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Handbook of critical and indigenous methodologies I editors, Norman K. Denzin, Yvonna S. Lincoln, Linda Tuhiwai Smith.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4129-1803-9 (cloth)
1. Ethnology-Methodology. 2. Ethnology-Research. 3. Social sciences-Research. 4. Critical theory.
I. Denzin, Norman K. II. Lincoln, Yvonna S. III. Smith, Linda Tuhiwai, 1950-

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I CONTENTS

,[America Preface ix
Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln

a S. Lincoln, Linda Tuhiwai Smith. 1. Introduction: Critical Methodologies and Indigenous Inquiry
Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln

PART I: LOCATING THE FIELD: PERFORMING


:h. 4. Critical theory. THEORIES OF DECOLONIZING INQUIRY 21

2. Decolonizing Performances: Deconstructing the Global Postcolonial 31


Beth Blue Swadener and Kagendo Mutua
3. Feminisms From Unthought Locations: Indigenous Worldviews,
Marginalized Feminisms, and Revisioning an Anticolonial Social Science 45
Gaile S. Cannella and Kathryn D. Manuelito
4. Waiting for the Call: The Moral Activist Role of Critical
Race Theory Scholarship 61
Gloria Ladson-Billings and fame/ K. Donn or
5. Critical Race Theory and Indigenous ·Methodologies 85
Christopher Dunbar Jr.
6. Queer(y)ing the Postcolonial Through the West( ern) 101
Bryant Keith Alexander
7. Indigenous Knowledges in Education: Complexities, Dangers,
and Profound Benefits 135
joeL. Kincheloe and Shirley R. Steinberg
8. Do You Believe in Geneva? Methods and Ethics at the Global-Local Nexus 157
Michelle Fine, Eve Tuck, and Sarah Zeller-Berkman
9. Challenging Neoliberalism's New World Order: The Promise of Critical Pedagogy 181
Henry A. Giroux and Susan Searls Giroux
10. Rethinking Critical Pedagogy: Socialismo Nepantla and the Specter of Che 191
Nathalia Jaramillo and Peter McLaren
PART II: CRITICAL AND INDIGENOUS PEDAGOGIES 211
11. Indigenous and Authentic: Hawaiian Epistemology and
the Triangulation of Meaning 217
Manulani Aluli Meyer
12. Red Pedagogy: The Un-Methodology 233
Sandy Grande
13. Borderland-Mestizaje Feminism: The New Tribalism 255
Cinthya M. Saavedra and Ellen D. Nymark
14. When the Ground Is Black, the Ground Is Fertile: Exploring
Endarkened Feminist Epistemology and Healing Methodologies of the Spirit 277
Cynthia B. Dillard (Nan a Mans a II of Mpeasem, Ghana, West Africa)
15. An Islamic Perspective on Knowledge, Knowing, and Methodology 293
Christopher Darius Stonebanks

PART III: CRITICAL AND INDIGENOUS METHODOLOGIES 323


16. History, Myth, and Identity in the New Indian Story 329
Elizabeth Cook-Lynn
17. "Self" and "Other": Auto-Reflexive and Indigenous Ethnography 347
Keyan G. Tomaselli, Lauren Dyll, and Michael Francis
18. Autoethnography Is Queer 373
Tony E. Adams and Stacy Holman Jones
19. Narrative Poetics and Performative Interventions 391
D. Soyini Madison
20. Reading the Visual, Tracking the Global: Postcolonial Feminist
Methodology and the Chameleon Codes of Resistance 407
Radhika Parameswaran

