scored a very high 83 in this dimension. People in societies classified by a high score in
this category generally exhibit a willingness to realise their impulses and desires with regard to
enjoying life and having fun. They possess a positive attitude and have a tendency towards
optimism. In addition, they place a higher degree of importance on leisure time, act as they please
and spend money as they wish.

5. …………………………………….
At a score of 13 Colombia is amongst the lowest scores in this category; in other words, it lies
amongst the most collectivistic cultures in the world, beaten only by Ecuador, Panama and
Guatemala.
Since the Colombians are a highly collectivistic people, belonging to an in-group and aligning
yourself with that group’s opinion is very important. Combined with the high scores in PDI, this
means that groups often have their strong identities tied to class distinctions. Loyalty to such
groups is paramount and often it is through “corporative” groups that people obtain privileges and

39
benefits which are not to be found in other cultures. At the same time, conflict is avoided, in order
to maintain group harmony and to save face.
Relationships are more important than attending to the task at hand, and when a group of people
holds an opinion on an issue, they will be joined by all who feel part of that group. Colombians will
often go out of their way to help you if they feel there is enough attention given to developing a
relationship, or if they perceive an “in-group” connection of some sort, however thin. However,
those perceived as “outsiders” can easily be excluded or considered as “enemies”. The preferred
communication style is context-rich, so public speeches and written documents are usually
extensive and elaborate.

6. …………………………………….
At 80 Colombia has a high score in this category, which means that as a nation they are seeking
mechanisms to avoid ambiguity. Emotions are openly expressed; there are (extensive) rules for
everything and social conservatism enjoys quite a following. This is also reflected in religion, which
is respected, followed by many and conservative. Rules are not necessarily followed, however: this
depends on the in-group’s opinion, on whether the group feels the rules are applicable to their
members and it depends, ultimately, on the decision of power holders, who make their own
rules. In work terms this results in detailed planning that may not necessarily be followed in
practice.
The combination of high score here with the scores on the previous dimensions means that it is
difficult to change the status quo, unless a figure of authority is able to amass a large group of
people and lead them towards change.

After Reading:

1. Were your predictions true?

2. Which model do you think is more accurate, the Lewis (Multi Active, Linear Active, Reactive) or
the Hofstede model?
3. Look up other countries on the Hofstede website and see how they rate. Make predictions
before you look them up using hedging language then present the information to other members
of your group. These could be related to your chosen project country. Website:
https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries/

Vocabulary Review:
Write seven sentences to summarize the article you just read. Use one vocabulary word/term in
each sentence.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

The Hofstede Centre. (n.d.). National Culture. Retrieved from http://geert-hofstede.com/national-

culture.html

40
Exam 1: Compare and Contrast
Before you read about Iraq and the Netherlands, write down some ideas that you
know about each country:

After you have read, come back and add more information that you have learned.

Vocabulary: Match the words to their definitions

1. ___blunt a. belief in the equality of all
2. ___egalitarian b. polite behavior and rules
3. ___etiquette c. giving jobs to relatives (even if they are less qualified)
4. ___hierarchical d. direct, perhaps too direct
5. ___nepotism e. belief in a system of social rank
Step 1: Read about either Iraqi or Dutch culture.
IRAQ
Facts and Statistics

Location: Middle East, bordering the Persian Gulf, between Iran and Kuwait

Capital: Baghdad

Climate: mostly desert; mild to cool winters with dry, hot, cloudless summers; northern
mountainous regions along Iranian and Turkish borders experience cold winters with occasionally
heavy snows that melt in early spring, sometimes causing extensive flooding in central and
southern Iraq.

Population: 28,221,180 (July 2008 est.)

Ethnic Make-up: Arab 75%-80%, Kurdish 15%-20%, Turkoman, Assyrian, or other 5%

Religions: Muslim 97%, Christian or other 3%

Government: parliamentary democracy

Language in Iraq

The official language of Iraq is Arabic. Many other languages are spoken by a variety of ethnic
groups, most notably Kurdish. “Iraqi Arabic” (also known as Mesopotamian Arabic [Mesopotamian
Qeltu Arabic, Mesopotamian Gelet Arabic, Baghdadi Arabic, Furati, 'Arabi, Arabi, North Syrian
Arabic) is a variety of Arabic spoken in the Mesopotamian basin of Iraq south of Baghdad as well as
in neighbouring Iran and eastern Syria.

41
Iraqi Society and Culture

The People

The Iraqi population includes a number of ethnic groups, about 77% of whom are Arabs, 19%
Kurds, and the rest a variety of different groups, including Turkomens, Assyrians, and Armenians.
There is also a distinct sub-group of Iraqi Arabs, called the Ma'dan or Marsh Arabs, who inhabit
miles of marshy area just above the point at which the Tigris and Euphrates join together.

Religion

The majority of Iraqis are Muslims regardless of ethnicity. Islam´s position in Iraq went through a
transition during Saddam Hussein’s regime as the state moved from a secular one to one needing
Islam to prop up their actions. At this stage the words “Allahu Akbar” (God is the Greatest) was
added to the flag. During Saddam’s regime only Sunnis held real power.

With the overthrow of Saddam’s regime the Shia majority now hold more power and influence
than in the past. As well as the power shift people have also been able to express their religious
identities a lot more freely.

The Shia and Sunnis are similar in over 95% of their beliefs and practices. The differences are not
as acute as one would think. Essentially the split occurred due to the political question of who
should succeed the Prophet Muhammad as the leader of the community. Major differences
between the two occur in Islamic jurisprudence (i.e. how to pray, how to marry, inheritance) and
minor elements of faith.

Regardless of orientation, Islam prescribes a way of life and it governs political, legal, and social
behavior. It organizes one’s daily life and provides moral guidance for both society and the
individual. The rules of Islam come from the Quran and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad
(known as “hadith”).

Hospitality

Hospitality is an Arab and Muslim tradition deeply engrained in the culture. Visitors are treated as
kings and must always be fed and looked after. A tradition within Islam actually stipulates
someone is allowed to stay in your home for three days before you can question why they are
staying and when they will leave. Invitations to a home must be seen as a great honor and never
turned down.

Family and Honor

Iraqis consider family and honor to be of paramount importance. The extended family or tribe is
both a political and social force. Families hold their members responsible for their conduct, since

42
any wrongdoing brings shame to the entire family. Loyalty to the family comes before other social
relationships, even business.

Nepotism is not viewed negatively; in such a culture it naturally makes more sense to offer jobs to
family, as they are trusted.

It is common for large extended families to live in the same house, compound, or village. In urban
areas, families do not necessarily live in the same house, although they generally live on the same
street or in the same suburb.

Etiquette and Customs in Iraq

Meeting People

 The most common greeting is the handshake coupled with eye contact and a smile.
 The standard Arabic/Islamic greeting is "asalaamu alaikum" ("peace be with you"), to
which the response is "wa alaikum salaam" ("and peace be unto you").
 Good friends of the same sex may greet each other with a handshake and a kiss on each
cheek, starting with the right.
 Expect to be introduced to each person individually at a small social function. At a large
function, you may introduce yourself.

Gift Giving Etiquette

 If you are invited to an Iraqi’s home, bring a box of cookies, pastries or a box of chocolates.
A fruit basket is also appreciated.
 Flowers are being given more and more but only to a hostess.
 If a man must give a gift to a woman, he should say that it is from his wife, mother, sister,
or some other female relation.
 A small gift for the children is always a good touch.
 Gifts are given with two hands.
 Gifts are generally not opened when received.

Dining Etiquette

The culture of hospitality means Iraqis like to invite people to their homes. If you are invited to a
home:

 Check to see if you should remove shoes.

 Dress conservatively and smartly.
 Do not discuss business.
 Iraqi table manners are relatively formal.
 If the meal is on the floor, sit cross-legged or kneel on one knee. Never let your feet touch
the food mat.
 Use the right hand for eating and drinking.

43
  It is considered polite to leave some food on your plate when you have finished eating.

Business Etiquette and Protocol

Meeting and Greeting

 Iraqi businesspeople are relatively formal in their business dealings.

 The common Islamic/Arabic greeting is "asalaamu alaikum" (peace be with you), to which
you should respond "wa alaikum salaam" (and peace be with you).
 The most common business greeting is the handshake with direct eye contact.
 Handshakes can be rather prolonged; try not to be the first person to remove your hand.
 A man should wait to see if a woman extends her hand before extending his.
 Business cards are given out.
 It’s a nice touch to have one side of your card translated into Arabic.

Communication Styles

The need to save face and protect honor means that showing emotions is seen negatively. Displays
of anger are a serious no-no. If you must show disapproval it is always best to do so in a one-on-
one setting, quietly and with tact.

Always keep your word. Do not make a promise or guarantee unless you can keep it. If you want to
show a commitment to something but do not want to make cast iron assurances then employ
terms such as “I will do my best,” “We will see,” or “insha-Allah” (God willing).

Iraqi businesspeople are not afraid of asking blunt and probing questions. These may be about
you, your company or its intentions.

Business Meetings

Due to the hierarchical nature of organisations or businesses the leader of an Iraqi team does most
of the talking for his company or department. Subordinates are there to corroborate information
or to provide technical advice and counsel to the most senior Iraqi.

It is a good idea to send any information or agendas in Arabic in advance. If you are bringing a
team, send the names, titles, and a brief business bio of people attending. Decisions are generally
made by the top of the company, but this will be based on recommendations from pertinent
stakeholders and technical experts who sit in on meetings.

Expect interruptions during meetings when phone calls may be taken or people enter the room on
other matters. This should not be seen negatively; one should simply remain patient and wait for
the meeting to resume.

44
Iraqis often have several side discussions taking place during a meeting. They may
interrupt the speaker if they have something to add. They can be loud and forceful
in getting their point of view across.

THE NETHERLANDS
Facts and Statistics

Location: Western Europe, bordering Belgium 450 km, Germany 577 km

Capital: Amsterdam

Population: 16,318,199 (July 2004 est.)

Ethnic Make-up: Dutch 83%, other 17% (of which 9% are non-European in origin mainly Turks,
Moroccans, Antilleans, Surinamese and Indonesians) (1999 est.)

Religions: Roman Catholic 31%, Protestant 21%, Muslim 4.4%, other 3.6%, unaffiliated 40%

The Dutch Language

Dutch, the official language, is spoken by around 90% of the population. Around 350,000 people,
or 2.2% of the population, speak Frisian as their first language, mainly in the northern province of
Friesland, where it is recognized as an official language. Turkish and Arabic are also spoken in the
Netherlands, each by over 0.6% of the population.

Dutch Society & Culture

The Role of the Family

The Dutch see the family as the foundation of the social structure. Families tend to be small, often
with only one or two children. Relatively few women work outside the house full-time as
compared to many other cultures. This allows mothers to be more available to their children
throughout the entire day.

Dutch Demeanor

Appearances are important to the Dutch. They are disciplined, conservative, and pay attention to
the smallest details. They see themselves as thrifty, hardworking, practical and well organized.
They place high value on cleanliness and neatness.
At the same time, the Dutch are very private
people. They do not draw attention to themselves and do not value the accoutrements of success
highly prized by other western societies. They dislike displays of wealth, as they run counter to
their egalitarian beliefs. They do not boast about their accomplishments or their material
possessions.

45
Egalitarianism

The Dutch are egalitarian and highly tolerant of individual differences. Their children are raised
without gender biases. There is practically no abject poverty in the country because of the social
programs, which, however, also increase the tax burden on workers. This egalitarian outlook is
carried over into the workplace. Even in hierarchical organizations, every person has a right to
their opinion and to have it heard. The boss may be the final decision maker, but she or he will
typically want input from the workers and will strive for consensus. Everyone is valued and shown
respect.

Dutch Privacy

The Dutch are reserved and formal when dealing with outsiders. They are private people and do
not put their possessions or emotions on display. Self-control is seen to be a virtue. The Dutch do
not ask personal questions and will refuse to answer should you be foolish enough to intrude on
their privacy. Personal life is kept separate from business. If a friendship develops at work and is
carried into the personal arena, this camaraderie will not be brought into the office.

Etiquette and Customs in The Netherlands

Meeting and Greeting

The handshake is the common form of greeting. It is firm and swift, accompanied by a smile, and
repetition of your name. Shake hands with everyone individually, including children. Very close
friends may greet each other by air kissing near the cheek three times, starting with the left
cheek. Most Dutch only use first names with family and close friends. Wait until invited before
moving to a first-name basis.

Gift Giving Etiquette

If invited to a Dutch home bring a box of good quality chocolates, a potted plant, a book, or flowers
to the hostess. Flowers should be given in odd numbers, but not 13, which is unlucky. Avoid giving
white lilies or chrysanthemums, as these are associated with funerals. Gifts should be wrapped
nicely. Wine is not a good gift if invited for dinner, as the host may already have selected the wines
for dinner. Do not give pointed items such as knives or scissors as they are considered unlucky.
Gifts are usually opened when received.

Dining Etiquette

Dining is fairly formal in the Netherlands. Table manners are Continental -- the fork is held in the
left hand and the knife in the right while eating. Remain standing until invited to sit down. You may
be shown to a particular seat. Men generally remain standing until all the women have taken their
seats. If you have not finished eating, cross your knife and fork in the middle of the plate with the
fork over the knife. Do not begin eating until the hostess starts. Most food is eaten with utensils,
including sandwiches. The host gives the first toast. An honored guest should return the toast later

46
in the meal. Salad is not cut; fold the lettuce on your fork. Always start with small amounts so you
may accept second helpings. Finish everything on your plate. It is offensive to waste food in the
Netherlands. Indicate you have finished eating by laying your knife and fork parallel across the right
side of your plate.

Business Etiquette and Protocol

Building Relationships & Communication

Many Dutch are familiar with doing business with foreigners since the Netherlands has a long
history of international trade. They will want to know your academic credentials and the amount
of time your company has been in business. The business community is rather close and most
senior level people know one another. Older, more bureaucratic companies may still judge you by
how you are introduced so it is wise to have a third-party introduction if possible, although it is not
mandatory. The important thing is to demonstrate how your relationship would be beneficial for
both sides. The Dutch take a long-term perspective when looking at business, so be clear what
your company's intentions are. Since the Dutch value their personal time, do not ask them to work
late or come in over the weekend if you want to foster a good working relationship. The Dutch are
hospitable, yet this is often reserved for family and friends. In business they tend to be reserved
and formal. They do not touch one another and appreciate it when those they do business with
maintain the proper distance, do not demonstrate emotion or use exaggerated hand gestures. The
Dutch are extremely direct in their communication. They may sound blunt if you come from a
culture where communication is more indirect and context driven. They do not use hyperbole, and
likewise they expect to be told yes or no in clear words. In general, ideas will be discussed quite
openly at meetings, with everyone entitled to their opinion. Information is shared across
departments and corporate strategies and goals are usually communicated to all employees,
especially in more entrepreneurial companies. Decisions are often consensus-driven in these
cases. Always appear modest and do not make exaggerated claims about what you or your
company can deliver. Your word is your bond and making claims that later prove to be untrue will
brand you as unreliable.

Business Meeting Etiquette

Do not try to schedule meetings during the summer (June through August), as this is a common
vacation period. Punctuality for meetings is taken extremely seriously. Being late may mark you as
untrustworthy and someone who may not meet other deadlines. If you expect to be delayed,
telephone immediately and offer an explanation. Canceling a meeting at the last minute could
jeopardize your business relationship. Meetings are rather formal in nature. Little time is spent on
pleasantries. Meetings adhere to strict agendas, including starting and ending times. Do not
attempt to deviate from the agenda. Maintain direct eye contact while speaking.

47
Negotiations

The Dutch prefer to get down to business quickly and engage in relatively little small talk.
Communication is direct and to the point, and may seem blunt. Make sure your arguments are
rational as opposed to emotional. Use facts and figures to confirm your statements. Business is
conducted slowly. The Dutch are detail-oriented and want to understand every innuendo before
coming to an agreement. Decision-making is consensus driven. Anyone who might be affected by
the decision is consulted, which greatly increases the time involved in reaching a final decision.
Avoid confrontational behavior or high- pressure tactics. Once a decision is made, it will not be
changed. Contracts are enforced strictly.(Retrieved from
http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/country-profiles.html)

Step 2: Fill out the chart in class with a partner, comparing both
cultures.
Dutch Culture Iraqi Culture

Cultural
Aspect 1

Cultural
Aspect 2

Cultural
Aspect 3

48
Cultural
Aspect 4

Step 3: Switch partners and teach them about what you´ve learned.

Using the information from the chart, as well as the grammar practice below,
write a short paragraph comparing and contrasting the two cultures.
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
In the second project, you will be expected to compare and contrast your chosen
culture with that of Colombia. Please keep in mind the need for using different
compare/contrast language depending on sentence structure and meaning.

49
 Contrast Signal Words
NP=Noun Phrase STC=Sentence
Transition Words and Phrases
however Millions of people go on diets every year.
nevertheless However/nevertheless/nonetheless/still, very few succeed in losing weight.
nonetheless
still
Vallenato is popular primarily in Colombia. In contrast/In comparison/On the
in contrast other hand, salsa has become famous across the globe.
in (by) comparison
on the other hand Jazz is not just one style of music. On the contrary, jazz has many styles such as
Chicago jazz, Dixieland, ragtime, swing, bebop, and cool jazz, to name a few.
on the contrary* *On the contrary contrasts a truth and an untruth.
Subordinators
although Although/Even though/Though organic food is often quite expensive, more and
even though more people are buying it.
though*
More and more people are buying organic food although/even though it is often
quite expensive.

while* While/whereas New Orleans-style jazz features brass marching-band instruments,

whereas*
despite (NP, STC)
in spite of (NP, STC)
ragtime is played on a piano.
*If you use though, while, or whereas in the middle of a sentence, put a comma before it.
Others
Despite/In spite of a decades-long investigation, scientists are still not able to read
Zapotec script.

