ARTICLE IN PRESS

Energy 33 (2008) 272–283

www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Effect of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) temperature for various EGR

rates on heavy duty DI diesel engine performance and emissions
D.T. Hountalasa, G.C. Mavropoulosa,, K.B. Binderb
a
Internal Combustion Engines Laboratory, Thermal Engineering Section, Mechanical Engineering Department,
National Technical University of Athens, 9 Heroon Polytechniou, 157 73 Zografou, Greece
b
Development Basic Systems, Heavy Duty Engines, DaimlerChrysler AG, 70546 Stuttgart, Germany
Received 10 December 2006

Abstract

DI diesel engines are well established today as the main powertrain solution for trucks and other relevant heavy duty vehicles. At the
same time emission legislation (mainly for NOx and particulate matter) becomes stricter, reducing their limit to extremely low values.
One efficient method to control NOx in order to achieve future emissions limits is the use of rather high exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
rates accompanied by increased boost pressure to avoid the negative impact on soot emissions. The method is based on the reduction of
gas temperature level and O2 availability inside the combustion chamber, but unfortunately it has usually an adverse effect on soot
emissions and brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc). The use of high EGR rates creates the need for EGR gas cooling in order to
minimize its negative impact on soot emissions especially at high engine load were the EGR flow rate and exhaust temperature are high.
For this reason in the present paper it is examined, using a multi-zone combustion model, the effect of cooled EGR gas temperature level
for various EGR percentages on performance and emissions of a turbocharged DI heavy duty diesel engine operating at full load. Results
reveal that the decrease of EGR gas temperature has a positive effect on bsfc, soot (lower values) while it has only a small positive effect
on NO. As revealed, the effect of low EGR temperature is stronger at high EGR rates.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Exhaust gas recirculation; Diesel engine; EGR temperature; Emissions

1. Introduction As recognized the only possibility to achieve future limits

One of the most difficult problems that engineers and
manufacturers face during diesel engine development is the
control and reduction of pollutant emissions [1,2] to
‘‘acceptable’’ levels as determined by the relevant legisla-
tion. During the past decades significant progress has been
accomplished in reducing emissions of NOx and soot, but
at the same time permissible emission limits from diesel
engines are becoming stricter i.e. EURO-V. Diesel engines
are widely used in transport applications and reduction of
emissions from these engines is necessary for their future
acceptance as primary power sources.
Emission control can be achieved using advanced
combustion technologies and/or after-treatment systems.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 210 7723474; fax: +30 210 7723475.
E-mail address: mavrop@otenet.gr (G.C. Mavropoulos).
using internal measures is to combine available technolo-
gies exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) [3,4]. The recircula-
tion of exhaust gases into the engine intake is a well-known
and established technology for NOx reduction [5,6].
However, the introduction of such systems in existing
diesel engine configuration requires ‘‘fine tuning’’ of
various parameters affecting engine operation. In this
way it becomes possible to recognize the limits in the
expected benefits (reduced pollutant emissions) and at the
same time avoid sacrificing existing ‘‘delighters’’ (such as
engine efficiency). The contribution of modelling is
significant to examine the effect of the various parameters
involved on both engine performance and pollutants
emissions. One important parameter is the temperature of
the recirculated exhaust gas.
In general, the introduction of EGR influences diesel
engine combustion in three different ways: thermal,

0360-5442/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.energy.2007.07.002
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
D.T. Hountalas et al. / Energy 33 (2008) 272–283 273

Nomenclature DP pressure difference at injector (Pa)

et viscous dissipation rate per unit mass (W/kg)
Latin symbols m dynamic viscosity (kg/m s)
n kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
A area (m2) r density (kg/m3)
Af constant in soot formation mechanism (–)
Ab constant in soot combustion mechanism (–) Subscripts
cr radiation constant (W/m2 K4)
cv specific heat capacity under constant volume (J/ a air
kg K) b burned
C mass fraction (–) c solid body core
dinj injector hole diameter (m) ev evaporated
D cylinder bore (m) f fuel
Db piston bowl diameter (m) g gas
Dd droplet diameter (m) i zone identification number (r direction)
DSM Sauter mean diameter (m) j zone identification number (z direction)
E activation energy (J/kmol) inj injection
k turbulent kinetic energy (J) l liquid fuel
kif forward reaction rate constant for the ‘‘ith’’ o initial coordinate system
reaction (–) p potential flow core
l length (m) r direction normal to the ‘‘x’’ axis
L breakup length (m) t total
m mass (kg) w wall
m_ mass flow rate (kg/s) x jet axis (initial) direction on the cylinder cross
n total number of zones, axial velocity correction plane
coefficient (–) z cylinder axis direction
P pressure (Pa)
Q_ heat rate (W) Abbreviations
R radius (m)
Ri one way reaction rate for the ‘‘ith’’ reaction (–) AFR air–fuel ratio
Rmol universal gas constant (J/kmol K) ATDC after top dead centre
t time (sec) bsfc brake specific fuel consumption
T temperature (K) EGR exhaust gas recirculation
u velocity (m/s) TDC top dead centre
up penetration velocity (m/s)
V volume (m3) Dimensionless groups
W air angular velocity (s1)
x space coordinate (m) Nu Nusselt number
Pr Prandtl number
Greek letters Re Reynolds number
We Weber number
a initial jet angle (–)