PART IV: POWER, TRUTH, ETHICS, AND SOCIAL JUSTICE 429


21. Te Kotahitanga: Kaupapa Maori in Mainstream Classrooms 439
Russell Bishop
~

22. Modern Democracy: The Complexities Behind Appropriating


Indigenous Models of Governance and Implementation 459
TimBegaye
23. Rethinking Collaboration: Working the Indigene-Colonizer Hyphen 471
Alison Jones, with Kuni Jenkins
24. Seven Orientations for the Development of Indigenous Science Education 487
Gregory Cajete
25. Research Ethics for Protecting Indigenous Knowledge and
Heritage: Institutional and Researcher Responsibilities 497
Marie Battiste
26. Justice as Healing: Going Outside the Colonizers' Cage 511
Wanda D. McCaslin and Denise C. Breton
211 27. The South African Truth and Reconciliation
Commission (TRC): Ways of Knowing Mrs. Konile 531
217 Antjie Krog, Nosisi Mpolweni-Zantsi, and Kopano Ratele
28. Transnational, National, and Indigenous Racial Subjects: Moving
233 From Critical Discourse to Praxis 547
LuisMir6n

255 29. Epilogue: The Lions Speak 563


Yvonna S. Lincoln and Norman K. Denzin

e Spirit 277 Author Index 573


Subject Index 585
293 About the Editors 597
About the Contributors 599
323
329

347

373

391

407

429

439

..
459

471

tion 487

497

511
1
INTRODUCTION
Critical Methodologies
and Indigenous Inquiry
Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln

Despite the guarantees of the Treaty of Waitangi, the colonization of Aotearoa!New


Zealand and the subsequent neocolonial dominance of majority interests in social
and educational research have continued. The result has been the development of
a tradition of research into Maori people's lives that addresses concerns and inter-
ests of the predominantly non-Maori researchers' own making, as defined and
made accountable in terms of the researchers' own cultural worldview(s).
-Bishop (2005, p. 11 0)

The capitalist system, and globalization theory which speak of ethics, hide the fact
that their ethics are those of. the marketplace and not the universal ethics of the
human person. It is for these matters that we ought to struggle courageously if we
have, in truth, made a choice for a humanized world. ..
-Freire (1998, p. 114, paraphrase)

There is hope, however timid, on the street corners, a hope in each and everyone
of us . ... Hope is an ontological need.
-Freire (1992/1999, p. 8)

When I discovered the work of . .. Paulo Freire, my first introduction to critical ped-
agogy, I found a mentor and a guide.
-hooks (1994, p. 6)