Scientists are still not able to read Zapotec script despite/in spite of a decades-
long investigation.

differ (from) Present-day rock music differs from early rock music in several ways.

compared (to/with) Present-day rock music has a greater sound compared to/compared with early
rock.
(be) different (from)
The punk, rap, grunge, and techno styles of today are very different from/unlike
the rock music performed by Elvis Presley 50 years ago, but they have the same
(be) unlike roots.
Unlike Cali, which is known for salsa, Buenos Aires is primarily famous for tango.
Adapted from Oshima, A., & Hogue, A. (2006). Writing academic English (4th ed.). White Plains: Pearson Education.

50
Contrast Signal Words Practice
A. Fill in the blanks with the correct contrast signal word. Remember to use correct
punctuation as needed.
1. The World Cup in Brazil has been very popular. _____________ there are many people
who are quite critical of it.

2. Many Brazilians have celebrated the games and are actively participating in the
festivities. ________________ others have staged large protests against what they see as
the excesses of the games.

3. ________________ the protesters have been vocal, their demands have not been met.

4. Each team has two jersey colors. _______________ the home color may be blue, the
away color might be red.

5. The playing style of the Colombian team ______________ that of the Japanese team.

B. Complete the sentences. Remember to use correct punctuation as needed.

1. The fans know that soccer players often pretend to be hurt. Still ___________________

_________________________________________________________________________

2. Unlike football hooligans, who are often violent after games, regular fans___________

_________________________________________________________________________

3. Whereas the Colombian team wears a yellow jersey ____________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

4. Despite years of practice, _______________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

5. _______________________________________________________________________
______________________________ even though the tickets are very expensive.

C. Read the list of contrast signal words again. Pick three words that you have difficulty
with, and write sentences with them in the spaces below.

1. _______________________________________________________________________

2. _______________________________________________________________________

3. _______________________________________________________________________

51
Comparison Signal Words
NP=Noun Phrase STC=Sentence
Transition Words and Phrases
similarly Human workers can detect malfunctions in machinery. Similarly/Likewise,
likewise a robot can be programmed to detect equipment malfunctions.

also Robots have been designed to make human life easier. Also, they may
too cost less to operate in the long run.

Human workers can detect malfunctions in machinery. A robot can

also/too.
Subordinators
just as Robots can detect malfunctions in machinery, just as human workers can.
Coordinators
both…and Both robots and human workers can detect malfunctions in machinery.
not only…but also* Not only can robots detect malfunctions in machinery, but they can also
repair them.
neither…nor Neither robots nor human workers are perfect.

*Remember to invert the word order in the first clause when using not only…but also.
Others
like (+NP) Robots, like/just like, human workers, can detect malfunctions in
just like (+NP) machinery.

be like (+NP) Robots are like human workers in their ability to detect malfunctions in
machinery.

be alike* Robots and human workers are alike/are similar (in their ability to detect
be similar* malfunctions in machinery).

*You can end a sentence with be alike/be similar.

Adapted from Oshima, A., & Hogue, A. (2006). Writing academic English (4th ed.). White Plains: Pearson Education.

52
Comparison Signal Words Practice
A. Complete the following sentences.
1. Lemons and oranges are alike in that_________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. Eating fruit is a good way to stay healthy likewise _______________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

3. Lulos, like zapote, ________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

B. Rewrite the following sentences using not only…but also.

1. Mangoes are great as juice. Mangoes are great in salads.

_________________________________________________________________________

2. The farmers grew pineapple. Farmers sold pineapples to distributors.

_________________________________________________________________________

C. Rewrite the following sentences using neither…nor.

1. Limes are not sweet enough without sugar. Lulos are also too sour.

_________________________________________________________________________

2. Jaime doesn’t like granadillas. He also doesn’t like guavas.

_________________________________________________________________________

D. Read the list of comparison signal words again. Pick three words that you have
difficulty with, and write sentences with them in the spaces below.

1. _______________________________________________________________________

2. ______________________________________________________________________

3. _______________________________________________________________________

53
MODULE 2: SUBCULTURE
________________________________________________________

Objectives for Module 2:

• Understand the concept of subculture
• Identify subcultures based on religion, race and ethnicity.
• Recognize subcultures in Colombia
• Grammar objectives: Reported speech and would (past tense)

________________________________________________________

What is a Subculture?
Using the people in the pictures as representative examples of
Subcultures and your own knowledge of the world, write a definition
for “subculture” in the space provided. When you have your
definition written, compare it with a classmate.

A subculture is…

a. b. c.

54
Read the following definitions and compare them to the one you wrote in
the box above.

a. In sociology, a subculture is a culture or set of people with distinct

behavior and beliefs within a larger culture. The essence of a
subculture, that distinguishes it from other social groupings, is
awareness of style and differences in style, in clothing, music or other
interests.

Retrieved from http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Subculture Nov. 01, 2010.

b. An identifiably separate social group within a larger culture,

especially one regarded as existing outside mainstream society
Retrieved from http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_1861716431/subculture.html Nov 01, 2010

c. An ethnic, regional, economic, or social group exhibiting

characteristic patterns of behavior sufficient to distinguish it from
others within an embracing culture or society <a criminal subculture>

Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/subculture Nov. 01, 2010

How close was your definition in exercise 1 to the ones above?

What do the people in these pictures have in common?

______________________________________________________________________

What are examples of subcultures in Colombia? How are they perceived?

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

55
 Subculture
Vocabulary: Match the words to their definitions
1. ___counterculture a. majority culture, with power and control
2. ___cultural b. distinguish ,mark as different
appropriation
3. ___differentiate c. a subculture that goes against the dominant culture
4. ___dominant culture d. something passed down to us from ancestors, like culture (not herencia)
5. ___heritage e. something that is against the mainstream, like the government
6___majority f. majority culture copying superficial aspects of a subculture without
following the beliefs or traditions
7. ___mainstream g. the principal, dominant culture of a society
8. ___minority h. the largest part
9. ___subversive i. a subculture within a majority culture, often with less power and control

Complex societies such as the United States are made up of a large number of groups with
which people identify and from which are derived distinctive values and norms and rules for
behavior. These groups have been labeled subcultures. A subculture resembles a culture in
that it usually encompasses a relatively large number of people and represents the
accumulation of generations of human striving. However, subcultures have some important
differences: They exist within dominant cultures and are often based on economic or social
class, ethnicity, race, or geographic region.

Economic or Social Class

It can be argued that socioeconomic status or social class can be the basis for a subculture
(Brislin, 1988). Social class has traditionally been defined as a position in a society’s hierarchy
based on income, education, occupation, and neighborhood. Gilbert and Kahl (1982) argue
that in the United States, the basis of social class is income and that other markers of social
class follow from income level. For example, income determines to some extent whom you
marry or choose as a lover, your career, and the neighborhood in which you are likely to live.

Kohn (1977) has shown that middle-class and working-class parents emphasize different
values when raising children. Middle-class parents emphasize self-control, intellectual
curiosity, and consideration for others. The desired outcomes of self-direction and empathic
understanding transfer easily to professional and managerial jobs that require intellectual
curiosity and good social skills. Working-class parents emphasize obedience, neatness, and
good manners. Gilbert and Kahl (1982) argue that these lead to concern with external
standards, such as obedience to authority, acceptance of what other people think, and
hesitancy in expressing desires to authority figures. These working-class concerns can be a
detriment in schools, with their emphasis on verbal skills. The resulting learned behaviors
transfer more directly to supervised wage labor jobs. Although these observations are based
on large numbers of students, they should not be interpreted to apply to any one family.
Working-class parents who encourage verbal skills through reading and conversation have
children who are as successful in school. Although the United States does have social classes

56
that have been shown to have different values, many people in the United States believe that
these barriers of social class are easier to transcend in the United States than in other
countries.

Ethnicity

Another basis for subcultures is ethnicity. The term ethnic group is like the term race in that its
definition has changed over time. Its different definitions reflect a continuing social debate.
Ethnic group can refer to a group of people of the same descent and heritage who share a
common and distinctive culture passed on through generations (Zenner, 1996). For some,
tribes would be a more understood term. In Afghanistan, for example, people identify by
tribes—Tajiks and Pashtuns. According to some estimates, there are 5,000 ethnic groups in
the world (Stavenhagen, 1986). Ethnic groups can exhibit such distinguishing features as
language of accent, physical features, family names, customs, and religion. Ethnic identity
refers to identification with and perceived acceptance into a group with shared heritage and
culture (Collier & Thomas, 1988).

Sometimes the word minority is used by some. Technically, of course, the word minority is
used to describe numerical designations. A group might be a minority, then, if it has a smaller
number of people than a majority group with a larger number. In the United States, the word
majority has political associations as in the “majority rules,” a term used so commonly in the
United States that the two words have almost become synonymous. According to the Oxford
English Dictionary, the term minority was first used to describe ethnic groups in 1921. Since
that time, advantage has been associated with the majority and disadvantage has been
associated with the minority.

(Excerpt from: Jandt, Fred E. (2007). An Introduction to Intercultural Communication:

Identities in a Global Community. Sage Publications: CA, USA)

In sociology, anthropology, and cultural studies, a subculture is a group of people with a

culture (whether distinct or hidden) which differentiates them from the larger culture to
which they belong; for example, if a particular subculture is characterized by a systematic
opposition to the dominant culture, it may be described as a counterculture.

As early as 1950, David Riesman distinguished between a majority, "which passively accepted
commercially provided styles and meanings, and a 'subculture' which actively sought a
minority style ... and interpreted it in accordance with subversive values." In his 1979 book
Subculture: The Meaning of Style, Dick Hebdige argued that a subculture is subversion of
normalcy. He wrote that subcultures can be perceived as negative due to their nature of
criticism of the dominant societal standard. Hebdige argued that subcultures bring together
like-minded individuals who feel neglected by societal standards and allow them to develop a
sense of bonds.

The study of subcultures often consists of the study of symbolism attached to clothing, music
and other visible affectations by members of subcultures, and also the ways in which these
same symbols are interpreted by members of the dominant culture. According to Dick
Hebdige, members of a subculture often signal their membership through a distinctive and
symbolic use of style, which includes fashions, mannerisms, and argot.
57
It may be difficult to identify certain subcultures because their style (particularly clothing and
music) may be adopted by mass culture for commercial purposes. Businesses often seek to
capitalize on the subversive allure of subcultures in search of cool, which remains valuable in
the selling of any product. This process of cultural appropriation may often result in the
death or evolution of the subculture, as its members adopt new styles that appear alien to
mainstream society. This process provides a constant stream of styles which may be
commercially adopted. Retrieved from http://www.curryguide.com/topic/114/Subcultures
(Feb 08, 2011)

Tasks

1. What is not a characteristic of a subculture?

a. smaller group of people that exist within a larger group
b. based upon ethnicity, religion, social class, sexuality, etc.
c. thinks they’re superior to the dominant culture
d. often discriminated against by majority culture

2. What is the difference between race and ethnicity?

3. According to the article, how does class influence the values that parents teach their
children? How do these values eventually affect their possible careers? Can you think
of any counterarguments?
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

4. A counterculture agrees with the dominant culture. True or False?

5. How have the images of Che Guevara and Bob Marley been culturally appropriated
into mainstream culture?
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

6. Which of the following are subcultures in Colombia? (Choose all that apply)
a. emos b. hippies c. skaters d. surfers e. punk rockers

N.B. Look at the underlined phrases in paragraph 2. Grammatically, what are they examples of?
Why do you think these grammar points have been used in these cases?

58
 A Brief Summary of the Major World Religions

Vocabulary: Match the words to their definitions

1. ___achieve a. a person who starts something
2. ___attain b. to abstain from food or drink
3. ___deed c. to reach some status
4. ___enlightenment d. the state that Buddhists and Hindus wanto to reach where they are free
from the suffering of rebirth – comparable to “heaven” in some ways
5. ___founder e. clear thinking that is free from delusion; the mental state of a spiritual
master
6. ___to found f. to attain something through effort
7. ___holy g. sacred
8.____monotheism h. belif in many gods
9.___polytheism i. an action
10.___nirvana j. the idea that actions have consequences
11.___karma k. to start an organization
12.___to fast l. belief in one God

A. Before you read:

1. Your teacher will assign you a religion to read about. As you read, prepare to teach your group
about it, especially concerning main beliefs (including quotes), holy books, founders, dates,
relationships to other religions, and other interesting facts.
2. As the other group-members present their assigned religion, take notes in the chart below the
readings.

1. BUDDHISM

Buddhism comes from the region that is present-day Nepal, a region that followed Hindu beliefs.
Buddhism developed out of the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama who, in 535 BCE, reached
enlightenment and assumed the title Buddha. He promoted 'The Middle Way' as the path to
enlightenment rather than the extremes of mortification of the flesh or hedonism. Long after his
death the Buddha's teachings were written down. This collection is called the Tripitaka. Buddhists
believe in reincarnation and that one must go through cycles of birth, life, and death. After many
such cycles, if a person releases their attachment to desire and the self, they can attain Nirvana. In
general, Buddhists do not believe in any type of God, the need for a savior, prayer, or eternal life
after death. However, since the time of the Buddha, Buddhism has integrated many regional
religious rituals, beliefs and customs into it as it has spread throughout Asia, so that this
generalization is no longer true for all Buddhists. This has occurred with little conflict due to the
philosophical nature of Buddhism. Meditation and acting out of kindness are important practices
in Buddhism.

“Holding on to anger is like grasping a hot coal with the intent of throwing it at someone else but
you are the one who gets burned” — The Buddha.

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2. CHRISTIANITY

Christianity is a monotheistic religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as
presented in the New Testament.

Its followers, known as Christians, believe that Jesus is the son of God and the Messiah (or Christ)
prophesied in the Old Testament, the part of their scriptures they have in common with Judaism.
To Christians, Jesus Christ is a teacher, the model of a virtuous life, the revealer of God, and most
importantly the savior of humanity who suffered, died, and was resurrected in order to bring
about salvation from sin. Christians maintain that Jesus ascended into heaven, and most
denominations teach that Jesus will return to judge the living and the dead, granting everlasting
life to his followers. Christians describe the New Testament account of Jesus' ministry as the
Gospel, or "good news". - 2 - Like Judaism and Islam, Christianity is classified as an Abrahamic
religion. It began as a Jewish sect in the eastern Mediterranean. The disciples were first called
Christians (Greek Χριστιανός) by or about 44 AD,[9], meaning "followers of Christ", in Antioch.
Ignatius of Antioch was the first Christian to use the label in self-reference. The earliest recorded
use of the term Christianity (Greek Χριστιανισμός) was also by Ignatius of Antioch, around 100 AD.
By the 4th century, Christianity had become the dominant religion in the Roman Empire. During
the Middle Ages, most of the remainder of Europe was Christianized, with Christians also being a
(sometimes large) religious minority in the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of India. Following
the Age of Discovery, through missionary work and colonization, Christianity spread to the
Americas and the rest of the world. As of the early 21st century, Christianity has between 1.5
billion and 2.1 billion adherents, representing about a quarter to a third of the world's population.
It is the state religion of at least fifteen countries. There are a multitude of forms of Christianity
which have developed either because of disagreements on dogma, adaptation to different
cultures, or simply personal taste. For this reason there can be a great difference between the
various forms of Christianity. They may seem like different religions to some people. The main
branches are the Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox faiths.

Sacred Writings: The Bible

"But love your enemies, and do good, and lend, expecting nothing in return; and your reward will
be great, and you will be sons of the Most High; for He Himself is kind to ungrateful and evil men.”
Luke 6:35, The New Testament
3. HINDUISM

The origins of Hinduism can be traced to the Indus Valley civilization in present-day Pakistan and
India, sometime between 4000 and 2500 BCE. Though believed by many to be a polytheistic
religion, the basis of Hinduism is the belief in the unity of everything. This totality is called
Brahman. The purpose of life is to realize that we are part of God, and by doing so we can leave
this plane of existence and rejoin with God. This enlightenment can only be achieved by going
through cycles of birth, life and death known as samsara. One's progress towards enlightenment is
measured by his karma. This is the accumulation of all one's good and bad deeds and this
determines the person's next reincarnation. Selfless acts and thoughts, as well as devotion to God
help one to be reborn at a higher level. Bad acts and thoughts will cause one to be born at a lower
level, as a person or even an animal. Hindus follow a strict caste system which determines the
standing of each person. The caste one is born into is the result of the karma from their previous
life. Only members of the highest caste, the Brahmins, may perform the Hindu religious rituals and
hold positions of authority within the temples.