chemical and dilution. The thermal effect is related to the
increase of inlet charge temperature that affects volumetric
efficiency (thermal throttling) and the increase of charge
specific heat capacity due to the presence of CO2 and H2O.
On the other hand the chemical effect is related to the
dissociation of species during combustion, while dilution is
related to the reduction of O2 availability. In the present we
focus mainly on the first, i.e. thermal effect, considering the
effect of recirculated exhaust gas temperature on perfor-
mance and emissions. Based on previous studies, cooled
EGR is beneficial for engine operation and emissions but
an important issue remains to examine the effect of EGR
gas temperature on performance and emissions for various
EGR rates.
For this reason a computational investigation is con-
ducted on a heavy duty DI single cylinder diesel test engine
capable of operating at high peak combustion pressures [7].
Under EU project HEDE advanced injection timing was
used to improve its brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc)
that obviously had a negative impact on NOx emissions.
To control NOx, cooled EGR was considered using a fixed
temperature for all test cases examined. In the present work
are examined various EGR temperatures to determine
its effect on the combustion and pollutant formation
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
274 D.T. Hountalas et al. / Energy 33 (2008) 272–283

mechanisms. The study, due to space limitations, is z (1,1)

conducted at full load and various engine speeds were the
highest EGR mass flow rates are required. The theoretical (1,8) (2,1) (1,2)
study is conducted using an existing 3D multi-zone model (3,1)
[8,9], appropriately modified [4] to include the effect of (4,1)
EGR percentage and temperature. For the analysis boost (1,7) (1,3)
pressure and injection timing were kept constant whereas r
engine speed, EGR percentage and EGR temperature were
used as parameters for the calculations. As shown EGR
temperature has a detrimental effect on brake engine
(1,6) (1,4)
efficiency and soot emissions while it has a small effect on
NO emissions in the EGR temperature range examined. A (1,5)
more significant effect would exist if the EGR upper
temperature range was increased (hot EGR). As revealed,
reduction of EGR temperature (EGR cooling) is beneficial r
for both bsfc and soot the effect depending on engine speed
and EGR rate considered.
(1,1,3)
(1,2,3)
(1,3,3)
2. The simulation model O
X

The model used in this study has been developed and

presented by detail in the past [8,9]. It has been modified
for the present application to include the effect of EGR Fig. 1. (a) Zone formation on the ‘‘r–z’’ plane normal to injection
percentage and temperature. Therefore only a brief direction. (b) Zone formation on the ‘‘x–r’’ plane.
description of its main principles is given here.
The model used is a phenomenological multi-zone one.
The fuel jet is divided into zones in the three dimensions
using a concentric consideration. This enables the detailed dissipation rate ket model [1,8,9,13–17]. The heat
estimation of engine thermodynamic parameters inside the exchange rate is obtained from
fuel jet and their effect on the formation of pollutant h i
emissions [10–12]. It also reveals the effect of EGR on the Q_ ¼ A hc ðT g  T w Þ þ cr ðT 4g  T 4w Þ , (1)
pollutants formation mechanisms.
where Tg is the bulk temperature of the jet defined by:
P
n
mk cvk T k
2.1. Engine cylinder simulation
T g ¼ k¼1n (2)
P
mk cvk
The fuel jet formed after initiation of injection is divided k¼1
into distinct volumes called ‘‘zones’’. The pressure is
(index k denotes the ‘‘kth’’ zone of a total number n).
considered to be uniform throughout the combustion
The heat exchange rate estimated is then distributed
chamber. Each zone has its own temperature and
among the jet zones according to the formula:
composition that are determined by applying the first
thermodynamic law and the conservation equations for _ k cvk T k Þ
Qðm
mass and momentum. DQ_ k ¼ . (3)
Pn
For the jet zones a concentric configuration is used mk cvk T k
k¼1
shown in Figs. 1a and b. The jet axis is designated as ‘‘x’’
and the other two axes normal to it as ‘‘z’’ and ‘‘r’’. The
number of zones in the axial direction is determined from 2.1.2. Air swirl
injection duration and the time step used, currently 0.51 The swirling motion of the intake air is modelled rather
CA. The number of zones in the other two directions is five efficiently assuming solid body rotation surrounded by a
for the radial direction and eight for the circumferential potential flow region [2,18]. This scheme takes into account
direction. air viscosity, which creates a boundary layer near the
cylinder walls. The tangential velocity profile is described
by the following equations [2]:
2.1.1. Heat transfer
The characteristic velocity for heat transfer calculations u ¼ W pR for 0pRpRc ;
0:05 (4)
is determined using a turbulent kinetic energy viscous u ¼ W p Rc ðRc =RÞ for Rc pRpRp ;
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
D.T. Hountalas et al. / Energy 33 (2008) 272–283 275