li!l 1
2 lill HANDBOOK OF CRITICAL AND INDIGENOUS METHODOLOGIES

At this level, critical indigenous qualitative

W e seek a productive dialogue between


indigenous and critical scholars. This
involves are-visioning of critical ped-
agogy, a re-grounding of Paulo Freire's (2000)
pedagogy of the oppressed in local, indigenous
research is always already political. The researcher
must consider how his or her research benefits, as
well as promotes, self-determination for research
participants. According to Bishop (2005, p. 112),
self-determination intersects with the locus of
contexts. We call this merger of indigenous and
power in the research setting. It concerns issues of
critical methodologies critical indigenous peda-
initiation, benefits, representation, legitimacy,
gogy (CIP). It understands that all inquiry is both
and accountability. Critical indigenous inquiry
political and moral. It uses methods critically, for
begins with the concerns of indigenous people. It
explicit social justice purposes. It values the trans-
is assessed in terms of the benefits it creates
formative power of indigenous, subjugated knowl-
for them. The work must represent indigenous
edges. It values the pedagogical practices that
persons honestly, without distortion or stereo-
produce these knowledges (Semali & Kincheloe,
type, and the research should honor indigenous
1999, p. 15), and it seeks forms of praxis and
knowledge, customs, and rituals. It should not
inquiry that are emancipatory and empowering. It
be judged in terms of neocolonial paradigms.
embraces the commitment by indigenous scholars
Finally, researchers should be accountable to
to decolonize Western methodologies, to criticize
indigenous persons. They, not Western scholars,
and demystify the ways in which Western science
should have first access to research findings and
and the modern academy have been part of the
control over the distribution of knowledge.
colonial apparatus. This revisioning of critical
pedagogy understands with Paulo Freire and
lilllilllill
Antonio Faundez (1989, p. 46) that "indigenous
knowledge is a rich social resource for any justice- Our argument unfolds in several parts. We
related attempt to bring about social change" begin by locating qualitative research and the
(Semali & Kincheloe, 1999, p. 15).
current move to indigenous inquiry within their
In this introduction, we will outline a method- historical moments. We then briefly discuss the
ology, a borderland epistemology, and a set of obstacles that confront the nonindigenous criti-
interpretive practices that we hope will move this cal theorist. We next take up a group of terms
dialogue forward. This will entail a critique of
and arguments, including critical methodology,
traditional research approaches to indigenous
indigenous epistemology, pedagogy, discourses
life-that is, those positivist. and postpositivist of resistance, politics as performance, and coun-
approaches that address the concerns and inter-
ternarratives, as critical inquiry. A variety of
ests of nonindigenous scholars (Bishop, 2005,
indigenous pedagogies are briefly discussed, as is
p. 110; Semali & Kincheloe, 1999, p. 15).
indigenous research as localized critical theory.
Such inquiry should meet multiple criteria. It
We elaborate variations within the personal nar-
must be ethical, performative, healing, transfor-
rative approach to decolonized inquiry, extending
mative, decolonizing, and participatory. It must
Richardson's (2000) model of creative analytic
be committed to dialogue, community, self-
practices, or what she calls CAP ethnography
determination, and cultural autonomy. It must
(p. 929). A politics of resistance is next outlined.
meet people's perceived needs. It must resist
We conclude with a discussion of indigenous
efforts to confine inquiry to a single paradigm
models of power, truth, ethics, and social justice.
or interpretive strategy. It must be unruly, dis-
ruptive, critical, and dedicated to the goals of lilllilllill
justice and equity. Such a framework lays the
foundation for the Decade of Critical Indigen?us Sandoval (2000), Collins (1998), Mutua and
Inquiry. Swadener (2004), Bishop (2005), and Lopez
Introduction li!l 3