60
Sacred Writings: The Vedas, The Upanishads, The Mahabharata, The Ramayana

“The person who is always involved in good deeds experiences incessant divine happiness.”
– The Rig Veda

4. ISLAM

Islam was founded in 622 CE by Muhammad the Prophet, in Mecca, present-day Saudi Arabia.
Though it is the youngest of the Abrahamic religions, Muslims do not view it as a new religion.
They believe that it is the same faith taught by the prophets, Abraham, David, Moses and Jesus.
The role of Muhammad as the last prophet was to formalize and clarify the faith and purify it by
removing ideas which were added in error. The two sacred texts of Islam are the Qur'an, which are
the words of Allah 'the One True God' as given to Muhammad, and the Hadith, which is a
collection of Muhammad's sayings. - 3 -The duties of all Muslims are known as the Five Pillars of
Islam and are:

• Recite the shahadah at least once.

• Perform the salat (prayer) 5 times a day while facing the Kaaba in Makkah
• Donate regularly to charity via the zakat, a 2.5% charity tax, and through additional
donations to the needy.
• Fast during the month of Ramadan, the month that Muhammad received the Qur'an from
Allah.
• Make pilgrimage to Makkah at least once in life, if economically and physically possible.

Muslims follow a strict monotheism with one creator who is just, omnipotent and merciful. They
also believe in Satan who drives people to sin, and that all unbelievers and sinners will spend
eternity in hell. Muslims who sincerely repent and submit to God will return to a state of
sinlessness and go to Paradise after death. Alcohol, drugs, and gambling should be avoided, and
Muslims reject racism. They respect the earlier prophets, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, but regard
the concept of the divinity of Jesus as blasphemous and do not believe that he was executed on
the cross.

Sacred Writings: The Qur’an, The Hadith

“The well-to-do and the rich among you should not fail to give to relatives, the destitute, and
Emigrants for the cause of God. Be considerate and forgiving. Do you not want God to forgive you?
God is All-forgiving and All-merciful.” - The Qur’an, as translated by Muhammad Sarwar

5. JUDAISM

Judaism, Christianity, Islam and the Baha'i faith all originated with a divine covenant between the
God of the ancient Israelites and Abraham around 2000 BCE. The next leader of the Israelites,
Moses, led his people out of captivity in Egypt and received the Law from God. Joshua later led
them into the promised land where Samuel established the Israelite kingdom with Saul as its first
king. King David established Jerusalem and King Solomon built the first temple there. In 70 CE the
temple was destroyed and the Jews were scattered throughout the world until 1948 when the
state of Israel was formed. Jews believe in one creator who alone is to be worshipped as absolute
ruler of the universe. He monitors people’s activities and rewards good deeds and punishes evil.
The Torah was revealed to Moses by God and cannot be changed though God does communicate

61
with the Jewish people through prophets. Jews believe in the inherent goodness of the world and
its inhabitants as creations of God and do not require a savior to save them from original sin. They
believe they are God's chosen people and that the Messiah will arrive in the future and gather
them into Israel. There will be a general resurrection of the dead, and the Jerusalem Temple
destroyed in 70 CE will be rebuilt.

Sacred Writings: The Law and The Prophets, The Psalms, The Talmud

“Who takes vengeance or bears a grudge acts like one who, having cut one hand while handling a
knife, avenges himself by stabbing the other hand.” — Jerusalem Talmud, Nedarim 9.4

6. SIKHISM

The Sikh faith was founded by Shri Guru Nanak Dev Ji in the Punjab area, now Pakistan. He began
preaching the way to enlightenment and God after receiving a vision. After his death a series of
nine Gurus (regarded as reincarnations of Guru Nanak) led the movement until 1708. At this time
these functions passed to the Panth and the holy text. This text, the Shri Guru Granth Sahib, was
compiled by the tenth Guru, Gobind Singh. It consists of hymns and writings of the first 10 Gurus,
along with texts from different Muslim and Hindu saints. The holy text is considered the 11th and
final Guru. Sikhs believe in a single formless God with many names, who can be known through
meditation. Sikhs pray many times each day and are prohibited from worshipping idols or icons.
They believe in samsara, karma, and reincarnation as Hindus do but reject the caste system. They
believe that everyone has equal status in the eyes of God. During the 18th century, there were a
number of attempts to prepare an accurate portrayal of Sikh customs. Sikh scholars and
theologians started in 1931 to prepare the Reht Maryada -- the Sikh code of conduct and
conventions. This has successfully achieved a high level of uniformity in the religious and social
practices of Sikhism throughout the world. Sikhs often follow five practices: 1) Uncut hair which is
covered by a turban, 2) Carrying a small dagger, 3) Wearing a steel bracelet symbolic of resilience,
4) Wearing a small wooden comb in their hair, and 5) Men wear special cotton boxer shorts,
symbolic of self control. Men often have the last name Singh, while women have the last name
Kaur.

Sacred Writings: Shri Guru Granth Sahib

“Where there is forgiveness, there God resides — Kabir

Ecumenical and Multifaith Unit, Diocese of New Westminster. (n.d.) A brief summary of the major
world religions. Retrieved from
http://www.vancouver.anglican.ca/portals/0/downloads/program/emu-worldreligions.pdf

62
B. After you read: Fill out the chart as your classmates teach you about each religion

Buddhism

Christianity

Hinduism

Islam

Judaism

Sikhism

After you read and present to one another, discuss:

1. List the religions from oldest to youngest.

2. What is the relationship between Christianity, Islam, and Judaism?

3. What is the relationship between Hindusim, Buddhism, Sikhism (and to some extent Islam)?

63
 TED TALK: Majede Najar – Why I wear a hijab
Before you watch the video, to the right is a photo of
the speaker, Majede Najar. Explain to your partner why
you think she wears her headscarf (hijab) and how you
think it makes her feel.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_SYvYBxt_Dg

Listening activity:

a) Medeje mentions four reasons for wearing the hijab. What are they?
1.
2.
3.
4.
b) Complete the sentence from the listening:
“The hijab symbolizes ………….. to women, not ……………….”

Based on what you heard, what does Majede mean by this?

Vocabulary: lexical sets.

One way of learning vocabulary is through theme. This is when you think of
an overall topic and learn vocabulary related to that topic. For example, cat,
dog, bird and crocodile all belong to the lexical set of animals.

The following article is based on the themes of religion and law. Before we
begin, think about what words you know related to law. When you’ve
finished reading the text, add the extra vocabulary you read which is also
related to law.

Law

64
Reading task 1: Match the heading to the correct part of the article

a) How widespread is it?

b) Why has the ban been implemented?

c) Is there a backlash?

d) Why are we asking this now?

e) What are people saying about it?

Burkini ban: Why is France arresting Muslim women for

wearing full-body swimwear and why are people so angry?

The Big Question: As more towns are bringing in bans - what impact are they
having on France?

1. ……………………………………………………….

What started as a temporary rule brought in by a single resort in France has spread along the
country’s world-famous Riviera and beyond to become a lightning rod for a multitude of divisive
issues.
The imposition of local by-laws on swimwear may seem minor but the “burkini bans” have tapped
into division over immigration, sexism, religion and extremism as the country continues to reel
from a series of deadly terror attacks by Isis supporters.

The debate is seeing France’s constitutional secularism pitted against freedom of religion, with
emotions running high on both sides.

Proponents argue the move preserves “security and secularism”, while critics have condemned it
as a sexist attack on human rights that can be a valuable recruiting tool for Isis and other jihadist
groups propagating the idea of a war on Muslims in the West.

65
 2. ……………………………………………………….

The bans have been implemented individually by various cities and communes in France’s coast,
with each giving slightly different reasons.

The first city to announce the prohibition was Cannes, where mayor David Lisnard said he wanted
to prohibit “beachwear ostentatiously showing a religious affiliation while France and places of
religious significance are the target of terror attacks” to avoid “trouble to public order”.

A by-law said anyone wearing swimwear deemed not to “respect good customs and secularism”
would be barred from visiting the resort’s beaches or swimming.

The second commune to announce a burkini ban, Villeneuve-Loubet, was not so direct with
allusions to terror and extremism.

Its rule stipulates that only clothing that “is respectful to morality and secular principles, and in
compliance with hygiene and safety rules” is allowed.

Mayor Lionnel Luca also cited unspecified “hygiene reasons” for banning full-body swimwear.

A tribunal in Nice that upheld the ban in Villeneuve-Loubet on Monday ruled that it was
“necessary, appropriate and proportionate” to prevent public disorder.

None of the orders have directly mentioned burkinis – an all-encompassing term for modest
swimwear that covers the body and hair – and some people have questioned whether police
would enforce the ban for wetsuits, nuns’ habits and other garments.

3. ……………………………………………………….

Authorities in at least 15 towns and cities have so far brought in bans, with the most recent being
Cagnes-sur-Mer in Provence.

It announced its degree on Tuesday evening, following several nearby areas.

Many more are said to be considering drawing up similar laws, although a wave of new
prohibitions is considered less likely as the summer draws to a close.

66
But the news of burkini bans has spread around the world, gaining support from right-wing
politicians.

Germany is separately considering a nationwide ban on full-face veils, which is already enforced in
Belgium.

4. ……………………………………………………….

Right-wing politicians have praised the ban, which comes as France continues its nationwide
prohibition on full-face veils in public.

Marine Le Pen, leader of the far-right Front National, claimed the “soul of France is in question”,
writing in a blog: “France will not lock away a woman’s body, France does not hide half of its
population under the fallacious and hateful pretext that the other half fears it will be tempted.”

But critics have compared the enforcement of the ban to repression in Saudi Arabia and Iran,
arguing that ordering women what to wear is a violation of human rights in any context

Some have condemned attempted justifications by local authorities as mere “excuses” for sexist
and Islamophobic discrimination.

The bans are widely perceived to be a response to increased tensions and public fears following
the Nice attack, when an Isis supporter mowed down 86 people celebrating Bastille Day on 14 July,
and the murder of a Catholic priest by Isis supporters.

Some rights groups have said the new laws amount to the “collective punishment” of Muslims
following the terror attacks and amid friction over immigration and the refugee crisis.

France’s Human Rights League said the burkini bans were a “serious and illegal attack on
numerous fundamental rights” and an abuse of France’s secular principles.

5. ……………………………………………………….

Yes. The hashtag #WTFFrance was trending on Wednesday as outrage spread around the world
over photos of a Muslim being forced to remove her top by armed police on a beach in Nice.

67
There was widespread condemnation over the stark image of a kneeling woman taking off her top
while surrounded by three male police officers, standing around her armed with guns and pepper
spray.

Footage of several other incidents has provoked alarm, showing women being fined or ordered to
get out of the sea, with some onlookers shouting racist or xenophobic abuse.

Some opponents have been calling for a “Burkini Day” or for flashmobs to take to France’s
beaches to protest the rules.

Meanwhile, terror analysts are warning that the dispute will fuel jihadist propaganda as groups
like Isis attempt to portray France and other Western countries as at war with Muslims.

“If the aim of the terrorists who took so many innocent lives in Paris, Nice and elsewhere was to
foment hatred and conflict, and to provoke the French state into an overreaction, then the French
authorities have more than fulfilled their unsavoury ambitions,” an Independent editorial said.

“Victimising and bullying Muslim women on holiday is not only bad PR, it is wrong in principle and
entirely counterproductive.”

Extract taken from https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/burkini-ban-why-is-france-arresting-muslim-women-for-

wearing-full-body-swimwear-and-why-are-people-a7207971.html

Reading task 2: comprehension tasks

Complete the following table with reasons for and against the burkini ban in France.

Reasons for the ban Reasons against the ban

68
Grammar

a) What is the name of the underlined grammar from the text? Why is it used?

Lisnard said he wanted to prohibit beach wear which shows religious affiliation.

b) Match the examples of the grammar on the left with the direct speech on the right:

Direct
“Critics have compared the enforcement of
the ban to repression in Saudi Arabia and
Iran.”
“France will not lock away a woman’s body.”
“I want to prohibit beach wear which shows
religious affiliation”
“Why are we asking this now?”
“There was widespread condemnation over
the stark image…”
“… critics have condemned it as a sexist attack
on human rights that can be a valuable
recruiting tool for Isis…”
“Is there a backlash?”
“Meanwhile, terror analysists are warning that
the dispute will fuel jihadist propaganda…”
Indirect
Lisnard said he wanted to prohibit beach wear
which shows religious affiliation.
The article remarked that there had been
widespread condemnation over the stark
image…
The article stated that critics had compared
the enforcement of the ban to repression in
Saudi Arabia and Iran.
The article claimed that terror analysists were
warning that the dispute will fuel jihadist
propaganda.
Marine Le Pen said that France would not lock
away a woman’s body.
The article suggests that the ban could be a
valuable recruiting tool for Isis.
The author asks why we are asking this now.
The author wonders whether there would be a
backlash.

c) Complete the gaps below with the appropriate word or phrase:

To report something in the present simple we usually use ___________.

To report something in the present perfect we usually use ___________.

To report something in the past simple we usually use ___________.
To report something in the present continuous we usually use ___________.
To report ‘will’ we use ___________.
To report ‘can’ we use ___________.
We don’t need ‘if’ or ‘whether’ to report ‘wh’ questions. Instead we use __________.
To report questions beginning with auxiliaries and modals we use ‘if’ or __________.

69
GRAMMAR: EXAM PRACTICE

d) The following exam questions are from the APTIS. What do you think the correct answer is in
each case?

1. “I have something to tell you”.

He told me _____________ something to tell _____________.

2. “Can you bring me the bill, please?”.

He asked the waiter _____________ he _____________ bring him the bill.

3. “I’ll call the manager”.

She said she _____________ call the manager.

4. “I’ve stopped eating meat”.

She said she _____________ eating meat.

5. “Alice was living in Detroit when I met her”.

She said that Alice _____________ living in Detroit when she _____________ her.

e) Now choose from the 3 options given:

1. “I have something to tell you”.

He told me _____________ something to tell _____________.

a) he had / me
b) he has / me
c) he had / him

2. “Can you bring me the bill, please”.

He asked the waiter _____________ he _____________ bring him the bill.

a) ----------- / could
b) if / could
c) why / can

70
3. “I’ll call the manager”.

She said she _____________ call the manager.

a) will
b) would
c) must

4. “I’ve stopped eating meat”.

She said she _____________ eating meat.

a) is stopped
b) have stopped
c) had stopped

5. “Alice was living in Detroit when I met her”.

She said that Alice _____________ living in Detroit when she _____________ her.

a) was / had met

b) had been / had met
c) was being / had met

f) Rewrite the following text in reported speech

“I am a Muslim woman living in Nice. A few weeks ago I was invited to go to the beach with some
friends. I arrived at 10.00 with my mum, who was dropping me off. We were having a great time
listening to music and I got hot, so I decided to go for a swim. All of a sudden, a police officer
asked me to get out of the sea and told me that I had to go home as my burkini was offending
other people on the beach. I couldn’t believe it.”

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

71
Afro-Latinos: Race and Racism in Latin America

Watch the following clip from Al Jazeera focusing on Afro-Latinos in Latin

America. As you listen, answer the questions.

Skin Color in the Dominican Republic

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zubBxJsqdlI&feature=plcp

1. Why can`t Angel Luis Josep get a Dominican passport in order to get
a visa to play baseball in the US?

a. his parents are Dominican-born b. he was born in Haiti

c. he`s black d. he`s no longer considered a citizen

2. In 1937, under Trujillo`s regime, _______________ Haitians were

massacred in order to ``whiten`` the Dominican Republic.

3. Tahira Vargas laughed when she said Dominicans call her rubia. What
can we infer about Dominican ideas of blondness? Rubia means…
a. having blond hair b. having white skin

c. having blue eyes d. being mestiza

4. What do you know about the history of the Dominican Republic and
Haiti?

5. What do you know about racism in Latin America?

72
 To Be Dominican is to Not Be Haitian:
Development of Dominican Racial Identity through Antihaitianismo and the Indio Myth

by Lissette Hazoury, '16

Vocabulary: Match the word to its definition

1.__ of a. admit, accept as true
(African/European/Indigenous)
descent
2. __inquire b. admit
3. __phenotype c. get rid of
4. __acknowledge d. having ancestors from a certain place
5. __inhabitants e. as measured by, in relation to
6. __concede f. inclination, prejudice, viewpoint
7. __cast off g. firmly established, as by long conditioning; deep-seated
8. __in terms of h. To seek information by asking a question
9. __bias i. To come to accept; become reconciled to or used to something
10. __farfetched j. residents, people who live in a place
11. __ingrained k. The observable physical expression of a trait; what someone
looks like
12. __come to terms with l. implausible, extreme, unrealistic

Indio. A word that means so little, to Dominicans means

so much. As a child growing up in Dominican Republic, the
word Indio was a part of my daily vernacular. It was the
only “polite” way I knew of referring to someone who was
black or of African descent. I recall my uncle’s tales about
his Dominican friend who moved to London. Explaining
how one day, as his friend was getting his visa renewed, a
British officer inquired, “quite rudely,” about the meaning
of the word Indio on his official documents. The man
recited as if he was reading from a handbook,
“Indio means of color. It is not black per se but means tan
or beige, trigeño as we might say in the Dominican
Republic”. The officer gave him a quizzical look not quite understanding what he meant and
almost without hesitation said, “I don’t know about this Indio sir, but here, you are just black.”