where Rc is the point at which the solid body rotation ends, 2.1.4. Air entrainment into the zones
given by the following empirical expression: Air entrainment is estimated using the conservation of
momentum, which has been proven to be stable, simplistic,
Rc ¼ Rin ðDb =2Rp Þ, (5)
and requires practically no adjustment with engine operat-
where Rp is the radius of the cylinder and Rin the cylinder- ing conditions. The total amount of air entrained into a
valve axial distance. Details for the method of solution to zone from the moment of injection is determined from
determine the swirling velocity are provided in [8,9]. uinj
mf uinj ¼ ðma þ mf Þup ) ma ¼ mf  mf . (11)
up
2.1.3. Spray model
The initial conditions at the nozzle exit are determined
from a fuel injection system simulation model. Initially, the
2.1.5. Droplet break-up and evaporation
fuel travels a small distance (breakup length) inside the
The injected fuel is distributed to the zones according to
cylinder, before breaking up into droplets. The breakup
the instantaneous injection rate. Within each zone the fuel
length is given by the formula [2,8,9,18]
is divided into groups having the same diameter Dd
 0:5 according to the following distribution [2,8,9]:
r
L ¼ uinj tbreak ffi c1 l d inj , (6)       
ra dV Dd 3 Dd Dd
¼ 13:5 exp 3 d . (12)
where c1 is a constant and ra and rl are the densities of air V DSM DSM DSM
and fuel, respectively. The Sauter mean diameter DSM is obtained from a semi-
The velocity along the spray axis after break-up is empirical formula, derived from experimental data:
determined by differentiating a correlation for spray  0:37  0:47
penetration [18,19] with respect to time resulting to 0:25 0:32 nl rl
DSM;1 ¼ 0:38Reinj W einj dinj , (13)
!0:25 na ra
2:95 DP
up ¼ d 0:5
inj t
0:5
. (7)  0:54  0:18
2 rg nl rl
DSM;2 ¼ 4:12Re0:12 0:75
inj W einj d inj , (14)
na ra
For zones at the jet periphery, the penetration velocity is
calculated by multiplying Eq. (7) with the following where subscripts ‘‘1’’ and ‘‘2’’ stand for complete and
coefficient: incomplete sprays, respectively.
   n2 The Sauter mean diameter is taken to be the maximum
rj;i of the above two values. For the evaporation process the
nj;i ¼ exp n1 a , (8)
rinj model of Borman and Johnson [20] is followed, as
described in [15].
where nj,i is the local zone velocity correction coefficient,
rj,i is its position relative to the jet axis at zone initiation
(see Fig. 1b), and n1, n2 are constants. In this way it is 2.1.6. Combustion model
obtained a velocity distribution, similar to the actual one Combustion initiates after an ignition delay period given
where zones on the periphery of the spray penetrate slower by the following relation [2,21,22]:
Z t
compared to the central ones. 1
The spray angle, which is used to estimate the geometry Spr ¼ 2:5 1:04
dt ¼ 1, (15)
0 adel Pg Feq expð5000=T g Þ
of the jet and position of the zones is given by the following
relation [2,18]: where ‘‘Feq’’ is the local equivalence ratio of the fuel air
!0:25 mixture inside the zone, and adel is a constant. After
d 2inj ra DP ignition the local reaction rate depends on the mass
a ¼ 0:05 . (9) concentration of fuel, oxygen and the local temperature.
m2a
The following relation gives the fuel reaction rate:
Calculating the local components of air velocity in the 1
ao E c =T
radial and axial directions and using the momentum mfb ¼ K b C af
f Co e , (16)
6N
conservation equation in both axes we consider for the
effect of air swirl upon jet geometry. where Kb is a constant, Ec the reduced activation energy
After wall impingement the penetration velocity of each (K) and Cf, Co the mass concentrations of fuel and oxygen,
zone is given by the following relation [17] respectively.
!0:25
2:95 DP t0:25 2.2. Gas exchange
up ¼ d 0:5 hit
inj 0:75 , (10)
2 rg t
The simulation of the inlet and exhaust manifolds is
where zones after impingement are assumed to follow a achieved, using the filling and emptying method, which
path parallel to the cylinder walls, which is close to reality. gives good results [1,2,16]. The model accounts for
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
276 D.T. Hountalas et al. / Energy 33 (2008) 272–283

