Solar radiation and Radiation

measuring instruments

EN 671
 Concern of Solar process equipment
designer

• Make measurements over a period of time at the location is

question where the solar equipment is to be installed.
• Use measurement available for some other location where the
climate is known to be reasonably similar to the location under
consideration.
• Use empirical predictive equations which link the values of solar
radiation with other meteorological parameters whose values
are known for the location under consideration.
Solar Radiation

What Influences the

solar radiation?
 Types of solar radiation
1. Direct radiation (beam radiation or
direct beam radiation): Describes solar
radiation traveling on a straight line from
the sun down to the surface of the earth.
2. Diffuse radiation: Describes the
sunlight that has been scattered by
molecules and particles in the atmosphere
but that has still made it down to the
surface of the earth.
3. Reflected radiation: Describes sunlight
that has been reflected off of non-
atmospheric things such as the ground.
Asphalt reflects about 4% of the light
that strikes it and a lawn about 25%.
Direct radiation has a definite
direction but diffuse radiation
is just going any which way.
(shadows are only produced
when direct radiation is
blocked)
When the sky is clear and
near zenith, direct radiation
is around 85% of the total
insolation striking the ground
and diffuse radiation is about
15%. As the sun goes lower in
the sky, the percentage of
diffuse radiation keeps going
up until it reaches 40% when
the sun is 10° above the
horizon.
Partly Cloudy Sky
 SOLAR INSTRUMENTS

• PYRANOMETERS
• PYRHELIOMETERS
• SUNSHINE RECORDER
• SUN TRACKERS
• RADIOMETERS
• SENSORS
What are Solar Radiation Measurements?
 PYRANOMETERS
Construction and Working Used to measure global
• A thermopile sensor with a black coating. This sensor
and diffuse solar
absorbs all solar radiation, has a flat spectrum
radiation
covering the 300 to 50,000 nanometer range, and has
a near-perfect cosine response.
• A glass dome. This dome limits the spectral response
from 300 to 2,800 nanometers, while preserving the 180
degrees field of view. Another function of the dome is
that it shields the thermopile sensor from convection.
• The black coating on the thermopile sensor absorbs
the solar radiation. This radiation is converted to heat.
The heat flows through the sensor to the Pyranometer
housing. The thermopile sensor generates a voltage
output signal that is proportional to the solar
radiation.

Application:
Meteorology, Climaology, Solar
energy studies, Building physics
 PYRHELIOMETER
• A pyrheliometer is an instrument for
measurement of direct beam solar
irradiance.
• Sunlight enters the instrument through a
window and is directed Components
on thermopile which converts heat to an
electrical signal that can be recorded. The
• Protection cap
signal voltage is converted via a formula to • Sensor
measure watts per square meter.
• It is used with a solar tracking system to • Thermopile
keep the instrument aimed at the sun.

Application
• Meteorology, material testing
research, and assessment of the
efficiency of solar
collectors and photovoltaic devices.
 SUNSHINE RECORDER

• A device that records the amount of sunshine duration at

a given location
• The most commonly used is CAMPBELL-STOKES
recorder
• A burnt trace whose length is proportional to the duration
of sunshine is obtained on the strip
 Solar Constant

• Sun-Earth distance is not fixed due to elliptical orbit of the

Earth’s motion around the Sun
• Solar intensity in the extraterrestrial region has been measured
by NASA with the help of satellite
• For the nth day of the year the solar intensity on a plane
perpendicular to the direction of solar radiation is calculated by
I ext  I sc 1.0  0.033 cos360 n 365 

I sc Solar constant defined as the radiant solar flux received in the extraterrestrial
region on a plane of unit area kept perpendicular to the solar radiation at the
mean Sun-Earth distance. The value of solar constant is 1367 W/m2

For Leap year ?