To most Dominicans, this story exhibits the extent of racism that exists in countries outside our
sphere of interaction. Yet Dominicans fail to recognize that the term Indio holds racist implications
as well. The officer was only describing the man’s phenotype, which was a required part of her

73
job. The man was not Indio by any meaning of the word. Indio, in the simplest sense, refers to
indigenous peoples, or people native to a land. The man most likely had no genetic connection to
the indigenous Tainos that roamed the Island of Hispaniola in pre-colonial times, seeing as they
were almost entirely annihilated. Nevertheless, he, and all Dominicans for that matter, refuse to
embrace their phenotypical characteristics or admit that they are in fact black. We hesitate in
identifying as black, regarding the word almost as an insult. Dominicans face more than just
racism; they suffer from a serious racial identity crisis.

Indio: Creation of the Myth

Three out of four Dominicans are of mixed European and African descent making it the nation with
the highest amount of mulattos in the Americas. When asked to describe the Dominican race and
identity, most people will contend that Dominicans are not “pure,” but a mix. Second only to
Brazil, the Dominican Republic has the largest amount of categories for race and color. Colors
range from blanco (white), trigueño (wheat), indio or canela (brownish), moreno (dark brown),
and negro (black), Indio being the most popular form of expressing race and color. Indio alludes to
the indigenous people who lived on the island before the colonial era, but by acknowledging their
Indigenous race, Dominicans fail to acknowledge their African ancestry.

Dominicans have recently begun to recognize that the term Indio is made up. Descendants of
Africans slaves adopted the term Indio in an effort to purge themselves of their slave background.
They could never attain the status attributed to white, but wanted to get rid of their African past,
which was associated with slavery. In an effort to conform, they adopted the word Indio as a way
of romanticizing their physicality by connecting it to the annihilated Taino natives. Yet today, some
confusion lies on whether Indio refers to color, or whether it refers to the indigenous past. David
Howard outlines the three main hypotheses of what many believe the term Indio to be. The first
implies that the term refers purely to color. In other words, Indio refers to being of the same color
of the indigenous race, of brownish tones, or that of the people from India. This idea entails that
Dominicans understand that they do not have any indigenous descent. The second hypothesis
refers to the idea that Columbus believed he had landed in India when he came to the new world,
making the inhabitants of the new world Indios.The third concedes to the idea that people who
consider themselves Indio believe they are direct descendants of the indigenous Tainos. This last
hypothesis has been defined as the rise of what is loosely described as Indigenismo.

Accounts of Indigenismo are most commonly associated with post revolutionary Mexico’s attempt
to emphasize indigenous elements in their national culture. Indigenismo in Dominican Republic is
associated with the emphasis on Taino culture as a way of defining the Dominican identity. Unlike
in Mexico where indigenous peoples still exist today, Indigenismo in Dominican Republic is based
on a myth. In the 19th Century, Dominicans took what information they could gather about the
native Tainos from the colonial era and constructed a culture around it. Little is really known about
the native Tainos, but Dominicans managed to incorporate it into a large part of their culture,
romanticizing events and people.

74
The zenith of Indigenismo in Dominican Republic is the story of Taino leader, Enriquillo. The story
tells the tale of a noble savage who fought against oppression and converted to Christianity. This
and other forms of Indigenismo are attempts to fulfill a psychological need for continuity between
the indigenous people and the population today. As Indigenismo fills the gap between Tainos and
Dominicans today, it slowly widens the divide between Dominicans and their African past.

Antihaitianismo and the Indio Myth:

Indio is not only the denial of an African ancestry, but also the rejection of Haiti. In other Latin
American countries, terms like Mestizo or Mulatto are used to describe a racial mixture of people.
In Dominican Republic, the word Mulatto has a negative connotation because it refers to an
African past. Dominicans don’t see themselves as Mulattos because Mulattos are dark and ‘to be
dark is to be Haitian’, which is something Dominicans don’t want to be. Most of the countries in
the Americas formed their national Identity in opposition to a European power, but the Dominican
Republic formed their identity in opposition to Haiti. The Dominican Republic is the only country in
the Americas who does not celebrate their independence from a European power, but instead
celebrate their separation from Haiti in 1844. After the independence was won, Dominicans cast
off everything Haitian, including language, culture and to a certain degree, color. Since Haiti was
predominantly black, being black meant being Haitian, and the hateful idea
of Antihaitianismo emerged. Indio again became a leeway for Dominicans to describe their dark
color without having to consent to having African descent or being associated with Haitians, which
other terms, like Mulatto, did not offer.

Until the 1930s, the term Indio was only used on a day-to-day basis, as a way of Dominicans
defining color and race. It wasn’t until the dictatorship of Rafael Leonidas Trujillo that the term
became official. When Trujillo came to power, he had the opportunity of redefining the population
as Mulattos, seeing as he was of African descent himself. Instead, he conceded to
the Hispanophillia of the white elite and sought to make Dominicans “the most Spanish people of
the Americas.” Trujillo redefined blacks and Mulattos as Indios, making it the official description of
the Dominican race. By allowing Indio to be used on the Cedula, the official Dominican
identification card, the myth of Indio became institutionalized.

In the Dominican Republic, Cedula and census state officials are responsible for categorizing
people’s color and individuals are rarely consulted for their input. Since so many different color
variations exist, categorizing a person under a certain racial group can prove difficult. State
officials, and Dominicans in general, define how they view color in terms of how much darker or
lighter they view themselves. There is, therefore, no precise way to identify a person’s color other
than their own biases or perceptions. Hence, the actual phenotype of idividuals categorized
as Indio can range from dark brown to creamy brown. In a study done by Kimberly E. Simmons in
the Dominican JCE (Junta Central Electoral) she witnessed that out of the 150 Cedulas made, 125
people were categorized as Indio, one of the 5 racial categories offered.

75
Categorization of color does not only involve skin color, but also hair and eye color. For example, if
a person of dark skin has light colored eyes and thin hair, they are more likely to be categorized
as Indio than as Mulatto, which is considered darker on the Dominican color spectrum. State
officials also tend to categorize people in lighter terms so as “not to cause offense”. This can also
be attributed to the government’s way of whitening the country as to have it be perceived as
more Hispanic than African.

Conclusion

The cultivated history of Haitian-Dominican tensions transformed Dominicanidad (Dominican

Identity) to being non-Haitian and to neglect their African ancestry. Through the formation
of Antihaitianismo and the Indio myth, Dominican political figures shaped Dominican racial
identity creating a negro-phobic culture of racist principles. Even though traces of an African
ancestry remain in Dominican music, language and religion, Dominicans regard themselves as a
predominantly a white, Hispanic influenced, nation.

We can only contemplate the extent to which future Dominican governments will take it upon
themselves to repair the social and cultural damaged caused by theories of white supremacist
powers. Based on the recent politics, meeting expectations seems farfetched. In search of deeper
racial understanding, the Dominican public must get educated. They must become aware of
the Africanidad through the avocation of afro-Dominican entities as well as the return of
Dominican Diaspora.

Looking back at my uncle’s anecdote about his friend in the United Kingdom, I realize the
importance it carries. The man’s denial of his African backdrop represents centuries of a cultivated
ideology that is ingrained in the Dominican psyche. By experiencing what he believed to be an
example to racism, this man was actually taking one step towards coming to terms with his
blackness. Once Dominicans stop hiding behind their supposed indigenous descent and begin to
embrace their African legacy, then we will have truly acknowledged their Dominican identity.
Today we disguise ourselves behind tainted masks, created by our own, perpetuated,
misconstructions of race.

76
After Reading

1. In paragraph 1, why is “quite rudely” in parentheses?

2. With your partner(s), explain what “The Indio Myth” is? Write a definition, and use as many
vocabulary words as you can.

3. Why is the relationship between Antihaitianismo and racial identity in the Dominican Republic?
Write your answer, using as many vocabulary words as you can.

4. Why was the uncle at the beginning of the story offended?

Hazoury, L. (2015). To be Dominican is not to be Haitian. Retrieved from

http://www.sobremesamagazine.com/on-the-dominican-racial-crisis/

77
 Divided island: How Haiti and the DR became two worlds
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=790&v=4WvKeYuwifc

1. Why was a market established on the border of these two countries? Is the market
fulfilling its purpose?

2. The speaker says that the merchants take a grueling boat ride. Based on his description,
what do you think grueling means?

3. Select the phrases from the answer choices and match them to the group to which they
relate: the French colonists or the Spanish colonists. Two of the answer choices will not be
used.

A. Exploited the land and destroyed the soil French colonists in Haiti
Initially left to go to other countries after they colonized the
land ----
B. Used the natives to form an army to fight foreign wars ----
C. Brought fewer slaves ----
D. Forced the indigenous people to captain the boats for
transportation between the two countries
E. Created a strong economy and generated a lot of profit in the Spanish colonists in the DR
colony
F. Had to deal with resentful slaves who rebelled ----
G. Eventually integrated themselves with the colony and created ----
a racially diverse community ----
H. Massacred the indigenous population ----
I. Did not create a very profitable colony

4. In what way is Haiti the first of its kind?

5. The narrator lists all of the following as reasons for Haiti’s current hardships EXCEPT
A. Haiti was isolated by many other countries of the world when it became
independent
B. Haiti did not have enough slaves in the past to maintain strong workforce
C. After its independence, Haiti spent a lot of money to pay back a debt to France
D. There have been a series of dictators, corruption, and embargoes

6. Describe the process of regularization in The Dominican Republic. Why does the speaker
say this is a euphemism?

78
 7. A 2013 Dominican law stated that
A. A person is a citizen of the DR if they are born after 1929 in the DR no matter
where their parents are from
B. Any citizen who had been born in the DR to undocumented parents after 1929
would have their citizenship taken away
C. Both people of Dominican descent and people of Haitian descent must register for
the regularization program
D. It is illegal for the government to take away the citizenship of a Dominican citizen

8. Many Dominican born people of Haitian descent have recently moved from the DR to
Haiti. Why has have they been moving there in such large numbers?

9. What evidence from the film shows that the security personnel at the border is racially
motivated?

10. The narrator shows us the different landscapes of Haiti and the DR as he is traveling on the
border road. How was this difference in landscape affected by each country’s history?

Group discussion question:

Do you think any Colombians suffer from racism? If so, where do you think it comes from? Try to
give examples and evidence for both sides of the argument.

79
 Bend It Like Beckham – Extension
As you watch Bend It Like Beckham, take notes in the chart below
comparing aspects of British and Indian cultures. This film is centered
on Jesminder "Jess" Bhamra, an 18-year-old daughter
of Punjabi Sikhs in London. Jess loves soccer but is forbidden to play it
by her parents because she’s a girl.

Aspects of British Indian

Culture
Religious
Beliefs

Values

Concepts of
Beauty

Food/Eating
Habits

Gender
Roles

Attitudes
about
Sexuality
Gestures

Social
Etiquette

Discussion: How does being part of a subculture affect Jess’ life? How do you think it
would be different if she were part of a Sikh family growing up in India?

80
MODULE 3: NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION
________________________________________________________

Objectives for Module 3:

• Understand the various aspects of verbal and nonverbal communication.
• Understand the impact of nonverbal communication on verbal communication
and within culture.
• Grammar: Parts of speech: adverbs vs adjectives.
________________________________________________________

1. In the space below, write your own definition of “Nonverbal Communication:”

2. Based on your definition, think about two examples of what could be

considered nonverbal communication common among Colombians:

3. Do you consider nonverbal communication to be important? Why?

81
“Nonverbal Communication as Intentional
Communication”
Vocabulary: Match the words to their definitions
1.___decline a. unable to read
2. ___designate b. reduce, to say no
3. ___illiterate c. able to read
4. ___likeness d. to mark, identify
5. ___literate e. a strip of material or fabric
6. ___ribbon f. similarity
Definition

Exactly what is meant by the term nonverbal communication must be specified. Nonverbal
communication can be narrowly used to refer to intentional use, as in using a nonspoken symbol
to communicate a specific message. From this perspective, nonverbal communication refers to a
source’s actions and attributes that are not purely verbal. For example, communication scholars
Judee Burgoon and her colleagues (Burgoon, Boller, & Woodall, 1988) define nonverbal
communication as those actions and attributes of humans that have socially shared meaning, are
intentionally sent or interpreted as intentional, are consciously sent or consciously received, and
have the potential for feedback from the receiver.

The term can be more broadly defined to refer to elements of the environment that communicate
by virtue of people’s use of them. The color of the walls in the room in which you are interviewed
for a job may in some way affect your performance and how you are perceived. Thus, from this
perspective, wall color may legitimately be labeled a nonverbal element of communication
(Hickson & Stacks, 1989).

Functions

One way to demonstrate how nonverbal communication can be used to intentionally convey
messages is to look at the functions typically performed through nonverbal communication:

▪ Replacing spoken messages. There are situations in which words cannot be used. In a
very noisy manufacturing facility, for example, communicators might use hand
gestures to replace spoken messages. Communicators who do not share a language
may try to make themselves understood with gestures. Nonverbal symbols can
communicate utilitarian messages (Knapp, 1990).

Signs and symbols can replace spoken messages when they are used to identify and to direct
attention to the things they designate. Signs are sometimes arbitrary in character, sometimes
based on a real or fancied analogy, and usually simpler than symbols. For example, arrows are
used to point direction. Symbols frequently are based on likeness, metaphor, or comparison. In
Japan, for example, the cherry blossom is a symbol of the samurai because it is beautiful, blooms

82
early, and dies soon. Still, symbol use is arbitrary. For example, the color red is a symbol for
Christian charity and for communism and class conflict.

As symbols are independent of language, they can be used to communicate across language
barriers. For example, symbols were used along ancient roadways. More recently, international
events such as the Olympics make extensive use of symbols. In fact, Katzumie Masaru, the art
director of the Tokyo Olympics, developed many of the symbols in use today (Modley, 1976).
World travel today is facilitated by symbols known to literate and illiterate people alike on
highways; at airports; in hospital, factories, and schools; and on packages and clothing. Almost
anyone can function in any international airport. From the symbols, you can find restaurants, rest
rooms, and telephones.

Not all symbols, however, are universally understood.

What is commonly called the swastika in the United
States and Europe has long been understood in other
parts of the world as a symbol for blessings and, when
posted outside, is meant to bestow good wishes on
passersby. It is a commonly used symbol to mark
Buddhist temples throughout Asia and is often used on
maps to designate the locations of Buddhist temples. In
this sense, it is similar to the cross in Christianity. Imagine
the misunderstanding if one does not know the symbols’s
diverse meanings. http://www.foreigners-in-
china.com/buddhist-religious-symbols.html

Symbols continue to be invented. In 1992, Jeremy Irons was the first celebrity to wear the red
AIDS ribbons, to bring attention to the AIDS epidemic. Later in 1992, during the Emmy Awards
telecast, Jamie Lee Curtis explained the meaning of the symbol, and by the next year, the red AIDS
ribbon had become one of the most recognized symbols worldwide. It was so successful as a
symbol that soon there were pink ribbons for breast cancer, lavender ribbons for abused women,
and so on. Its use then declined, but it raised the public’s awareness of AIDS.

▪ Sending uncomfortable messages. Some messages are awkward or difficult to express

in words, but the meaning can be conveyed with nonverbal communication without
hurt feelings or embarrassment. Imagine being on your way home and being stopped
by an acquaintance who wants to talk. The message in your mind that you want to
communicate is, “Don’t bother me, I don’t have time for you now.” You may not want
to say those words, but you can communicate that meaning by slowly continuing to
walk away. Your nonverbal communication followed by the verbal message of “I really
have to go” is received without bad feelings because it’s clear you really do have to
leave. Likewise, you may find it difficult or awkward to say, “I love you,” but eye
contact, touch, and close proximity deliver the message.

▪ Forming impressions that guide communication. We all attempt at times to manage

the impressions that others have of us. Think about how you would give some thought
to what you would wear to a job interview. You intentionally choose to wear certain

83
 clothes and groom in a certain way to send a message about who you are to the
employer.

▪ Making relationships clear. Communication messages have both content and

relationship information. Content refers to the subject matter of the message.
Relationship information refers to the relationship between the communicators. As
relationship information might be uncomfortable if spoken, nonverbal communication
removes the threat. For example, think of the nonverbal messages on the job that
replace the spoken words “I am your boss and you do as I say, even though you may
not like it.” In the United States, most nonverbal communication at work reinforces
power. According to Mehrabian (1981), status manifests itself by a relaxed posture
and way for interacting. Those of lower status display more rigidity.

▪ Regulating interaction. Have you ever considered how you know when it’s your turn to
talk in a conversation? If you didn’t know when to start talking, you’d be interrupting
others all the time. Directing turn taking is an example of how nonverbal
communication regulates people’s interaction.

▪ Reinforcing and modifying verbal messages. Nonverbal cues can be metamessages

that affect the decoding of the spoken message. Nonverbal messages can reinforce
the verbal message. You can use your hands to indicate how close another car came to
hitting your car as if to say the same message in words. Nonverbal messages can also
modify—and even negate—the meaning of the verbal message.

Another way to define nonverbal communication is by category. Perhaps you’ve experienced that
a nonverbal symbol can mean different things depending on where you are. The kinds of
nonverbal communication given the most attention by travelers and researchers alike are
proxemics, kinesics, chronemics, paralanguage, silence, haptics, clothing and physical appearance,
territoriality, and olfactics.