turbocharged engines, i.e. simulates the turbocharger and
air-cooler operation [16].
2.3. Modelling of nitric oxide and soot formation
2.3.1. Nitric oxide formation
For the calculation of nitric oxide formation inside each
zone, a chemical equilibrium scheme is used. The following
11 species are assumed to exist in each zone [23]:
O2 ; N2 ; CO2 ; H2 O; H; H2 ; N; NO; O; OH; CO:
The equilibrium concentration of these elements in each
zone is determined using a method developed by the
authors [7,15]. The formation of nitric oxide is controlled
by chemical kinetics. In the present work the extended
Zeldovich mechanism is used involving the following three
equations [1,24,25]:
N þ NO2N2 þ O k1f ¼ 1:6  1010 ,
N þ O2 2NO þ O k2f ¼ 6:4  106 T expð3125=TÞ,
N þ OH2NO þ H k3f ¼ 4:2  1010 .
3. Description of the test engine
The engine considered in the analysis is single cylinder
DI turbocharged research engine, based on the 500 series of
DaimlerChrysler. The basic engine characteristics are given
in Table 1. The compressor has been replaced by a blower,
while the turbine by a nozzle having an equivalent flow
area to provide a similar mean exhaust gas pressure to the
real engine. A high-pressure loop for the recirculation of
exhaust gases to the compressor discharge was used. The
specific engine has been developed under EU project
‘‘HEDE’’ and can withstand high peak combustion
pressures up to 280 bar [7].
Experimental data of the engine obtained during project
HEDE were provided by DaimlerChrysler using various
EGR rates and a constant EGR temperature of 140 1C
(cooled EGR). Due to this, an open question remained
concerning the effect of EGR gas temperature level on
engine performance and emissions. This was the main
motive for conducting the current computational investi-
gation.
ð17Þ