For June 22, 2015, n  173 I ext  1322 .49 W/m2

For December 21, 2015, n  173 I ext  1411 .43 W/m2

 Solar Constant

Q1: Determine the temperature of the Sun for the following data:
I sc  1367 W/m2, radius of Sun (Rs)=0.619 x 109 m, mean Sun-
Earth distance (Lse) = 1.5 x 1011m, and   5.67 10 8 W/m2K4

6134 K: Appx, Temp of the Sun

 Solar Radiation

• Air Mass is used as a measure of the

distance travelled by beam radiation
through the atmosphere before it
reaches a location on the earth surface.
Define as the ratio of the mass of the
atmosphere through which the beam
radiation passes to the mass it would
pass through is the sun is directly
overhead.
• Air Mass (AM) equals 1.0 when the sun
is directly overhead at sea level. Zenith angle: 0 -70ₒ
AM = 1/ Cos Өz
• Concerned with terrestrial solar Zenith is the point in the sky
radiation –that is, the solar radiation directly overhead a particular
reaching the surface of the earth. location – as the Zenith angle
• AM0 – Extraterrestrial radiation, AM1 – Өz, increases, the sun
sun at its zenith, AM2 zenith angle of 60 approaches the horizon.
 Air Mass

Modified expression od Air mass

(m) (proposed by Kasten):

Q2: Air mass of normal

Fig. Variation of air mass with hour of the day
direct irradiance
observation: sunshine hours are shorter
coming from the Sun at
and the air mass is higher for the month of
December 21st as compared to other days New Delhi at 2.30 pm
as expected on January 18, 2019
is??? If cos z  0.587
1.699
Air mass: Mass of the atmosphere through which beam radiation
passes to the mass it would pass through if the sun were at the zenith
(i.e. directly overhead) – varies from 0 -70ᵒ [For higher zenith
angles, the effect of the earth’s curvature becomes significant and
must be taken into account] m = 1: when the sun is at the zenith,
m = 2 for a zenith angle of 60ᵒ .
Irradiance (W/m2): The rate at which radiant energy is incident
on a surface per unit area of surface.
Irradiation (J/m2): The incident energy per unit area on a surface
found by integration of irradiance over a specified time, usually an
hour or a day.
Insolation: Apply specifically to solar energy irradiation.
Radiosity or Radiant Exitance (W/sq.m): Rate at which radiant
energy leaves a surface per unit area by combined emission,
reflection and transmission.
Emissive Power or Radiant Self-Exitance (W/sq.m): Rate at which
radiant energy leaves a surface per unit area by emission only.
Solar time: is a reckoning of the passage of time with reference to the position of
the Sun in the sky. Two Corrections-(1)difference between the longitude of a
location and the meridian on which the standard time is based (The correction has a
magnitude of 4 minutes for every degree difference in longitude). (2)Equation of
time correction is due to the fact that the Earth’s orbit and rate of rotation are
subjected to small variations. The difference in minutes between solar time and
standard time defined as:
Solar time/LAT = standard time + 4 (Lst -Lloc) + E
-ve sign eastern hemisphere, +ve western hemisphere
Lst : Standard meridian for the local time zone (for India 81044/)
Lloc : Longitude of the location
(longitudes are in degrees west, 0<L<360)
E: Equation of time (minutes)
How to calculate E??
E is in min…as a function of time of year
 Longitude lines are
perpendicular and
latitude lines are parallel
to the equator.

Lines of latitude are often referred to as parallels. Longitude is the

angular distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds, of a point east or
west of the Prime (Greenwich) Meridian. Lines of longitude are
often referred to as meridians.
 BASIS FOR
LOCAL TIME
COMPARISON
Meaning Local time implies the time
of a place determined on
the basis of apparent
movement of the sun.
STANDARD TIME
Standard time refers to the
fixed time for places falling
in the same meridian, set
in a country by law.

Variations Changes continuously with Remains same for a

the change in longitude. particular country.

Longitude Places on the same Places on the same

longitude have same local longitude have different
time. standard time.