iigenous qualitative (1998) observe that we are in the midst of "a such regulatory activities raise fundamental philo-
[tical. The researcher large-scale social movement of anticolonialist sophical, epistemological, political, and pedagogical
research benefits, as discourse" (Lopez, 1998, p. 226). This movement issues for scholarship and freedom of speech in the
1ination for research is evident in the emergence and proliferation of decolonized academy.
.shop (2005, p. 112), indigenous epistemologies and methodologies In response to such challenges, a methodology
s with the locus of (Sandoval, 2000), including the arguments of the heart (Pelias, 2004), a prophetic, feminist
.It concerns issues of of African American, Chicano, Latina/o, Native postpragmatism that embraces an ethics of truth
ntation, legitimacy, American, First Nation, Hawaiian, African, and grounded in love, care, hope, and forgiveness, is
indigenous inquiry Maori scholars, among others. These epistemolo- needed. Love, here, to borrow from Antonia
tndigenous people. It gies are forms of critical pedagogy; that is, they Darder and Luis F. Miron (2006),
~ benefits it creates embody a critical politics of representation that is
epresent indigenous embedded in the rituals of indigenous communi- means to comprehend that the moral and the mate-
listortion or stereo- ties. Always already political, they are relent- rial are inextricably linked. And, as such, [we] must
ld honor indigenous lessly critical of transnational capitalism and its recognize love as an essential ingredient of a just
ttuals. It should not society ... love is a political principle through
destructive presence in the indigenous world (see
which we struggle to create mutually life-enhancing
>colonial paradigms. Kincheloe & McLaren, 2000).
opportunities for all people. It is grounded in
be accountable to the mutuality and interdependence of our human
.ot Western scholars, li!lli!lli!l
existence-that which we share, as much as that
esearch findings and which we do not. This is a love nurtured by the act
Qualitative research exists in a time of global
of knowledge. of relationship itself. It cultivates relationships with
uncertainty. Around the world, government agen-
the freedom to be at one's best without undue fear.
cies are attempting to regulate scientific inquiry
Such an emancipatory love allows us to realize our
by defining what counts as "good" science (for the
nature in a way that allows others to do so as well.
tn several parts. We case in Australia, see Cheek, 2006; for the case Inherent in such a love is the understanding that we
ve research and the in the United Kingdom, see Torrance, 2006). are not at liberty to be violent, authoritarian, or
inquiry within their Conservative regimes are enforcing evidence- self-seeking. (p. 150)
n briefly discuss the based or scientifically based biomedical models
nonindigenous criti- of research (SBR). Yet, as in the case with such ill- Indigenous scholars are leading the way on
lp a group of terms conceived endeavors as, in the United States, the this front. 1 During the "Decade of the World's
:ritical methodology, No Child Left Behind Act of2002, this experimen- Indigenous Peoples" (1994-2004), a full-scale
Jedagogy, discourses tal quantitative model is ill suited to attack was launched on Western epistemologies
formance, and coun- and methodologies. Indigenous scholars asked
Jquiry. A variety of examining the complex and dynamic contexts of that the academy decolonize its scientific prac-
•riefly discussed, as is public education in its many forms, sites, and tices (Battiste, 2006; Grande, 2004; L. T. Smith,
variations, especially considering the ... subtle
1lized critical theory. 2006). At the same time, these scholars sought to
social difference produced by gender, race, ethnic-
hin the personal nar- disrupt traditional ways of knowing, while devel-
ity, linguistic status or class. Indeed, multiple
:ed inquiry, extending kinds of knowledge, produced by multiple episte- oping "methodologies and approaches to research
of creative analytic mologies and methodologies, are not only worth that privileged indigenous knowledges, voices,
ls CAP ethnography having but also demanded if policy, legislation and experiences" (L. T. Smith, 2005, p. 87). An
ance is next outlined. and practice are to be sensitive to social needs. alliance with the critical strands of qualitative
1ssion of indigenous (Lincoln & Cannella, 2004a, p. 7; see also Lincoln inquiry and its practitioners seemed inevitable.
cs, and social justice. & Cannella, 2004b) Today, nonindigenous scholars are building
these connections, learning how to dismantle,
m. Born out of a "methodological fundamentalism'' deconstruct, and decolonize traditional ways of
that returns to a mush-discredited model of empir- doing science, learning that research is always
(1998), Mutua and ical inquiry in which "only randomized experi- .already both moral and political, learning how
(2005), and Lopez ments produce truth" (House, 2006, pp. 100-101 ), to let go. Ironically, as this letting go occurs,
4 111 HANDBOOK OF CRITICAL AND INDIGENOUS METHODOLOGIES

a backlash against critical qualitative research this was a group that stood in the way of White set-
gains momentum. New "gold standards" for relia- tiers. Ethnographic reports of these groups were
bility and validity, as well as design, are being incorporated into colonizing strategies, ways of
advanced (St. Pierre, 2004). So-called evidence- controlling the foreign, deviant, or troublesome
based research-including the Campbell and other. Soon qualitative research would be employed
Cochrane2 models and protocols-have become in other social and behavioral science disci-
fashionable (Pring, 2004; Thomas, 2004) even plines, including education (especially the work of
while its proponents fail to recognize that the very Dewey), history, political science, business, medi-
act of labeling some research as "evidence based" cine, nursing, social work, and communications.
implies that some research fails to mount By the 1960s, battle lines were drawn within the
evidence-a strongly political and decidedly quantitative and qualitative camps. Quantitative
nonobjective stance. The criticisms, it seems, are scholars relegated qualitative research to a subordi-
coming in from all sides. nate status in the scientific arena. In response, qual-
itative researchers extolled the humanistic virtues
of their subjective, interpretive approach to human
ml THE HISTORICAL FIELD group life. In the meantime, indigenous peoples
found themselves subjected to the indignities of
The term research is inextricably linked to both approaches, each methodology used in the
European imperialism and colonialism (L. T. Smith, name of a colonizing power (see Battiste, 2000b ).
1999, p. 1). L. T. Smith (1999) contends that "the In North America, qualitative research operates
word itself is probably one of the dirtiest words in in a complex historical field that crosscuts at least
the indigenous world's vocabulary.... It is impli- eight historical moments. These moments overlap
cated in the worst excesses of colonialism" (p. 1), and simultaneously operate in the present. 3 We
with the ways in which "knowledge about indige- define them as the traditional (1900-1950); the
nous peoples was collected, classified, and then modernist, or golden, age (1950-1970); blurred
represented back to the West" (p. 1). Sadly, quali- genres (1970-1986); the crisis of representation
tative research in many, if not all, of its forms (1986-1990); the postmodern, a period of experimen-
(observation, participation, interviewing, ethnog- tal and new ethnographies (1990-1995); postexper-
raphy) serves as a metaphor for colonial knowl- imental inquiry (1995-2000); the methodologically
edge, for power, and for truth. The metaphor contested present (2000-2008); and the future
works this way: Research, quantitative and quali- (2008-), which is now. The future, the eighth
tative, is scientific. Research provides the founda- moment, confronts the methodological backlash
tion for reports about and representations of the associated with the evidence-based social move-
~