The variation of [NO] concentration in each zone is 4. Model validation

expressed by
1 dð½NOV Þ 2ð1  b2 ÞR1 Before using the multi-zone model to examine the effect
¼ , (18) of EGR temperature on engine performance and pollutant
V dt 1 þ bR1 =ðR2 þ R3 Þ
emissions, it is necessary to validate its predictive ability as
where far as the effect of EGR is concerned. For this reason we
R1 ¼ k1f ½Ne ½NOe ; R2 ¼ k2f ½Ne ½O2 e , have used experimental data for the single cylinder test
engine mentioned above. The tests were conducted at
R3 ¼ k3f ½Ne ½OHe , DaimlerChrysler research laboratories using EGR rates
from 0% up to 30% depending on the engine operating
with b ¼ [NO]/[NO]e. In the previous relations index ‘‘e’’
conditions examined. As mentioned the use of EGR was
denotes equilibrium. Integrating the previous differential
examined as a mean to control NOx emissions since
equation we obtain the NO concentration inside each zone.
advanced injection timing was used to improve engine
efficiency. In the present work available experimental data
2.3.2. Soot formation for two engine speeds are used for model validation,
The rate of soot formation is determined using the namely 1130 and 1420 rpm at 100% load using an
Hiroyasou semi-empirical, model [2,15,26]. Formation advanced injection timing of 91 after top dead centre
and oxidation of soot is described by the following (ATDC, normal values—21 y 51 ATDC for 1130 y
equations: 1400 rpm). During the tests EGR gas temperature was kept
dmsf constant at 140 1C (cooled EGR). Measured data for both
¼ Af mf;ev P0:5 exp½E sf =ðRmol TÞ, (19) performance and emissions are compared to the calculated
dt
values to examine the model’s ability to capture the effect
  of EGR on performance and emissions. This allows us to
dmsb PO2
¼ Ab ms P1:8 exp½E sb =ðRmol TÞ, (20)
dt P
Table 1
where ‘‘f’’ stands for soot formation, ‘‘b’’ for burning, mev
Basic engine data
is the amount of evaporated fuel inside the zone and PO2
the partial pressure of oxygen. The activation energies of Engine type DI, diesel, turbocharged
soot formation and combustion Esf and Esb, are 82 000 and Max. power 53 kW at 1800 rpm
Displacement volume 1991 cc
120 000 kJ/kmol, respectively.
Bore 130 mm
The net soot formation rate is then obtained from the Stroke 150 mm
expression, Compression ratio 17.5
dms dmsf dmsb Mean piston speed 17.60 m/s
¼  . (21) Crank radius/connecting rod 0.238
dt dt dt
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
D.T. Hountalas et al. / Energy 33 (2008) 272–283
use the simulation to examine on a theoretical basis the
effect of EGR temperature on performance and emissions.
The model was calibrated at 1130 rpm engine speed and
100% load without EGR. The parameters tuned were:
peak cylinder pressure using a correction factor for the air
entrainment rate, ignition delay and soot tailpipe values by
adjusting the constants included in the relative equations.
The constants’ values were then kept the same regardless of
engine operating conditions.
4.1. Prediction of EGR effect on engine performance
In Fig. 2 it is given the comparison between calculated
and experimental cylinder pressure traces for 0%, 10% and
20% EGR at 1130 rpm engine speed, 100% load using an
injection timing of 91 ATDC. As observed there is a good
coincidence between calculated and measured values for all
EGR rates examined. The simulation manages to capture
the effect of EGR on the cylinder pressure trace, which
results to a small reduction of cylinder pressure during
compression and a more intense one during combustion
and expansion. This results from the increase of charge
specific heat capacity due to the presence of exhaust gas, to
the reduction of O2 availability that has a negative effect on
the combustion rate, and to the dissociation of CO2 and
H2O. It should be mentioned that for the cases examined
(full load) air-fuel ratio (AFR) values are close to their
lowest limit. Thus the presence of recirculated exhaust gas
in the engine intake reduces further oxygen availability,
which in the present case is a dominating factor in the
upcoming combustion event. Due to this, peak cylinder
pressure values are reduced, as the percentage of EGR
inside the engine cylinder increases.
However, at part load a different behaviour can be
experienced at high EGR temperatures (hot EGR) where
220
Speed:1130 rpm, Load:100%
200
Inj. Timing:-9 deg ATDC
EGR Temperature 140°C
180
160
Cylinder Pressure (bar)
140
120
100
80
Exp. 0% EGR
60 Calc. 0% EGR
Exp. 10% EGR
40
Calc. 10% EGR
20 Exp. 20% EGR
Calc. 20% EGR
0 38
160 170 180 190 200 210
Engine Crank Angle (deg)
Fig. 2. Comparison between calculated and experimental cylinder
pressure diagrams for various EGR rates at 1130 rpm engine speed,
100% load and 91 ATDC injection timing.
277
oxygen availability is significantly higher compared to full
load. The increased inlet air temperature due to EGR can
reduce ignition delay which in some cases leads to an
increase of peak cylinder pressure with increasing EGR
rate [27,28].
Considering the previous, EGR is expected to have a
negative effect on engine efficiency. This is verified
observing Fig. 3 providing the comparison of calculated
and measured values for engine brake thermal efficiency as
function of EGR rate for 1130 and 1420 rpm engine speed
at 100% load. The calculated values are close to the
experimental ones and most important the simulation
predicts the qualitative effect of EGR rate on brake
efficiency for both engine speeds examined. Obviously the
use of EGR has a negative effect on engine efficiency that
increases with its percentage almost linearly. This effect is
more pronounced at low engine speed.
4.2. Prediction of EGR effect on tailpipe emissions
To examine the model’s ability to predict the effect of
EGR rate on pollutant emissions it is given in Fig. 4 the
comparison between calculated and measured values for
both NO and soot at 1130 and 1420 rpm engine speed for
100% load and various EGR rates. The soot values are
derived from measured tailpipe filter smoke numbers
(FSN) using a correlation. As observed the simulation
predicts adequately the effect of EGR rate on both
pollutants. The increase of EGR percentage results to a
decrease of NO and to a sharp increase of soot. The effect
on both pollutants is stronger at low engine speed.
Decrease of NO is almost linear with EGR rate while soot
increases exponentially.
Therefore the simulation can predict qualitatively the
effect of EGR rate on performance and emissions and thus
46
Speed:1420 rpm, Load:100% Speed: 1130 rpm, Load:100%
Calc. Calc.
45
Exp. Exp.
Brake Thermal Efficiency (%)
44
43
42
41
40
39 EGR Temperature:140°C
Inj. Timing=-9deg ATDC
220 0 5 10 15 20
EGR Percentage (%)
Fig. 3. Comparison between calculated and experimental brake thermal
efficiency values for various EGR rates at 1130 and 1420 rpm engine
speed, 100% load and 91 ATDC injection timing.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
278 D.T. Hountalas et al. / Energy 33 (2008) 272–283

5.0 thermodynamic law considering the mass flow rates of

Calc. 1130 rpm
fresh air and exhaust gas to the inlet manifold.
Exp. 1130 rpm
Exhaust Soot (BSU)

4.0
Calc. 1420 rpm
5.1. Effect of EGR temperature on engine performance
3.0 Exp. 1420 rpm

2.0 It is evident that the increase of EGR percentage at

constant boost pressure results to a decrease of the amount
1.0 of fresh air inducted per cycle. Consequently since the
amount of fuel injected per cycle remains practically
0.0 constant, AFR should decrease. A similar effect is expected
12 when increasing EGR gas temperature at a given EGR rate.
10 This is verified observing Fig. 5 providing the variation of
Nitric Oxide (g/KWh)