(Excerpt from: Jandt, F. (2007). An Introduction to Intercultural Communication: Identities in a

Global Community. Sage Publications: CA, USA. 99-104)

List the functions of non-verbal communication and an example for each.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

84
 Paralanguage
Vocabulary – Match the word to its definition
1.__ argue a. cry
2. __ ban b. to give reasons for or against an idea
3. __ cite c. a person employed in an office or in customer
service
4. __ clerk d. how far something extends
5. __ extent e. to ask for, oficially or politely
6. __ request f. to outlaw, to make something illegal
7. __ sob g. something that behaves in unexpected ways
8. __ unpredictable h. to quote, give evicence

The nonverbal elements of the voice are referred to as paralanguage and include the following:

▪ Vocal characterizers, such as laughter and sobs

▪ Vocal qualifiers, such as intensity (loud/soft), pitch (high/low), extent (drawl and clipping)
▪ Vocal segregates, such as “uh,” “um,” and “uh huh.”

The sounds of “psst” is an acceptable way of calling a waiter in Spain. In India, whistling is
considered offensive.

Thais speak in a very soft and gentle voice and manner. This is based on the cultural belief that
speaking softly is how one shows good manners and that they have been well raised. Voices are
raised only to show the emotion of anger or in a heated argument or confrontation. When first
hearing persons in the United States speak so noisily, some Thais believe the speakers are
particularly rude and angry or even don’t like Thais because people from the United States speak
incredibly loudly.

Another example is tonal languages. Speakers of English do use tone to some extent but most
often to express emotion. Think of how you would say “thank you” to convey a degree of sarcasm.
However, in true tonal languages such as Mandarin Chinese and Vietnamese, the denotative
meaning of some words depends on the context and how the word is said. Japanese is replete
with homophones where the meanings of many words are distinguished only by stress and
intonation, which in turn convey the emotional nuances of anger, surprise, sincerity, and
displeasure.
Accent may be considered an aspect of paralanguage. British ears can detect a speaker’s
educational background in the accent. It can be said that everyone has an accent; it’s just that

accent-the rhythm and intonation with which people speak

drawl-slow way of speaking
homophone-two words pronounced the same way but with different meanings

some accents are more accepted than others. Accent may present problems and even lead to

85
charges of racism (Ryan, 1974). One study in San Antonio, Texas (de la Zerda & Hopper, 1979), had
employment interviewers listen to taped speech samples of males speaking with varying accents
and make a hiring prediction. Standard speakers were significantly favored for supervisory
positions and accented speakers for semiskilled positions. Collier (1988) as well has shown that
Whites note Hispanics’ inability to speak English as socially inappropriate. In recalling
conversations, Whites cite examples of Spanish language used and “broken English” as
inappropriate and difficult to understand.

Midlevel Asian-American employees can find promotion to management closed—particularly if

spoken English is perceived as non-fluent. In Honolulu, a Filipino man was denied a job as a city
clerk. He sued on the basis of racial discrimination. Attorneys for the city argued that his heavy
Filipino accent would have kept him from working effectively as a clerk. The case was appealed to
the Supreme Court, and in Fragante v. City and County of Honolulu, the Court let stand a federal
appeals court decision supporting the city.

In Massachusetts, parents petitioned their local school board to ban first- and second-grade
teachers with pronounced accents. The opposition argued that such a ban would be discrimination
based on national origin and would violate the Fourteenth Amendment, which provides equal
protection for everyone under the law. In Anaheim (Orange County), California, a radio station
contest was based on telephoning convenience-store clerks and asking listeners to identify the
clerks’ nationalities. Some refugee organizations charged the contest was racism disguised as
humor.

(Excerpt from: Jandt, F. (2007) An Introduction to Intercultural Communication: Identities in a

Global Community., p. 110-111. Sage Publications: CA, USA)

Silence is [also considered] a part of the paralinguistic channel. Hasegawa and Gudykunst maintain
that silence is the lack of verbal communication or the absence of sound. Hasegawa and
Gudykunst assert that culture influences the meaning and use of style. In their research, they
compared the use of silence among Japanese and Americans and found that, in the United States,
silence is defined as pause, break, empty space, or lack of verbal communication. Hasegawa and
Gudykunst maintain that silence generally is not a part of Americans’ everyday communication
routines. They argue that although silence is acceptable among intimate others, when meeting
strangers, Americans are very conscious of silence and find it quite awkward. In Japan, however,
silence is a space or pause during verbal communication that has important meaning. Pauses, or
silence, are to be interpreted carefully. Stylistically, Japanese are taught to be indirect and
sometimes ambiguous to maintain harmony. Silence, then, can be used to avoid directness, such
as bluntly saying “no” to a request. Charles Braithwaite has studied silence across cultures and
argues that silence is a central nonverbal component of any speech community. He argues that
some communicative functions of silence may be universal and do not vary across cultures. For
example, Braithwaite maintains that among Native American groups, Japanese, Japanese
Americans in Hawaii, and people in rural Appalachia, the use of silence as a communicative act is
associated with communication situations where the status of the interactants is uncertain,
unpredictable, or ambiguous. In addition, Braithwaite argues that silence as a communicative act
is associated with communication situations where there is a known and unequal distribution of

86
power among interactants. In other words, when interactants consciously recognize their
differential status, they consciously use silence. Braithwaite cites evidence of this in many
cultures, including the Anang of Southwestern Nigeria, the Wolof of Senegal, the Maori of New
Zealand, the Malagasy in Madagascar, urban African American women, and some working-class
White Americans.

(excerpt from: Neuliep, J. (2009). Intercultural Communication: A Contextual Approach. SAGE

Publications, Inc: California, USA. Pp. 263)

Discussion Questions for Paralanguage

• List the main types of paralanguage and give an example of each.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

• What are some examples of paralanguage you have recently observed?

87
Grammar Focus: Adjectives vs adverbs
Read the following excerpt from the book:

Thais speak in a very soft and gentle voice and manner. This is based on the cultural belief that
speaking softly is how one shows good manners and that they have been well raised. Voices are
raised only to show the emotion of anger or in a heated argument or confrontation. When first
hearing persons in the United States speak so noisily, some Thais believe the speakers are
particularly rude and angry or even don’t like Thais because people from the United States speak
incredibly loudly.

Complete the following table with the underlined words:

Adjectives Adverbs

a) Discuss with your partner: how do you know when to use an adjective or an adverb? Are
there any clues?

b) Fill in the gap with either adjectives or adverbs.

1. __________ go before nouns

2. __________ describe verbs, adjectives or adverbs

3. __________ usually end in “ly”

4. __________ go after the verb “to be”

5. Irregular __________ include “well”, “fast” and “hard”

6. __________ describe nouns

88
 c) Read the short story below. Choose the correct word to fill in the gaps.

It was a beautiful summer afternoon with the sun shining _______ (bright/brightly). I
phoned my friends asking them to come over for a barbecue. After making the calls I
drove into town to buy some food and drink. When I arrived at the shops I was _________
(surprised/surprisingly) at busy it was. Everyone must have been shopping for a barbecue!
The first butchers I visited had _________ (amazing/amazingly) run out of sausages. I
didn’t realise that I’d have to look so _________ (hard/hardly) for some sausages! The
next shop had some left so I bought some. After visiting a few more shops, I had finished
my shopping. But I was starting to feel worried as it was 6 pm and I had invited my friends
to visit at 6.30 pm. I _________ (quick/quickly) rushed to the car park with all of my
shopping and threw it _________ (hasty/hastily) into the boot. I noticed that the cars were
moving out of the car park really _______ (slow/slowly) and there was a bit of a traffic
jam! Once I got out of the car park I was able to drive _______ (fast/fastly), but it was still
past 6.30 pm when I arrived home and I was worried. As I drove into my driveway, I smiled
when I saw my friends sitting in my front garden. ________ (Luckily/lucky) they had
realised I was stuck at the shops and they waited for me. We had a wonderful barbecue!

d) Aptis style speaking practice. Compare and contrast the following photos with your
partner. Remember to describe the whole of the photos using comparative language
and using your knowledge of adjectives and adverbs. Try to speak for a minimum of 45
seconds. Your partner should time you and note down your use of adjectives and
adverbs.
1. Person 1

2. Person 2

89
Modern Family
Watch the “Coal Digger” episode of (Season 1, Episode 5) and take
notes on the paralanguage you observe using the chart.

Character Paralanguage Observed Situation

Gloria

Jay

Claire

Phil

Haley

Luke

Cam (Cameron)

Mitchell

90
How does paralanguage affect communication? How could paralanguage
cause problems between people of different cultures?
 Proxemics
1. Watch the You Tube video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sgJ24hknbHs )

Vocabulary – Match the word to its definition

1.__ caste a. worked out in great detail
2. __ elaborate b. to wait in line, or the line that you wait in
3. __ queue c. the way your parents raise you
4. __ upbringing d. in general, a rigid system of social distinctions,
specifically, in India
• What is proxemics according to the speaker in the video? What are the four
zones mentioned? Do you think all cultures have the same zones?

2. Read the following excerpt that describes “proxemics” through examples.

“The term given to the study of our use of personal space is proxemics. Edward Hall’s (1959)
work has demonstrated clearly that cultures differ substantially in their use of personal space.
His general theory is that we exist inside an invisible “bubble” or personal space. How much
space we want between ourselves and others depends on our cultural learning, our upbringing
in our families, the specific situation, and our relationship with the people to whom we’re
talking. Although the physical distance we want between ourselves and others does vary, Hall
reports the range is fairly consistent for most people in North America.

Experience shows that these distances vary in diverse cultures. In India, there are elaborate
rules about how closely members of each caste may approach other castes, and Arabs of the
same sex do stand much closer than North Americans. North Americans in an elevator maintain
personal space if the physical space permits it. An Arab entering an elevator might stand right
next to another person and be touching even though no one else is in the elevator. Queuing
means how you form a line while waiting. The traditional first-come, first-served line was typical
in 19th century France, but today, along with the Italians and Spaniards, the French are among
the least queue conscious in Europe. Until recently, the British were known to stand in line—
usually—and have elaborate “rules of queuing” (i.e., “cutting in line,” “saving places,” etc.).

Some explain the absence of queues in Europe and in the Mediterranean areas as a sign of
feelings against unwarranted regulation and interference. Hall (1959) argues that queues are
more likely to be found in cultures whose people are treated as equals.”
(Jandt, F. (2007) An Introduction to Intercultural Communication: Identities in a Global Community., p. 104-105. Sage Publications: CA, USA)

• What specific examples of proxemics within cultures does Jandt mention?

• How big is your “invisible bubble”? Do people queue in Colombia?

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 Distance Description Voice

Intimate Touching to 18 Private situations with people who are emotionally Whisper
inches (0.46 close. If others invade this space, we feel
meters) threatened.

Personal 18 inches to 4 feet The lower end is “handshake” distance—the Soft Voice
(0.46 meters to 1.2 distance most couples stand in public.
meters)

Casual 4 feet to 12 feet The lower end is the distance between salespeople Full Voice
(1.2 meters to 3.7 and customers and between people who work
meters) together in business.

Public Greater than 12 Situations such as teaching in a classroom or Loud Voice

feet (3.7 meters) delivering a speech.

• Using this chart, what kind of Proxemics would you use in these situations?

1. _____________________ You meet your uncle for his birthday.

2. _____________________ You meet your teacher for tutoring.
3. _____________________ You see your friend at La Troja.
4. _____________________ You meet your teacher at Buena Vista.
5. _____________________ You are eating lunch at Café du Nord with your friends.
6. _____________________ You are at a soccer game.
7. _____________________ You greet a new student from Cali.
8. _____________________ You meet a new student from Japan.
9. _____________________ You are eating at a crowded El Corral.
10. ____________________ You give a speech at your graduation.

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 Kinesics

Silent-movie actors like Charlie Chaplin were the pioneers of

body-language skills, as this was the only means of
communication available on the screen. Each actor’s skill was
classed as good or bad by the extent to which he could use
gestures and body signals to communicate to the audience.
When talking films became popular and less emphasis was
placed on the nonverbal aspects of acting, many silent-movie
actors faded into obscurity and only those with good verbal
and nonverbal skills survived. http://www.reocities.com/hollywood/1096/chaplin.htm

Vocabulary – Match the word to its definition

1.__ chin a. the first to do something
2. __ cue b. a person who performs academic investigation
3. __ inborn c. something you are born with
4. __ pioneer d. an act or symbol or hint
5.__ research e.a hint, a sign
6.__researcher f.the upper part of your leg
7.__signal g.academic investigation
8.__thigh h. bottom part of your face below your mouth

As far as the academic study of body language goes, perhaps the most influential twentieth-
century work was Charles Darwin’s The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, published
in 1872, but this work tended to be read mainly by academics. However, it spawned the modern
studies of facial expressions and body language, and many of Darwin’s ideas and observations
have since been validated by researchers around the world. Since that time, researchers have
noted and recorded almost a million nonverbal cues and signals. Albert Mehrabian, a pioneer
researcher of body language in the 1950’s, found that the total impact of a message is about seven
percent (words only) and 38 percent vocal (including tone of voice, inflection, and other sounds)
and 55 percent nonverbal.

Anthropologist Ray Birdswhistell pioneered the original study of nonverbal communication—what

he called “kinesics.” Birdwhistell made some similar estimates of the amount of nonverbal
communication that takes place between humans. He estimated that the average person actually
speaks words for a total of about ten or eleven minutes a day and that the average sentence takes
only about 2.5 seconds. Birdwhistell also estimated we can make and recognize around 250,000
facial expressions.

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Like Mehrabian, he found that the verbal component of a face-to-face conversation is less than 35
percent and that over 65 percent of communication is done nonverbally. Our analysis of
thousands of recorded sales interviews and negotiations during the 1970’s and 1980’s showed
that, in business encounters, body language accounts for between 60 and 80 percent of the
impact made around a negotiating table and that people form 60 to 80 percent of their initial
opinion about a new person in less than four minutes. Studies also show that when negotiating
over the telephone, the person with the stronger argument normally wins, but this is not so true
when negotiating face-to-face, because overall we make our final decisions on what we see rather
than on what we hear.

Despite what it may be politically correct to believe, when we meet people for the first time we
quickly make judgments about their friendliness, dominance, and potential as a sexual partner—
and their eyes are not the first place we look.

Most researchers now agree that words are used primarily for conveying information, while body
language is used for negotiating interpersonal attitudes and, in some cases, is used as a substitute
for verbal messages. For example, a woman can give a man a “look to kill” and will convey a very
clear message to him without opening her mouth.

Regardless of culture, words and movements occur together with such predictability that
Birdswhistell was the first to claim that a well-trained
person should be able to tell what movement a person is
making by listening to their voice. Birdwhistell even
learned how to tell what language a person was
speaking, simply by watching their gestures.

Many people find difficulty in accepting that humans are

still biologically animals. We are a species of primate—
Homo sapiens—a hairless ape that has learned to walk
on two limbs and has a clever, advanced brain. But like
any other species, we are still dominated by biological
rules that control our actions, reactions, body language,
and gestures. The fascinating thing is that the human
animal is rarely aware that its postures, movements, and
gestures can tell one story while its voice may be telling
another.

http://lifezwonderful.blogspot.com/2010/08/nonverbal-communication.html

Body language is an outward reflection of a person’s emotional condition. Each gesture or

movement can be a valuable key to an emotion a person may be feeling at the time. For example,
a man who is self-conscious about gaining weight may tug at the fold of skin under his chin; the
woman who is aware of extra pounds on her thighs may smooth her dress down; the person who

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is feeling fearful or defensive might fold their arms or cross their legs or both; and a man talking
with a large-breasted woman may consciously avoid staring at her breasts while, at the same time,
unconsciously use groping gestures with his hands.

The key to reading body language is being able to understand a person’s emotional condition
while listening to what they are saying and noting the circumstances under which they are saying
it. This allows you to separate fact from fiction and reality from fantasy. In recent times, we
humans have had an obsession with the spoken word and our ability to be conversationalists.
Most people, however, are remarkably unaware of body
language signals and their impact, despite the fact that we
now know that most of the messages in any face-to-face
conversation are revealed through body signals. For
example, France’s President Chirac, U.S.A’s President Ronald
Reagan, and Australia’s Prime Minister Bob Hawke all used
their hands to reveal the relative sizes of issues in their mind.
Bob Hawke once defended pay increases for politicians by
comparing their salaries to corporate executive salaries. He
claimed that executive salaries had risen by a huge amount
and that proposed politicians’ increases were relatively
smaller. Each time he mentioned politicians’ incomes, he
held his hands a yard apart. When he mentioned executive
salaries, however, he held them only a foot apart. His hand
distances revealed that he felt politicians were getting a
much better deal than he was prepared to admit.
(Eisner 1990)

http://smg.media.mit.edu/people/judith/Thesis/CityAndBody.frame.html

Inborn, Genetic, or Learned Culturally?

When you cross your arms on your chest, do you cross left over right or right over left? Most
people cannot confidently describe which way they do this until they try it. Cross your arms on
your chest right now and then try to quickly reverse the position. Where one way feel
comfortable, the other feels completely wrong. Evidence suggests that this may well be a genetic
gesture that cannot be changed.

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Much debate and research has been done to discover whether nonverbal signals are inborn,
learned, genetically transferred, or acquired in some other way. Evidence has been collected from
observation of blind people (who could not have learned nonverbal signals through a visual
channel), from observing the gestural behavior of many different cultures around the world, and
from studying the behavior of our nearest anthropological relatives, apes and monkeys.