Reckoned by Shadow cast by the sun. Time zones

Local time, expressed in relation to the line of longitude passing

through it. It is the time, reckoned on the basis of the meridian running
through a particular place. Noon occurs at different times in different
meridians. Hence local time varies from region to region.

Standard time is used to mean the reference time for a particular area. It is the
local time of the standard meridian passing through the region or country.
 Solar time
• Q3: Determine the local apparent time (LAT) corresponding to
1430 h (IST) at Mumbai (19007/, 72051/E) on July 1, 2018. In
India, standard time is based on 82.500E
1348 h
Latitude, longitude, and elevation for different places in the world
 Declination angle

latitude

Variation in sun’s declination Hour angle

• Hour angle: The angle between projections of the Sun’s rays
(solar meridian) and the line running south-north (due south)
through centre (angular displacement of the sun from the local
meridian because of the Earth’s rotation around its own axis).
• Hour angle corresponds to1 h is 15o
  ST  12 15 o
• ST is the local solar time
• Total hour angle (sunrise to sunset =2 s )
 • Altitude or Solar altitude angle: the angle made
between a horizontal plane and the Sun’s rays
• Slope: Angle between the plane surface under
consideration and the horizontal surface (+ for
slope towards south and – ve for slope towards
north)
• Angle of incidence: the angle made between
normal to the inclined surface and the solar
beam radiation falling on the inclined surface.

View of various Sun-Earth angles on

View of different Sun-Earth angles
an inclined surface
 The angle of incidence  can also be expressed in
terms of  the zenith angle,  the slope,  surface
z

azimuth angle and  s the solar azimuth angle. Braun

and Mitchell shown that,

The solar azimuth angle  s is the angle made in the horizontal plane
between the horizontal line due south and the projection of the line of
sight of the sun on the horizontal plane – gives direction of the shadow cast
in the horizontal plane by a vertical rod. (+ ve if the projection of the line of
sight is east of south and –ve if west south )
 Solar radiation Geometry

Q3: Calculate the angle made by beam radiation with the normal to
a flat-plate collector on May 1 at 0900 h (local apparent time). The
collector is located in New Delhi (28o35’N, 77o12’E). It is tilted at an
angle of 36o with the horizontal and is pointing due south. Repeat
the calculation for 1200 h (local apparent time).

Q4: Determine the angle of incidence of direct irradiance/solar

radiation on an inclined surface at 45 0 from the horizontal with
orientation of 30 west of south and located at New Delhi at 1.30
(solar Time) on February 16, 2015.
 Sunrise, sunset and day length

• Horizontal surface: the hour angle corresponding to sunrise or

sunset on a horizontal surface can be found by substituting the
value of 90o for the zenith angle in the following equation:

• Positive corresponds to sunrise and negative corresponds to

sunset
• Day length:
 Weather classification for a give climate
condition

• Clear day (blue sky): The ratio of daily diffused radiation in J/m2
to daily total (global) radiation in J/m2 is 0.25 and for sunshine
hours is  9 h
• Hazy day (full): The ratio of daily diffused radiation in J/m2 to
daily total (global) radiation in J/m2 is between 0.25 and 0.5 and
for sunshine hours between 7 to 9 h
• Hazy and cloudy (partially): The ratio of daily diffused radiation
in J/m2 to daily total (global) radiation in J/m2 is between 0.5 and
0.75 and for sunshine hours between 5 to 7 h
• Cloudy day (full): The ratio of daily diffused radiation in J/m2 to
daily total (global) radiation in J/m2 is  0.75 and for sunshine
hours is  5h
Terminology
Air Mass [m = 1/cos(theta z)]
Beam Radiation
Diffuse Radiation
Total Solar Radiation
Irradiance (W/sq.m)
Irradiation or Radiant Exposure (J/sq.m)
Insolation (W/sq.m)
Radiosity or Radiant Exitance (W/sq.m)
Emissive Power or Radiant Self-Exitance (W/sq.m)
Solar Time