AFR with EGR gas temperature at various EGR rates for

8 all cases examined. The variation of AFR with EGR gas
6 temperature is almost linear. In the same figure is presented
4 Load=100%
Inj. Timing=-9 deg ATDC
2
EGR Temperature:140°C
0
0 5 10
EGR Percentage (%)
Fig. 4. Effect of EGR rate on calculated and measured NO and soot
emissions at 1130 and 1420 rpm engine speed, 100% load and 91 ATDC
injection timing.
it appears to be suitable to investigate the effect of EGR
temperature as well.
5. Theoretical investigation for the effect of EGR
temperature on performance and emissions
To investigate the effect of EGR temperature on engine
performance and emissions [29–33] three different engine
speeds namely 1130, 1420 and 1710 rpm are considered at
100% load, covering the entire engine operating speed
range. It must be stated at this point that it was preferred to
provide results for the full load case (due to space
limitations) due to its importance considering fuel con-
sumption as well as pollutant emissions. However, results
at lower engine load conditions were also investigated. For
each test case various EGR rates are examined namely 5%,
10% and 15% while injection advance (91 ATDC) and
boost pressure are kept constant. For each test case,
various EGR temperatures are examined ranging from
90 1C up to 240 1C using steps of 50 1C. The previous
temperature range is a representative range of temperatures
when using cooled EGR at full load since in many cases the
cooling media is the engine coolant. The EGR percentage
is defined as
_ EGR
m AFR ratio, which affects the combustion rate of fuel and to
EGRð%Þ ¼  100,
_i þ m
m _ EGR
where m_ EGR is the mass flow rate of recirculated exhaust
gas and m _ i is the mass flow rate of fresh air. The
inlet charge temperature is estimated from the first
the relative variation of AFR with EGR percentage for the
upper and lower EGR gas temperatures examined, using as
reference the value of AFR for engine operation without
EGR. As observed, the negative effect of EGR on AFR
15 20
increases with the increase of EGR temperature. For all
cases examined the effect of EGR rate and temperature is
more pronounced at low engine speed. Thus at full load the
effect of thermal throttling (reduced amount of charge to
the cylinder) is significant and increases as EGR tempera-
ture is increased to higher values.
The effect of EGR gas temperature on peak combustion
pressure is presented in Fig. 6 for 100% load and 1130 rpm
engine speed. The increase of EGR gas temperature results
to a reduction of peak combustion pressure which is more
intense at high EGR rates. This is best revealed from the
curve giving the variation of peak combustion pressure on
a percentage basis compared to the one without EGR.
Similar results have been observed for the other two engine
speeds. At this point it should be reemphasized that the
engine operates at full load where AFR is close to its lower
limit. Thus the use of high EGR temperature reduces
further the availability of oxygen. This lack of oxygen in
the cylinder charge reduces the combustion rate leading to
retarded combustion and thus to lower peak cylinder
pressure values. On the other hand its effect on ignition
delay is almost negligible due to high pressure and
temperature of the charge at full load resulting to very
low ignition delay values.
From the previous results it is evident that EGR gas
temperature increase affects the combustion mechanism
resulting to a reduction of peak combustion pressure. For
this reason it is examined in Fig. 7 its effect on brake
thermal efficiency for various EGR rates and engine speeds
at full load. As shown, brake thermal efficiency is reduced
linearly with increasing EGR temperature. The decrease of
brake thermal efficiency is due mainly to the reduction of
the increase of in-cylinder mean gas temperature that
affects in a negative manner heat losses. This is clearly
revealed from the relevant curve providing the variation
(reduction) of engine brake efficiency with EGR rate
for the upper and lower EGR gas temperatures examined.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
D.T. Hountalas et al. / Energy 33 (2008) 272–283 279

28 1710 rpm
26 Load:100%
24 Inj. Timing: -9 deg ATDC

22
20
18
0
16
Air Fuel Ratio (-) 28 1420 rpm
26
24 -5

AFR Variation (%)

22
20
18 0% EGR
16 5% EGR -10
28 10% EGR
15% EGR Engine Speed
26 1130 rpm
24 1420 rpm
1130 rpm 1710 rpm -15
22
20 EGR Temp.:90oC
EGR Temp.:240oC
18
16 -20
90 120 150 180 210 240 0 5 10 15
EGR Temperature (°C) EGR Percentage (%)

Fig. 5. Effect of EGR temperature on AFR for various EGR rates and engine speeds at 100% load and 91 ATDC injection timing.