The conclusions of this research indicate that some gestures fall into each category. For example,
most primate babies are born with the immediate ability to suck, showing that this is either inborn
or genetic. The German scientist Eibl-Eibesfeldt found that the smiling expressions of children born
deaf and blind occur independently of learning or copying, which means that these must also be
inborn gestures. Ekman, Friesen, and Sorenson supported some of Darwin’s original beliefs about
inborn gestures when they studied the facial expressions of people from five widely different
cultures. They found that each culture used the same basic facial gestures to show emotion, which
led them to the conclusion that these gestures must also be inborn.

Debate still exists as to whether some gestures are culturally learned and become habitual, or are
genetic. For example, most men put on a coat right arm first; most women put it on left arm first.
This shows that men use their left brain hemisphere for this action, while women use the right
hemisphere. When a man passes a woman in a crowded street, he usually turns his body towards
her as he passes; she instinctively turns her body away from him to protect her breasts. Is this an
inborn female reaction or has she learned to do this by unconsciously watching other females?

[And] Just as verbal language differs from culture to culture, so some body-language signals can
also differ. Whereas one gesture may be common in a particular culture and have a clear
interpretation, it may be meaningless in another culture or even have a completely different
meaning.

(Pease, A. and Pease, B. (2006). The Definitive Book of Body Language. Pp.9-20. Bantam Dell: New
York, NY).

• Is body language (kinesics) learned, genetic, or instinctive? Support your answer with
examples from the text.

• What do you learn about nonverbal communication from the two graphics in this article?

• Why do you think it is important to understand the uses of body language in relation to
intercultural communications and even within your own culture?

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 Gestures

Read the following excerpt about gestures with different meanings in different cultures. How
could misreading a gesture cause intercultural communication problems?

“The forefinger-to-thumb gesture forming a circle can mean “okay” in the United States. In France,
it means zero or worthless. In Japan, the same gesture can mean “money,” but it is a symbol many
times more offensive than the raised middle finger in Brazil. Curling the middle three fingers into
the palm, extending the thumb and little finger, and then twisting the hand back and forth from
the wrist is the Hawaiian greeting “hang loose.” To the University of Texas Longhorn fans, the
pinkie and index finger raised up with the middle two fingers and thumb folded into the palm
means “Hook ’em horns.” But in parts of Africa, the same gesture is a curse, and to Italians, it is
the cornuto signaling that one’s wife is being unfaithful. Extending one hand, palm forward, means
“stop!” in the United States, but in Greece, it’s the moutza or hand push, a sign of confrontation.
In West Africa, the same gesture is more insulting than the upraised middle finger…

Although most cultures do indicate “yes” by an up-and-down nod of the head and “no” by shaking
it from side to side, there are variations: In Albania and Bulgaria, the yes-no gestures are reversed.
In Sri Lanka, a yes answer to a specific question is indicated by a slow sideways swaying of the
head. For greetings in the United States, a firm handshake is considered too rough and rude, a
quick handshake with only slight pressure is preferred. In Latin America, a hearty embrace is
common among women and men alike, and men may follow it with a friendly slap on the back. In
Ecuador, to greet a person without a handshake is a sign of special respect. In India, the
handshake may be used by Westernized citizens, but the preferred greeting is the namaste—
placing the palms together and nodding one’s head. In Japan, the traditional form a greeting is a
bow or several bows…”
(Excerpt from: Jandt, F. (2007) An Introduction to Intercultural Communication: Identities in a Global Community., p. 106-107. Sage Publications: CA, USA)

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 Etiquette in West Africa: Four Gestures to Avoid
Vocabulary – Match the word to its definition
1.__ fist a. vulgar
2. __ forbidden b. avoid doing something
3. __ harsh c. prohibited
4. __ obscene d. behaving without being offensive
5.__refrain e.your hand with all fingers closed
(from__ing)
6.__sole f.strict, cruel
7.__tactful g. the bottom of your foot

There are an immense variety of gestures and non-verbal communications throughout West Africa
that vary in meaning from one locale to another. Ghana is not synonymous with Nigeria, nor is
Sierra Leone with Liberia. But there are some basic codes of conduct that can serve as helpful
guidelines for respectful behavior. It is worthwhile, therefore, to be aware of some local gestures
that may be considered offensive or, in some cases, even obscene. A list of four gestures is by no
means comprehensive, but these points can be a useful starting point when dealing in West
African cultural circles.

1. The Forbidden Left hand: A general rule of thumb to live by when in Africa is to avoid taking or
passing anything with your left hand. Objects are to be handled or passed with the
right or both hands, but never the left hand, as this is considered the unclean hand
(the hand used for personal hygiene). Do not eat, shake hands, gesture "hello" or
give someone something with your left hand as it is seen as something used to do
dirty things. It is this belief that informs the African proverb, “You do not use the
left hand to point the way to your father's village”, which means: use respect when
you gesture and learn to appreciate and admire what you have.

2. Displaying the sole of your foot: Particularly among Muslim cultures, and other groups who
traditionally sit on the floor, it is improper to allow the sole of your foot to point
at another person. As the bottom of the shoe touches the ground, it is
considered to be the dirtiest part of the body. If you find yourself in this setting,
avoid showing the soles of your shoes to anyone as it is considered by some to
be rude and insulting. The best advice is to sit with your feet flat on the floor.

3. The “Thumbs up”: Throughout West Africa, the thumb lying on the index
finger of a vertical fist with arm extended is equivalent to the American “middle
finger”; insult is emphasized by motioning the thumb up (like “thumbs-up”) and
down repeatedly.

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4. Harsh disagreement with an older person: If you have a difference
with someone who is elderly, try to refrain from harsh disagreement,
especially in public. Keep in mind that Africans are very conscious of age
and status differences. Being sensitive to someone’s age or seniority in
an organization guides the way people communicate or interact with
one another. For example, a younger person may be more able and
competent than an older person, and everybody may recognize that, but
the younger one will still show deference to the older one. Not only does this serve as job security
for the younger person, but it also keeps the elder from publicly losing ‘face’. To use their skill set
effectively, a savvy subordinate employee will find more tactful means to deliver their message.
So instead of resorting to harsh disagreement with a person of senior status, which may be
misinterpreted as personal attack rather than constructive criticism, try instead to use subtleties
and express differences with sensitivity. Copyright
© 2011 Erika Amoako-Agyei http://africabusinessreview.net/etiquette-in-africa-four-gestures-to-
avoid-by
1. All countries in West Africa have the same nonverbal communication.
True or False?
2. If you shook someone`s hand with your left hand in West African countries, they
would be insulted. Why?
3. If you are sitting on the floor in West Africa, you should sit with your feet
_______________________________.
4. Giving someone a ``thumbs-up`` is a good way to make friends in West African countries.
True or False?
5. Harsh disagreement with an elderly woman or man… (Choose all that apply)
a. violates West African cultural values of respecting the elderly

b. causes the elderly to lose face

c. is interpreted as constructive criticism

d. should be replaced with subtle hints and sensitive comments

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 Different Concepts of Time
• As you read, think about how your concept of time lines up with the ones mentioned in
the following text.

Vocabulary – Match the word to its definition

1.__ accurate a. excitement
2. __ commodity b. goal
3. __ crop c. careful, free of error
4. __ flow d. plants grown by farmers
5.__ forecast e.take, hold
6.__scarce f. take power, one after another
7.__ seize g. a product, a thing
8.__ succeed h.prediction about weather or money
9.__target i.something that causes an event, suddenly
10.__thrill j.rare, not enough of
11.__trigger k.move like a river

Many American Indian peoples understand time to be cyclical, whereas Western cultures think of
time in the linear sense of a flow from the past to the present to the future. It is said that the idea
of linear time became commonly accepted as we became aware of change—that is, aware that
things were different before change and after change. Acceptance of some religious beliefs
necessitates the acceptance of the understanding of time as linear. For example, the Christian
belief that Christ’s birth and death were unrepeatable events necessitates the acceptance of the
understanding of time as linear. It existed in the past of our present, and since it could only occur
then, it could not be repeated in our future.

Precision time keeping came with the invention of the pendulum clock by Dutch scientist Christian
Huygens. The clock introduced a new consciousness—the clock, rather than the sun, became the
arbiter of time. Our technological world demands even more accurate timekeeping.

How we use time varies from culture to culture. That cultures use time differently can be a barrier
to intercultural communication. What time you are expected to arrive for an 8 p.m. party varies as
to where the party is. How long you should be kept waiting—if at all—for a business appointment
varies as well. And once a meeting has begun, it varies how much informal conversation there is
before the actual business discussion begins. Arabs, for example, engage in up to half an hour of
informal conversation before turning to business.(Jandt, F. (2007) An Introduction to Intercultural
Communication: Identities in a Global Community.p. 108-110. Sage Publications: CA, USA)

Linear Time

For an American, time is truly money. In a profit-oriented society, time is a precious, even scarce,
commodity. It flows fast, like a mountain river in the spring, and if you want to benefit from its
passing, you have to move fast with it. Americans are people of action; they don´t like to waste

100
time. The past is over, but the present you can seize, parcel and package and make it work for you
in the immediate future.

If you have 40 years of earning capacity and you want to make $4 million, that means $100,000
per annum. If you can achieve this in 250 working days, that comes to $400 a day or $50 an hour.
With this orientation Americans can say that their time costs $50 an hour. Americans also talk
about wasting, spending, budgeting, and saving time.

This seems logical enough, until one begins to apply the idea to other cultures. Has the Portuguese
fisherman, who failed to hook a fish in two hours, wasted his time? Has the Sicilian priest, failing to
make a convert on Thursday, lost ground? Have the German composer, the French poet, the
Spanish painter, devoid of ideas last week, missed opportunities that can be qualified in monetary
terms?

The Americans are not the only ones who sanctify timekeeping, for it is practically a religion in
Switzerland and Germany, too. These countries, along with Britain, the Anglo-Saxon world in
general, the Netherlands, Austria and Scandinavia, have a linear vision of time and action. They
suspect, like the Americans, that time is passing (being wasted) without decisions being made or
actions being performed. These groups are also monochromic; that is, they prefer to do only one
thing at a time, to concentrate on it and do it within a fixed schedule. They think that in this way
they get more things done—and more efficiently. Furthermore, being imbued with the Protestant
work ethic, they equate working time with success: the harder you work—the more hours, that
is—the more successful you will be and the more money you will make. This idea makes perfect
sense to American ears, would carry less weight in class-conscious Britain, and would be viewed as
entirely unrealistic in Southern European countries, where authority, privilege and birthright
negate the theory.

Multi-Active Time

Southern Europeans are multi-active, rather than linear-active. The more things they can do at the
same time, the happier and the more fulfilled they feel. They organize their time (and lives) in a
different way from Americans, Germans, and the Swiss. Multi-active peoples are not very
interested in schedules or punctuality. They consider the present reality to be more important
than appointments. In their ordering of things, priority is given to the relative thrill or significance
of each meeting.

Spaniards, Italians and Arabs place a different kind of importance on the passing of time if it
means that conversations will be left unfinished. For them, completing a human transaction is the
best way they can pass their time. For an Italian, time considerations will usually be subjected to
human feelings. “Why are you so angry because I came at 9:30?” he asks his German colleague.
“Because it says 9:00 in my diary,” says the German. “Then why don’t you write 9:30 and we’ll
both be happy?” is a logical Italian response. The business we have to do and our close relations
are so important that it is irrelevant at what time we meet. The meeting is what counts. Germans

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and Swiss may have difficulty adapting to this, as it offends their sense of order, or tidiness, of
planning. A Spaniard would take the side of the Italian.

In countries inhabitated by linear-active people, time is clock- and calendar- related, segmented in
an abstract manner for our convenience, measurement, and disposal. In multi-active cultures like
the Arab and Latin spheres, times is more event- or personality-related, a subjective commodity
which can be manipulated, molded, stretched, or dispensed with.

“I have to rush,” says the American, “my time is up.” The Spaniard or Arab, scornful of this attitude
to schedules, would be unlikely to use expressions like this.

Cyclic Time

Both the linear-active northerner and the multi-active Latin think that they manage time in the
best way possible. In some East Asian cultures, however, the adaptation of humans to time is seen
as a viable alternative. In these cultures, time is viewed neither as linear nor event—relationship
related, but as cyclic. Each day the sun rises and sets, the seasons follow one another, the
heavenly bodies revolve around us, people grow old and die, but their children reconstitute the
process. We know this cycle has gone on for 100,000 years and more. Cyclical time is not a scarce
commodity. There seems always to be an unlimited supply of it just around the next bend. As they
say, when God made time, he made plenty of it.

It’s not surprising, then, that business decisions are arrived at in a different way than in the West.
Linear and multi-active cultures often expect people in cyclic cultures to make a quick decision or
to treat a current deal on its present merits, irrespective of what has happened in the past. East
Asians find this inappropriate. The past formulates the contextual background to the present
decision, about which in any case, as Asians, they think long term—their hands are tied in many
ways. Americans see time passing without decisions being made or actions performed as having
been “wasted.” Asians do not see time as racing away unutilized in a linear future, but coming
around again in a circle, where the same opportunities, risks, and dangers will represent
themselves when people are so many days, weeks or months wiser.

The American, German and Swiss will go home satisfied if all tasks have been
completed. The French or Italian might not mind leave some “mopping up” for
the following day. John Paul Fieg, author of A Common Core: Thais and
Americans, describing the Thai attitude toward time, saw it as a pool one
could gradually walk around. This metaphor applies to most East Asians, who,
instead of tackling problems immediately in sequential fashion, circle around
them for a few days or weeks before committing themselves.

In a Buddhist culture (e.g. Thailand, Tibet), not only time but also life itself
goes around in a circle. Whatever we plan, however we organize our particular

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world, generation follows generation; governments and rulers will succeed each other; crops will
be harvested; monsoons, earthquakes and other catastrophes will recur; taxes will be paid; the
sun and moon will rise and set; stocks and shares will rise and fall.

Back to the Future In the linear-active, industrialized Western

cultures time is seen as a road along which we proceed. Life is sometimes referred to as a
“journey”; death is often referred to as the “end of the road.” We imagine ourselves as having
traveled along the part of the road that is behind us (the past) and we see the untrodden path of
the future stretching out in front of us.

Linear-oriented people do regard the future as entirely unknowable, for they have already nudged
it along certain channels by meticulous planning. American executives, with their quarterly
forecasts, will tell you how much money they are going to make in the next three months. The
Swiss stationmaster will assure you, without any hesitation that the train from Zurich to Luzern
will leave at 9:03 tomorrow morning and arrive at exactly 10:05. He is probably right, too.
Watches, calendars and computers are devices that not only encourage punctuality but also get us
into the habit of working toward targets and deadlines. In a sense, we are “making the future
happen.” We cannot know everything (it would be disastrous for horse racing and detective
stories), but we eliminate future unknowns to the best of our ability. Our personal programming
tells us that over the next year we are going to get up at certain times, work so many hours, take
vacations for designated periods, play tennis on Saturday mornings and
pay our taxes on fixed dates.

Cyclic time is not seen as a straight road leading from our feet to the
horizon, but as a curved one which in one year’s time will lead us
through “scenery” and conditions very similar to what we experience at
the present moment. Observers of cyclic time are less disciplined in their
planning of the future, since they believe that it cannot be managed and
that humans make life easier for themselves by “harmonizing” with the
laws and cyclic events of nature.

Cultures observing both linear and cyclic concepts of time usually see the
past as something we have put behind us and the future as something that lies before us. In
Madagascar, the opposite is the case. The Malagasy imagine the future as flowing in to the back of
their heads, or passing them from behind, then becoming the past as it stretches out in front of
them. The past is in front of their eyes because it is visible, known and influential. They can look at
it, enjoy it, learn from it, even “play” with it. The Malagasy people spend an inordinate amount of
time consulting their ancestors, exhuming their bones, even partying with them.

By contrast, the Malagasy consider the future unknowable. It is behind their head where they do
not have eyes. Their plans for this unknown area will be far from meticulous, for what can they be
based on? Buses in Madagascar leave, not according to a predetermined timetable, but when the
bus is full. The situation triggers the event. Not only does this make economic sense, but it is also
the time that most passengers have chosen to leave. Consequently, in Madagascar stocks are not

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replenished until shelves are empty, filling stations order gas only when they run dry, and hordes
of would-be passengers at the airport find that, in spite of their tickets, in reality everybody is
wait-listed. The actual assignation of seats takes place between the opening of the check-in desk
and the (eventual) departure of the plane. (Lewis, R. (2006). When Cultures Collide: Leading
Across Cultures. Nicholas Brealey Publishing: Boston, MA. Pp. 53-62)

• Describe each of type of time and give an example:

Linear –

Multi active –

Cyclic –

How do people in Colombia see time, in general? Is this because of religious reasons? Cultural
reasons?

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In the previous article, you read about how the Malagasy people of Madagascar spend
time with their ancestors. Watch the following video and answer the questions.
DANCING WITH THE DEAD IN MADAGASCAR
http://video.nytimes.com/video/2010/09/05/world/africa/1248068971617/dancing-with-the-dead.html

1. Describe the ritual performed in the video.

2. What is the general atmosphere at the ceremony? ttp://www.banderasanimadas.com/img/madagascar-

flag-3_w470.html

3. What does John Badiste say is the purpose of the ceremony?

4. How often are these events held? How many people attend?

5. What are some of the costs involved in holding this event?

6. How does their concept of time affect their relationship with their ancestors?

7. How is this different from the way Colombians honor the dead?

8. What was your first reaction when watching this video? After considering their
relationship with time and their reasons for `dancing with the dead,` can you understand
their ritual in a more objective manner?

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 Twenty Common Verb Preposition Collocations
Prepositions include words such as on, at, in, for, from, about, and over. You have five minutes to
read the following sentences and mark the ones that use preposition collocations incorrectly. Do
not look up the answers in the chart below. This is a chance to measure what you already know.

1. The argument consists in two main parts.

2. I cannot comment on that subject, as I do not understand it well enough.
3. My parents do not approve about my choice to study music.
4. They have contributed greatly for our understanding of how the brain works.
5. The distance that a puma can run depends on many factors.
6. Many people are not aware about the environmental damage caused by littering.
7. Camels are capable of walking long distances without water.
8. The Free Trade agreement has affected to the economy in several ways.
9. Societies benefit greatly for having health services accessible to everyone.
10. After graduating from the university, I no longer had to rely on my parents for support.

Go over the answers with your teacher. Then correct the sentences that used preposition
collocations incorrectly. SB=Somebody
STH=Something
Preposition Collocation Example
to (dis)approve of SB/STH Some voters disapprove of the current policies.
to affect SB/STH El Niño has affected the weather negatively.
to be (un)aware of/that STH Farmers were initially unaware of the consequences of El Niño.
to benefit from STH The crops would benefit from some rain.
to connect STH to STH else Scientists have connected greenhouse gases to climate change.
to be (in)capable of STH They are not capable of watering their crops without rain.
to comment on STH The president has not yet commented on the power outages.
to concentrate on STH It is difficult to concentrate on one’s work during a power outage.
to consist of STH Plans to decrease arroyos consist of several different measures.
to contribute (STH) to STH The students contributed some of their savings to disaster relief.
to depend on SB/STH Agriculture depends on predictable annual rainfall.
to take notice of SB/STH Initially, scientists did not take notice of climate changes.
to emerge from STH Two important findings emerged from the research findings.
to get rid of SB/STH We have to get rid of all the leftover paper, but we prefer to
recycle it.
to be ignorant of STH They were ignorant of the effects of climate change.
to offer justification for STH Both candidates offered justification for their policies.
to submit STH to SB Should I submit this assignment to the teacher?
to rely on SB/STH The program relies on funding from private institutions.
an increase in STH There has been an increase in graduation rates among students.
to refer to STH El Niño refers to a weather pattern that affects the western
hemisphere.
Adapted from: Taylor, J. & Moore, P. (2001). Prepare and practice for the computer-based TOEFL test: The truly comprehensive
approach to the new TOEFL CBT. Newbury: Express Publishing.

106
Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs are verbs that consist of two or more words but take on a different meaning when
used together. In Chart A below, match the sentence parts together. Each sentence includes one
phrasal verb.

Chart A
Column A Column B
1. The train wreck came… a)…without long, luxurious showers.
2. It was Juan who came … b)…about as a result of the engineer’s negligence.
3. During the drought, residents had to do… c)…behind so badly in his studies that he was
unable to graduate on time.
4. Mark had fallen … d)…anyone out when you count the attendance.
5. Teenagers often try to fit… e)…by my house later this evening and we’ll have
a drink.
6. Remember not to leave… f)…it by my friends and see what they think.
7. Silvio didn’t think… g)… up with the new scheduling system.
8. If you are not busy, drop… h)…up that great opportunity.
9. I regret that I passed… i)…through his decision to start a fight.
10. I like your suggestion. I will run… j)…in with their friends by wearing the same style
of clothes.

Chart B
List the phrasal verbs from Chart A in the chart below. Then write one sentence with each phrasal
verb.
Phrasal Verb Example Sentence
1.
2.
3.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Adapted from: Miller, G. S., (2001) Cracking the TOEFL. New York: Princeton Review.

107
WRITING SKILLS
________________________________________________________

Objectives for Essay and Writing section:

• Research: Use APA format to cite your research
• How to paraphrase
• Correct fragments, comma splices, and run-ons
• Review passive voice

________________________________________________________

108
Research
Before you begin writing your paper, you must research the topic that you have chosen. We will
do research together in class, using Uninorte`s library databases to look for books and academic
journals. You may have one of your sources from a website; the other source must be from the
library database.

How to Use the Library Databases

1. Log into your Uninorte account at http://www.uninorte.edu.co/ Click on `Mis Servicios`. Click on
`Biblioteca Karl C. Parrish`.

2. Click on `Multidisciplinarias`. On the right hand side, you´ll find a list of databases. Possible ones
you can use are Encyclopedia Britannica Online, ProQuest, Jstor. If you use the Encyclopedia
Britannica Online, it counts as only one source of information. You still need to find two other
sources. Two, out of three, of your sources must be from the library data base.

3. Here`s an example of how to navigate ProQuest when searching for information: Click on
`ProQuest`. Click on `Ciencias sociales`. Scroll down until you find `ProQuest Research Library:
Social Sciences`. Click on `Search`.

4. Click on `Avanzada.` In the spaces provided, enter terms to search, for example ´American
culture`. You might find that your original search doesn´t bring up any material; conversely, you
might find that your search is too general and you have too many options to look through.
`American culture` brought up 436,724 results. So, I need to further refine my search. Go back to
the `Avanzada` page and add more words if you need to. I added `Women` and `Rights`. That
resulted in 16,981 results. Don´t get frustrated as it can take time to find good sources. Try
changing the words that you`re using to search for material.

5. On the `Avanzada` page, there is a `Opciones de busqueda` section. There you can click on
`Texto completo` which will limit your search to complete articles. You need complete articles for
your paper. A summary, review, or synopsis of an article will not work. All of your sources must be
in English. No translations will be accepted.

6. Show your 4 sources to your instructor. You cannot leave class until your instructor has
approved of your sources.

7. Save your sources. You need to save all your sources on the Google Classroom document. Do
not email your sources to your hotmail or Facebook accounts as some of the computers in the lab
do not allow access to those accounts. Remember, you will be writing your essay in class so you
need to have easy access to your sources.

8. Click on the `Citar` button in the top right-hand corner of the page. Copy and paste each citation
as you will need these for the Reference List for your paper. While you must write the paper in
class, you can complete your Reference List ahead of time and email it to yourself

109
Fragments
In English, every sentence must have both a subject and a verb. If a
sentence does not have both a subject and a verb, it is called a fragment,
which means “broken piece.” A sentence fragment is only a piece of a
sentence, not a complete sentence. For example:

• No subject
o has very good players like Cristiano Ronaldo.

• No verb
Portugal situated in southwestern Europe.

• No subject or verb
• (Adapted from Singleton, Jill, and Ann O. Strauch. Writers at Work. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2005. Print.)

Correct the following fragments, taken from previous students’ writings, by

adding something to it. There are several ways to fix each fragment.

1. In order to understand Yemen better, is necessary to know many

details about their customs, culture, religion, family and social
structure.

2. When the guest in Argentina has to go, must say goodbye to

everyone.

3. Because of this, the Swiss an excellent communication with the

world.

4. Greece a country full of tradition, culture, history, festivals and

manners that have to be discovered.

5. Taekwondo was born in Seoul, South Korea, and is widely spread

around the world and basically is about how to stop fights using
parts of your body.

6. Some countries that are part of this country such as England,

Wales, Scotland and Ireland.

7. I´m sure your answer “no” but even if is “yes” there are a lot of
interesting aspects about Japanese culture waiting to be shared to
the world.

8. The economic crisis is hurting the German federal education budget,

although the increasing student body.

110
Run-on Sentences & Comma Splices
A common writing mistake is a run-on sentence. A run-on sentence happens
when two simple sentences are run together without correct punctuation to
separate them. For example:
o Hindus believe in reincarnation, cows are sacred in India.

To correct a run-on sentence, the two most common options are as follows:
o Hindus believe in reincarnation. Cows are sacred in India.
o Hindus believe in reincarnation, so cows are sacred in India.
(Adapted from Singleton, Jill, and Ann O. Strauch. Writers at Work. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2005. Print.)

Correct the following comma splices and run-ons, taken from previous students’
writings, by adding periods and capital letters, colons, or coordinating conjunctions.
There are several possible ways to fix each.

1. One day, when I was in high school, my Russian teacher forgot about the
exams we would do in our class, she said she realized it when she was right in
front of her house door but she couldn’t go back inside because then something
wrong could happen to her, so she said that “Russians are very superstitious
people” and continued with her class.

2. During the trip I ate more than any time in my life, lunches were always
composed of three dishes and Italians always eat that way.

3. Also the influence of religion is important in Laos, for example there is at least
one monastery in almost every settlement.

4. It was a very complicated period in Spanish history, these facts affected their
gestures.

5. China has many regional cultures because of its large size, each border
country has influenced Chinese culture.

6. There is another kind of taboo which involves vocabulary there are two words
that can´t be mentioned, sex and excretion.

111
 Passive Voice (Review)
Often in academic writing, we don't want to focus on who is doing an action,
but on who is receiving or experiencing the action. The passive voice is thus
extremely useful in academic writing because it allows writers to highlight the
most important participants or events within sentences by placing them at the
beginning of the sentence.

Look at the following examples and identify who is the focus of the action in
the sentences.

1. Scientist classify glass as a solid.

2. Glass is classified as a solid.
The second sentence focuses on how glass is classified, rather than
on who classifies glass.

Sometimes in academic writing it might be necessary to use the passive

voice in order to avoid naming the 'doer' of an action so that the message
of your text is less aggressive; for example, compare the following
excerpt:

In this ideology the argument used
to sustain the subjugation of women
has largely rested on premises
about biological difference - the
biological differences between men
and women have been used to
legitimate hierarchical structures of
social inequality. Women, because
of their biological function as child
bearers, have been traditionally
confined to the domestic sphere
and excluded from the world 'out
there'.
In this ideology the argument used
to sustain the subjugation of women
has largely rested on premises
about biological difference - society
has used the biological differences
between men and women to
legitimate hierarchical structures of
social inequality. Society has
traditionally confined women,
because of their biological function
as child bearers, to the domestic
sphere and excluded them from
the world 'out there'.

Text from: Jagtenberg, T. & D'Alton, P. (1989) Four dimensional social space: Class, gender, ethnicity and nature. Harper
Row: Sydney.

112
After looking at the excerpt, answer the following questions. Then
compare with a partner.

What is the difference of emphasis between the two texts?

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Which one is more descriptive?______________________________

Which one is more accusatory? _______________________________
Why?_____________________________________________________

Read the following paragraph. Change it from active to passive

Last summer I painted our house. The job took about two weeks. First, I washed
the exterior using warm water and a mild detergent. Then I sealed the chinks and
pores in the walls with cement. After the cement dried, I painted the exterior. I
used latex paint, because it is easy to apply and cleans up with water. I needed a
whole week to finish this part of the job. I applied the paint evenly, to keep from
applying two coats. I used a color that was very close to the original color. Our
house is a two-story house, so I used a tall ladder to do the second story. The
paint balanced on the top step of the ladder while I worked. I felt a great deal of
satisfaction when the job was finished. I patted myself on the back. Even my dad
said that I did a good job.

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

113
Avoiding Plagiarism
Watch the video “Ten Types of Plagiarism” (3:58) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EF5eFeJMplA

Read the following excerpts about artists Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera. Next, read the subsequent
paragraphs and decide whether they are examples of plagiarism or whether they have been cited
correctly.

Frida Kahlo
Frida Kahlo was one of four daughters born to a Hungarian-Jewish father and a mother of Spanish
and Mexican Indian descent. She did not originally plan to become an artist. A survivor of polio,
she entered a pre-med program in Mexico City. At the age of 18, she was seriously injured in a bus
accident. She spent over a year in bed recovering from fractures to her spine, collarbone and ribs,
a shattered pelvis, and shoulder and foot injuries. She endured more than 30 operations in her
lifetime and during her convalescence she began to paint. Her paintings, mostly self-portraits and
still life, were deliberately naïve, and filled with the colors and forms of Mexican folk art. At 22 she
married the famous Mexican muralist Diego Rivera, 20 years her senior. Their stormy, passionate
relationship survived infidelities, the pressures of careers, divorce, remarriage, Frida's bisexual
affairs, her poor health and her inability to have children. Frida once said: "I suffered two grave
accidents in my life…One in which a streetcar knocked me down and the other was Diego." The
streetcar accident left her crippled physically and Rivera crippled her emotionally.

Biography. (2014). Welcome to the Frida Kahlo Website. Retrieved from

http://www.fridakahlo.com/

Diego Rivera
Although Diego Rivera had success as a cubist painter in Europe, the work he would do in his
career greatly changed. The Mexican Revolution in 1914/15 strongly influenced him, as did the
Russian Revolution in 1917. During a trip to Italy he took an interest in murals and depicting the
struggles of the people he grew up around. Upon returning to Mexico to continue his work in
1922, he received government funding to work on public buildings. By the time he married
another artist, Frida Kahlo, in 1929, he already had several children from previous relationships.

Diego Rivera, his paintings and murals. (2010). Diego Rivera, paintings, murals, biography, quotes.
Retrieved from http://www.diegorivera.org/

114
1. To understand Frida Kahlo’s art it is necessary to understand her life. As a survivor of polio, she
first started studying medicine in Mexico City. At 18, she was injured in a bus accident and spent a
year recovering from factures to her spine, ribs, and collarbone, as well as a shattered pelvis and
foot injuries. It was during this time that she began to paint. Her paintings, mostly self portraits
and still life, were filled with the colors and forms of Mexican folk art. Her life experiences are
clearly visible in her art.

2. Although Diego Rivera had success as a painter in Europe and the Americas, it is possibly his
wife who is even more famous. He married Frida Kahlo, 20 years his junior, when she was 22 years
old. Their stormy, passionate relationships survived infidelities, the pressures of careers, divorce,
remarriage, Frida’s bi-sexual affairs, her poor health and her inability to have children. In the end,
she turned her pain into art that in the eyes of many, would outshine even his.

3. To understand Frida Kahlo’s art it is necessary to understand her life, as many of the themes
from her lived experiences are visible in her art. As a result of a devastating bus accident, Kahlo lay
injured for close to a year, and during this time began to paint (“Biography,” 2014). In addition,
she often painted self-portraits, and this solitary theme of reoccurs throughout her work.

4. Diego Rivera was greatly influenced by politics in his art. In fact, themes from great political
events figured prominently in most of his art. As his biographers point out, “The Mexican
Revolution of 1915/15 strongly influenced him, as did the Russian Revolution in 1917” ("Diego
Rivera,” 2010). He is, however, not alone in being influenced by these momentous events. It was
probably impossible to create art in the early 20th century without responding to such world
events. Nevertheless, remains strongly linked to these themes in the minds of art lovers across the
globe.

5. Although Frida Kahlo experienced a great deal of pain in her life, not all her art reflects this. She
is recorded as saying that I suffered two grave accidents in my life…One in which a streetcar
knocked me down and the other was Diego. From this, we might assume that much of her art
should be about heartache and tragedy. However, much of it focuses on the pride she took in her
culture.

6. One of the most famous artist couples was Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera. According to
“Biography” (2014), “Frida Kahlo was one of four daughters born to a Hungarian-Jewish father and
a mother of Spanish and Mexican Indian descent. She did not originally plan to become an artist…
At 22 she married the famous Mexican muralist Diego Rivera, 20 years her senior. Their stormy,
passionate relationship survived infidelities, the pressures of careers, divorce, remarriage, Frida's
bi-sexual affairs, her poor health and her inability to have children.” Diego Rivera, however, was
arguably more influenced by politics. “The Mexican Revolution of 1914/15 strongly influenced
him, as did the Russian Revolution in 1917. During a trip to Italy, he took an interest in murals, and
depicting the struggles of the people he grew up around. Upon returning to Mexico to continue his
work, in 1922 he received government funding to work on public buildings” (Diego Rivera, 2010).

115
 In academic writing, and any type of writing for that matter, it is important to know
how to combat and avoid plagiarism. The best way to avoid plagiarism is by trying to
use your own words as much as possible, and when you need to use information from
another source (website, news article, research, books, magazines, journals, etc…)
always use parenthetical citations and references. By using citations and references
you give credit to the original author(s) and, thus, avoid plagiarizing. For this course
we will be focusing on:

APA Referencing Format

APA (American Psychological Association) is most commonly used to cite sources within the social
sciences. This resource, revised according to the 6th edition, second printing of the APA manual,
offers examples for the general format of APA research papers, in-text citations,
endnotes/footnotes, and the reference page. For more information, please consult the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th edition, second printing.

Making a reference list for your essay:

Basic Format for Books

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle. Location: Publisher.

Note: For "Location," you should always list the city and the state using the two letter
postal abbreviation without periods (New York, NY). For the "Title," capitalize the first
word of the subtitle and all proper nouns.

Calfee, R. C., & Valencia, R. R. (1991). APA guide to preparing manuscripts for journal
publication. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Edited Book, No Author

Duncan, G. J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds.). (1997). Consequences of growing up poor. New
York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.

Edited Book with an Author or Authors

Plath, S. (2000). The unabridged journals. K. V. Kukil (Ed.). New York, NY: Anchor.

Article or Chapter in an Edited Book

116
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In A. A. Editor & B. B.
Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pages of chapter). Location: Publisher.

Note: When you list the pages of the chapter or essay in parentheses after the book title, use
"pp." before the numbers: (pp. 1-21). This abbreviation, however, does not appear before
the page numbers in periodical references, except for newspapers.