0 to 1420 rpm and lower when moving on to 1710 rpm. An

explanation for this variation is provided in Fig. 5,
Peak Pres. Variation (%)

-2 referring to the variation of AFR with EGR and EGR

gas temperature. Obviously the values of AFR are quite
-4 similar at 1420 and 1710 rpm speed, while the correspond-
ing ones at 1130 rpm are significantly lower.
-6 This is due to the combination of the different influences
imposed on engine operation by EGR. In the present full
-8 load operating case, the effect of thermal throttling (that is
Speed:1130 rpm, Load:100% reduced amount of air and oxygen during the inlet stroke)
Inj. Timing:-9 deg is important and increases as EGR temperature is
-10
5% EGR increased to higher values. This obviously has a negative
180
10% EGR effect on combustion. At the same time, the average
175 15% EGR temperature level of the cylinder contents increases due to
Peak Pressure (bar)

the high EGR temperature resulting to an increase of heat

170
losses. Finally, due to the presence of EGR, oxygen
concentration of the intake air is reduced having a
165
significant negative effect on combustion. The above
observations explain adequately the reduction of brake
thermal efficiency observed in Fig. 7.
160
The maximum estimated reduction of brake thermal
efficiency is in the order of 5.5% (relative to the value
155
80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 without EGR), observed at 15% EGR for an engine speed
EGR Temperature (C) of 1130 rpm and the higher EGR temperature examined.
This is important when considering the fuel penalty
Fig. 6. Effect of EGR temperature on peak cylinder pressure for various associated with the use of EGR to reduce NOx emissions.
EGR rates at 1130 rpm engine speed, 100% load and 91 ATDC injection
timing.
5.2. Effect of EGR temperature on emissions
The effect of EGR is more pronounced at high EGR
temperature and low engine speed. The decrease of brake As known, the use of EGR is an efficient technology for
efficiency is sharp when increasing engine speed from 1130 the reduction of NOx emissions. Towards this direction,

280
44
43
42
41
40
Brake Thermal Efficiency (%) 39
44
43
42
41
40
39
44
43
42
41
40
39
90
Fig. 7. Effect of EGR temperature on brake thermal efficiency for various EGR rates and engine speeds at 100% load and 91 ATDC injection timing.
Fig. 8 presents the variation of NO as function of EGR
temperature for various EGR rates. As revealed, NO
emissions at full load remain almost constant when altering
EGR temperature (in the range examined). A small
increase is observed only at high EGR rates [34].
Considering that the formation of nitrogen oxide is
temperature and O2 sensitive, it is concluded that the
temperature increase inside the combustion chamber, as
shown later on in Fig. 10, due to the increase of EGR
temperature is compensated by the reduction of AFR ratio.
Observing the results of NO variation with EGR rate for
the upper and lower EGR temperature values examined it
is verified that EGR temperature, in the range examined,
has no significant effect on NO for all engine speeds leading
to a small increase only at high EGR rates. On the other
hand the effect of EGR rate is slightly higher at low engine
speed. This, results from the lower AFR observed at low
engine speed, as already mentioned. In the case of hot EGR
(no cooling) the increase of charge temperature would be
significant and is expected to lead to an increase of NO
compared to the cooled EGR case examined here [5,6,27].
As far as soot emissions are concerned an increase of
their value is observed when increasing EGR temperature,
as demonstrated in Fig. 9. This results mainly from the
reduction of AFR. Oxygen concentration is reduced
affecting both soot formation and oxidation. The effect
of EGR temperature is almost linear and more pronounced
at high EGR rates and low engine speeds. In the same
figure is given the corresponding relative variation of soot
emissions with EGR rate compared to the zero EGR case,
for the three engine speeds and the upper and lower limits
ARTICLE IN PRESS
D.T. Hountalas et al. / Energy 33 (2008) 272–283
1710 rpm
Load:100%
Inj. Timing -9 deg ATDC
0
1420 rpm
Efficiency Variation (%)
-2
0% EGR
5% EGR
10% EGR
15% EGR
Engine Speed
1130 rpm -4
1130 rpm 1420 rpm
1710 rpm
EGR Temp.:90°C
EGR Temp.:240°C
-6
120 150 180 210 240 0 5 10 15
EGR Temperature (°C) EGR Percentage (%)
of the EGR gas temperatures examined. The effect of EGR
rate on soot is stronger at high EGR temperatures.
Furthermore, as shown, the effect of EGR temperature is
higher at low speed where the maximum values of soot
variation are observed [5,35]. In the case of soot emissions
it could be expected that using a higher EGR temperature
would enhance soot oxidation leading to a reduction of
emitted soot. This may be the case for a heavy duty diesel
engine operating at low load since in this case oxygen
availability even when using EGR is high due to the AFR
values used. However, for full load operation this is not
the case. As EGR temperature increases it has a negative
effect on AFR and thus there is not enough O2 to oxidize
soot.
To provide a better explanation for the previous
observations concerning the effect of EGR temperature
on NO and soot, it is given in Fig. 10 the variation of
cylinder mean gas temperature, local zone temperature
(zone 1,1,1-1st injected periphery zone), NO and soot
formation histories as function of EGR temperature for
100% load. As observed the increase of EGR temperature
from 90 to 240 1C results to an increase of the mean gas
temperature and the individual zone temperature during
the main combustion period. The last is due to the fact that
the increase of EGR temperature results to a decrease of
the AFR inside the zone and increase of entrained air
temperature compensating the negative effect of CO2 and
H2O dissociation. The increase of gas temperature cannot
compensate for the lack of O2 availability through soot
oxidation resulting from thermal throttling leading to an
increase of emitted soot. It is evident that when using high
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
D.T. Hountalas et al. / Energy 33 (2008) 272–283 281