O'Neil, J. M., & Egan, J. (1992). Men's and women's gender role journeys: A metaphor for
healing, transition, and transformation. In B. R. Wainrib (Ed.), Gender issues across the life
cycle (pp. 107-123). New York, NY: Springer.

Multivolume Work

Wiener, P. (Ed.). (1973). Dictionary of the history of ideas (Vols. 1-4). New York, NY:
Scribner's.

Article From an Online Periodical

Online articles follow the same guidelines for printed articles. Include all information the
online host makes available, including an issue number in parentheses.

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article.Title of Online Periodical,
volume number(issue number if available). Retrieved from
http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Bernstein, M. (2002). 10 tips on writing the living Web. A List Apart: For People Who Make
Websites, 149. Retrieved from http://www.alistapart.com/articles/writeliving

Article From a Database

Please note: APA states that including database information in citations is not necessary
because databases change over time (p. 192). However, the OWL still includes information
about databases for those users who need database information.

When referencing a print article obtained from an online database (such as a database in the
library), provide appropriate print citation information (formatted just like a "normal" print
citation would be for that type of work). By providing this information, you allow people to
retrieve the print version if they do not have access to the database from which you
retrieved the article. You can also include the item number or accession number or database
URL at the end, but the APA manual says that this is not required.

If you are citing an article from a database that is available in other places, such as a journal
or magazine, include the homepage's URL. You may have to do a web search of the
article's title, author, etc. to find the URL.

117
 For articles that are easily located, do not provide database information. If the article is
difficult to locate, then you can provide database information. Only use retrieval dates if the
source could change, such as Wikis. For more about citing articles retrieved from electronic
databases, see pages 187-192 of the Publication Manual.

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article.Title of Journal, volume
number, page range. Retrieved from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Smyth, A. M., Parker, A. L., & Pease, D. L. (2002). A study of enjoyment of peas. Journal of
Abnormal Eating, 8(3), 120-125. Retrieved from
http://www.articlehomepage.com/full/url/

Newspaper Article

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Title of Newspaper. Retrieved from
http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Parker-Pope, T. (2008, May 6). Psychiatry handbook linked to drug industry. The New York
Times. Retrieved from http://well.blogs.nytimes.com

Electronic Books

Electronic books may include books found on personal websites, databases, or even in
audio form. Use the following format if the book you are using is only provided in a digital
format or is difficult to find in print. If the work is not directly available online or must be
purchased, use "Available from," rather than "Retrieved from," and point readers to where
they can find it. For books available in print form and electronic form, include the publish
date in parentheses after the author's name. For references to e-book editions, be sure to
include the type and version of e-book you are referencing (e.g., "[Kindle DX version]"). If
DOIs are available, provide them at the end of the reference.

De Huff, E. W. (n.d.). Taytay’s tales: Traditional Pueblo Indian tales. Retrieved from
http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/dehuff/taytay/taytay.html
Davis, J. (n.d.). Familiar birdsongs of the Northwest. Available from
http://www.powells.com/cgi-bin/biblio? inkey=1-9780931686108-0

Online Encyclopedias and Dictionaries

Often encyclopedias and dictionaries do not provide bylines (authors' names). When no
byline is present, move the entry name to the front of the citation. Provide publication dates
if present or specify (n.d.) if no date is present in the entry.

Feminism. (n.d.). In Encyclopædia Britannica online. Retrieved from

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/724633/feminism

Graphic Data (e.g. Interactive Maps and Other Graphic Representations of Data)

118
 Give the name of the researching organization followed by the date. In brackets, provide a
brief explanation of what type of data is there and in what form it appears. Finally, provide
the project name and retrieval information.

Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment. (2007). [Graph illustration the SORCE Spectral Plot
May 8, 2008]. Solar Spectral Data Access from the SIM, SOLSTICE, and XPS Instruments.
Retrieved from http://lasp.colorado.edu/cgi-bin/ion-p?page=input_data_for_ spectra.ion

Audio Podcast

For all podcasts, provide as much information as possible; not all of the following
information will be available. Possible addition identifiers may include Producer, Director,
etc.

Bell, T., & Phillips, T. (2008, May 6). A solar flare. Science @ NASA Podcast. Podcast
retrieved from http://science.nasa.gov/podcast.htm

Video Podcasts

For all podcasts, provide as much information as possible; not all of the following
information will be available. Possible addition identifiers may include Producer, Director,
etc.

Scott, D. (Producer). (2007, January 5). The community college classroom [Episode
7]. Adventures in Education. Podcast retrieved from http://www.adveeducation.com

Please note: There are no spaces used with brackets in APA. When possible, include the year,
month, and date in references. If the month and date are not available, use the year of publication.

119
 Parenthetical Citations
Most people do not have these rules memorized. Most commonly, people always refer
to a reference website or have a referencing rule book, on hand when they are writing
an essay or piece of academic writing. In this course, you do not need to memorize
these rules, but you MUST be familiar with the concepts and know where to find
referencing information should you need it.

APA citation basics

When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that
the author's last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text,
for example, (Jones, 1998), and a complete reference should appear in the reference list at
the end of the paper.

If you are referring to an idea from another work but NOT directly quoting the material, or
making reference to an entire book, article or other work, you only have to make reference
to the author and year of publication and not the page number in your in-text reference. All
sources that are cited in the text must appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.

In-text citation capitalization, quotes, and italics/underlining

• Always capitalize proper nouns, including author names and initials: D. Jones.
• If you refer to the title of a source within your paper, capitalize all words that are
four letters long or greater within the title of a source: Permanence and Change.
Exceptions apply to short words that are verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and
adverbs: Writing New Media, There Is Nothing Left to Lose.

(Note: in your References list, only the first word of a title will be
capitalized: Writing new media.)

• When capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in a hyphenated compound

word:Natural-Born Cyborgs.
• Capitalize the first word after a dash or colon: "Defining Film Rhetoric: The Case of
Hitchcock's Vertigo."
• Italicize or underline the titles of longer works such as books, edited collections,
movies, television series, documentaries, or albums: The Closing of the American
Mind; The Wizard of Oz; Friends.
• Put quotation marks around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles,
articles from edited collections, television series episodes, and song titles:
"Multimedia Narration: Constructing Possible Worlds"; "The One Where Chandler
Can't Cry."

120
Short quotations

If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of
publication, and the page number for the reference (preceded by "p."). Introduce the
quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name followed by the date of
publication in parentheses.

According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when
it was their first time" (p. 199).

Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); what
implications does this have for teachers?

If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author's last name, the year of
publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation.

She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style" (Jones, 1998, p. 199), but she
did not offer an explanation as to why.

Summary or paraphrase

If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to the
author and year of publication in your in-text reference, but APA guidelines encourage you
to also provide the page number (although it is not required.)

According to Jones (1998), APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners.

APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners (Jones, 1998, p. 199).

Citing an Author or Authors

A Work by Two Authors: Name both authors in the signal phrase or in the parentheses
each time you cite the work. Use the word "and" between the authors' names within the text
and use the ampersand in the parentheses.

Research by Wegener and Petty (1994) supports...

(Wegener & Petty, 1994)

Unknown Author: If the work does not have an author, cite the source by its title in the
signal phrase or use the first word or two in the parentheses. Titles of books and reports are
italicized or underlined; titles of articles, chapters, and web pages are in quotation marks.

A similar study was done of students learning to format research papers ("Using APA,"
2001).

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Note: In the rare case the "Anonymous" is used for the author, treat it as the author's name
(Anonymous, 2001). In the reference list, use the name Anonymous as the author.

Organization as an Author: If the author is an organization or a government agency,

mention the organization in the signal phrase or in the parenthetical citation the first time
you cite the source.

According to the American Psychological Association (2000),...

Two or More Works in the Same Parentheses: When your parenthetical citation includes
two or more works, order them the same way they appear in the reference list, separated by
a semi-colon.

(Berndt, 2002; Harlow, 1983)

Authors With the Same Last Name: To prevent confusion, use first initials with the last
names.

(E. Johnson, 2001; L. Johnson, 1998)

Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year: If you have two sources by
the same author in the same year, use lower-case letters (a, b, c) with the year to order the
entries in the reference list. Use the lower-case letters with the year in the in-text citation.

Research by Berndt (1981a) illustrated that...

Citing Indirect Sources

If you use a source that was cited in another source, name the original source in your signal
phrase. List the secondary source in your reference list and include the secondary source in
the parentheses.

Johnson argued that...(as cited in Smith, 2003, p. 102).

Note: When citing material in parentheses, set off the citation with a comma, as above.
Also, try to locate the original material and cite the original source.

(Taken from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/)

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Decide which sentences, from past student papers, have incorrect in-text citation.
Then, fix these errors.

1. The “Korean wave of cultural exports”, as Norimitsu (2005) calls this event, has
been a big hit in Asian countries like Taiwan, China, Vietnam and Japan.

2. Adventure Guide. New Zealand affirmed that “At universities gates we can see
girls and boys dressed according to the seasons” (Flagler, B., 2005).

3. As Joseph Hobbs said in his article “People and caves in Madagascar,” “there is
a complex and powerful spiritualism among cultures of Madagascar…” (2001).

4. Although Russia doesn’t have an official religion (Russia, 2013), “Religion plays a
prominent role in the public and spiritual life of today’s Russia.” (Russia, 2013).

5. According to Travel & Geography “Mexican society is ethnically and regionally

diverse, and there are sharp socioeconomic divisions within the population”.

6. Anti-social behaviors like drug abuse, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, and

bullying have a very low incidence with Amish students (Ediger, 2005).

7. On the business point of view, Pramila Rao said (2010), “India is considered a
major player in the world economy (p.129) today”.

8. The traditional greeting in Maori culture is a light touch of the noses between
two people which is known as the Hongi. New Zealand, Greetings (2013) culture
crossing. Retrieved from:
http://www.culturecrossing.net/basics_business_student_details.php?Id=7&CID
=148

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Integrating Research
Now we know how not to plagiarize. But, how do we correctly integrate quotes from our
academic sources so that our reports have accurate facts and interesting statistics without
data dumping? Data dumping is writing in which students dump information on readers,
without trying to figure out how best to use the research and without explaining it. Here is
an example:

The U.S.-Colombia Free Trade Agreement (FTA) benefits both the US and Colombia.
According to The Economist , “the pact will add 10% to exports and one percentage point
of economic growth this year, creating around 300,000 new jobs.” Also, American exports
to Colombia could rise by $1.1 billion. Furthermore, the Colombian government thinks
that the FTA will create approximately 300,000 new jobs (2012). We can clearly see that
the FTA will improve both countries’ economies.

Also, watch out for dive-bomb quotes! This is writing in which students include a direct
quotation, but without providing an adequate introduction or context for it. Here is an
example:

Some question who will benefit the most from the FTA. “Many Democratic members of
Congress argued that it should not be approved until they were satisfied Colombia had
done enough to stop violence against union organisers. There was also opposition from
Colombian trade unions, who expressed concern about whether the country was
developed enough to compete.” (Colombia-US, 2012). So, some people will receive
more money from the FTA than others.

Instead, try to integrate your research: introduce the source, paraphrase information
from it, and then explain how the research was used and/or how it connects to your
research topic. Here’s an example:

Fair Trade Agreements between the US and other countries, like the recently passed FTA
with Colombia, have complicated implications for all involved. Supporters of this FTA cite
economic benefits for both countries. For instance, The Economist (2012) states that
“American farm products such as soyabeans, top-quality beef, bacon, cotton and most
fruit and vegetables can now enter Colombia duty-free, as can machinery, some vehicles,
and textiles. The deal should also encourage investment in Colombia, both by American
companies and by firms using the country as a base from which to export to the United
States.” This clearly shows that both countries will increase revenues based off of more
imports and exports between these two countries as well as others. Conversely,

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opponents of FTA point out people who will stand to lose revenue, in this case Colombia's
rice growers and poultry farmers. “American chicken will come in at half the price of the
Colombian stuff.” Aside from a large price disparity, Colombian “hygiene certificates are
not recognized” in the US (Colombia’s free-trade, 2012). While Colombia may benefit
economically, not all Colombians will find the FTA to be an advantage, as we can see for
rice growers and poultry farmers. It remains to be seen in the coming years who will
benefit from the US-Colombian FTA and who will not. Will Colombia be able to find a way
to aid those citizens who are harmed by the FTA? Will the advantages outweigh the
disadvantages? And, for whom?

Timed Writing for Citations (20 minutes)

Now, use the “U.S.-Colombia Free Trade Agreement (FTA) Data Sheet” and write a
paragraph about the FTA. It´s your decision to support or oppose the FTA. Make a point to
include one counterargument sentence, followed by one refutation sentence. Also,
include a direct and indirect quote from this source into your writing as you need to know
this skill for your essay. Essentially, you’re practicing how to correctly write an
argumentative paragraph to prepare for your essay.

U.S.-Colombia Free Trade Agreement (FTA) Data Sheet

Colombia-US free trade agreement comes into force. (2012, May 15). BBC News.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-18069469

The accord, signed during President George W Bush's administration, was opposed by US
labour groups, who feared job losses. Many Democratic members of Congress argued that
it should not be approved until they were satisfied Colombia had done enough to stop
violence against union organisers. There was also opposition from Colombian trade
unions, who expressed concern about whether the country was developed enough to
compete.

Colombia’s free-trade deal: A long-awaited pact comes into force. (2012, May 19). The
Economist Newspaper. http://www.economist.com/node/21555592

SHORTLY before midnight on May 14th a planeload of freshly cut roses, carnations and
lilies took off from Bogotá and headed for Miami. By the time it landed, a free-trade
agreement had come into effect, allowing the flowers, and thousands of other Colombian
products, tariff-free entry into the American market.This prompted celebrations of a new
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era in trade between the two nations. In fact, the flowers would have avoided tariffs
anyway, thanks to decade-long trade preferences under the Andean Trade Promotion and
Drug Eradication Act. This already covered nearly 80% of Colombian exports, in exchange
for efforts to reduce the supply of drugs. The new pact makes those benefits permanent,
and extends them to almost everything else. Meanwhile American farm products such as
soyabeans, top-quality beef, bacon, cotton and most fruit and vegetables can now enter
Colombia duty-free, as can machinery, some vehicles, and textiles. The deal should also
encourage investment in Colombia, both by American companies and by firms using the
country as a base from which to export to the United States.

As ever, there will be some losers. Colombia's rice growers and poultry farmers look to be
on the wrong side of comparative advantage. The poultry industry association, Fenavi,
calculates that American chicken will come in at half the price of the Colombian stuff. In
any case, adds Jorge Quintero, general manager of Quinsagro, a poultry producer in
Bucaramanga, Colombia “can't sell a single feather in America” because its hygiene
certificates are not recognised there. The trade minister, Sergio Díaz-Granados, has
offered help to industries that suffer.

Overall, Colombia should benefit greatly. The government thinks the pact will add 10% to
exports and one percentage point of economic growth this year, creating around 300,000
new jobs. The American government calculates that the value of exports to Colombia
could rise by $1.1 billion (last year's bilateral trade was worth $35 billion). The United
States sends machinery, chemicals, oil derivatives, and cars south, while Colombia sends
oil, gold, flowers and coal in the other direction.

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________________
Adapted from Writing Communities and Identities. Ed. Cynthia Debes et al. 6th ed. Plymouth, MI: Hayden-McNeil Publishing, 2009. 50–58.

Peer Editing
Partner:_______________________________________________________________

1. What opinion does he/she have about the FTA?_____________________________

2. Underline any modals. Are must, had better, or should used correctly to assert a point?
Are may, might, could, can or would used correctly to acknowledge an opposing opinion?
Make suggestions for changes where necessary.

3. Do the ideas progress smoothly from the topic sentence to the conclusion? Yes or No?
If not, what suggestions for changes would you make to the writer?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

4. Look at the supporting details in the paragraph. Are they related to the topic sentence?
If not, underline the details that need revision.

5. Did the writer include a direct quote and indirect quote? Did she or he correctly cite the
source of the quote? Did they include the first few words of the title of the article and the
year of publication? Did they integrate the quote by first introducing the quote, then
explaining its importance to their paragraph and opinion about the FTA? If not, what
suggestions for changes would you make to the writer?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

6. Reread the paragraph and look for any faulty or incorrect logic. If you find any, write it
here and suggest a way to eliminate or change the logic so that it makes sense.

_______________________________________________________________________

7. Find the counterargument and refutation sentences. Is the counterargument stated

clearly? Yes or No? Is the refutation strong? Yes or No? Does it make another point in
support of the writer’s argument? Yes or No? If necessary, suggest changes to the writer
to make the counterargument and refutation more effective.

127
8. Is the conclusion sentence effective, that is, does it restate the writer’s opinion? Yes or
No? If not, how can the conclusion be improved? Is there a ‘so what’ in the conclusion?
What do we learn from this paragraph? What was the point of reading it, aside from your
professor making you?_______________________________________________________

(Adapted from Folse, Keith S., April Muchmore-Vokoun, and Elena Vestri. Solomon. Great Essays: An
Introduction to Writing Essays. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999. p. 120-122, 163, 165. Print.)

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 Record: Use the following chart to keep track of your test scores throughout
the level.

Exam 1 Projec Homework Project 2 APTIS Exam 2 Class

15% t1 10% 15% 30% 15% Grade
15%

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