15
Load:100%
Inj. Timing -9 deg ATDC
10 1710 rpm

0% EGR
0 0
5% EGR
Nitric Oxide (g/kWh) 15 10% EGR
15% EGR
10 1420 rpm -20

NO Variattion (%)
5
-40

0
15 -60
Engine Speed
10 1130 rpm 1130 rpm
1420 rpm
1710 rpm -80
5
EGR Temp.:90°C
EGR Temp.:240°C
0 -100
90 120 150 180 210 240 0 5 10 15
EGR Temperature (°C) EGR Percentage (%)

Fig. 8. Effect of EGR temperature on NO emissions for various EGR rates and engine speeds at 100% load and 91 ATDC injection timing.

3
Load:100%
Inj. Timing -9 deg ATDC
2

1720 rpm
1
Engine Speed
0 1130 rpm 1500
1420 rpm
3
Exhaust Soot (BSU)

0% EGR 1710 rpm

5% EGR
10% EGR EGR Temp:90°C 1250
2 15% EGR EGR Temp:240°C
Soot Variation (%)

1420 rpm 1000

1

0 750
3 1130 rpm
500
2

250
1

0 0
90 120 150 180 210 240 0 5 10 15
EGR Temperature (°C) EGR Percentage (%)

Fig. 9. Variation of soot emissions with EGR temperature and rate for various engine speeds at 100% load and at 91 ATDC injection timing.

EGR gas temperature soot oxidation ceases earlier during
the expansion stroke due to lack of O2. This provides an
explanation for the negative effect of EGR gas temperature
increase on soot emissions. The small variation of NO with
EGR temperature is explained observing the variation of
local zone gas temperature and considering Fig. 5
providing the effect of EGR temperature on the overall
AFR. The small increase of local gas temperature with
increasing EGR temperature has a small positive impact on
NO formation, which is obviously overwhelmed by the
decrease of O2 percentage. The last two mechanisms result
to a very small increase of NO within the EGR temperature
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
282 D.T. Hountalas et al. / Energy 33 (2008) 272–283

6 The present study has demonstrated that EGR cooling is

Speed: 1130 rpm favourable if we wish to retain the benefits of low NOx
Inj. Tim.=-9 deg ATDC
4
emissions, without sacrificing significantly the engine
NO (mg)

efficiency. EGR cooling is necessary to prevent soot

emissions from rising to unacceptable levels. The need for
2 EGR cooling is more evident at high EGR rates and low
engine speeds. From the theoretical investigation it has
0 been revealed that a different effect of EGR temperature is
1.2 to be expected at part load operation.
1.0
Acknowledgements
Soot (mg)

0.8
0.6
We wish to express our appreciation to the European
0.4 Commission for supporting financially the project under
0.2 which the current investigation has been conducted. Also
0.0 15% EGR-T:90°C we wish to express our gratitude to DaimlerChrysler AG
Zone 15% EGR-T:240°C for providing the experimental data for this investigation
2500
Temperature and the guidelines during the coordination of this project.
Temperature (K)

2000
1500 Mean
Temperature
1000
500
0
120 140 160 180 200 220
Engine Crank Angle (deg)
Fig. 10. Effect of EGR temperature on mean working gas temperature,
zone temperature, NO and soot formation histories.
levels examined, which is more pronounced at high EGR
rates.
6. Conclusion
In the present study an existing 3D multi-zone model is
used to examine the effect of EGR temperature on
performance and emissions of a turbocharged DI diesel
engine. Various EGR temperatures and rates were
examined at three different operating speeds covering the
entire operating speed range of the engine at full load.
As revealed, EGR temperature affects brake engine
efficiency, peak combustion pressure and soot emissions
negatively. The use of high EGR temperature (lower
cooling) has also a negative impact on A/F ratio. Brake
efficiency is affected unfavourably by this trend. The
reduction of oxygen concentration with the increase of
EGR temperature has an adverse effect on soot emissions,
affecting both soot formation and oxidation. The com-
bined effect of increased temperature and decreased oxygen
concentration resulting from the increase of EGR gas
temperature, results to a net effect on NO emissions that is
very small. Due to this, NO emissions seem to remain
essentially constant revealing a slight increase with EGR
temperature, which is more evident at high EGR rates. The
effect of EGR temperature on brake thermal efficiency and
soot is higher at low engine speed and high EGR rates.
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