other. In the colonial context, research becomes an ment. It is concerned with moral discourse, with
objective way of representing the dark-skinned the development of sacred textualities. The eighth
other to the White world. Colonizing nations moment asks that the social sciences and the
relied on the human disciplines, especially sociol- humanities become sites for critical conversations
ogy and anthropology, as well as their field about democracy, race, gender, class, nation-states,
note-taking journaling observers, to produce globalization, freedom, and community. 4 Successive
knowledge about strange and foreign worlds. This waves of epistemological theorizing move across
close involvement with the colonial project these eight moments. In the first decade of this new
contributed, in significant ways, to qualitative century, we struggle to connect qualitative research
research's long and anguished history, to its to the hopes, needs, goals, and promises of a free
becoming a dirty word. democratic society.
Anthropological and sociological observers Many critical methodologists and indigenous
went to a foreign setting to study the culture, cus- scholars are in the eighth moment, performing
toms, and habits of another human group. Often, culture as they write it, understanding that the
Introduction 1i!1 5

1 the way ofWhite set- dividing line between performativity (doing) and pedagogical is always political. Critical personal
of these groups were performance (done) has disappeared (Conquer- narratives enact this view of the pedagogical. They
g strategies, ways of good, 1998, p. 25). But even as this disappearance can be turned into performance texts that func-
iant, or troublesome occurs, matters of racial injustice remain. The tion as performative interventions. Such work may
:h would be employed indigenous other is a racialized other. queer autoethnography, by politicizing memory
rioral science disci- Any discussion of critical, indigenous qualita- and reconfiguring storytelling and personal
especially the work of tive research must work within this complex his- history, as counternarratives. Such work disrupts
ence, business, medi- torical field. Qualitative research means different taken-for-granted epistemologies, by privileging
d communications. things in each of these moments. Nonetheless, an indigenous interpretive pedagogies and inquiry
.vere drawn within the initial, generic definition can be offered, under- practices .
camps. Quantitative standing that there is no longer an objective,
research to a subordi- god's-eye view of reality. Critical qualitative research
ena. In response, qual- is a situated activity that locates the gendered ill A CAVEAT
he humanistic virtues observer in the world. It consists of a set of inter-
ve approach to human pretive, material practices that make the world In proposing a conversation between indigenous
e, indigenous peoples visible. These practices are forms of critical peda- and nonindigenous discourses, we are mindful of
to the indignities of gogy. They transform the world. several difficulties. First, the legacy of the helping
:10dology used in the Critical qualitative research embodies the eman- Western colonizing Other must be resisted. As
·see Battiste, 2000b ). cipatory, empowering values of critical pedagogy. Linda Smith observes (1999), "They came, They
1tive research operates Like critical race theories and poststructural fem- saw, They named, They Claimed" (p. 80). As
that crosscuts at least inism (St. Pierre & Pillow, 2000), critical qualita- agents of colonial power, Western scientists dis-
1ese moments overlap tive research represents inquiry done for explicit covered, extracted, appropriated, commodified,
~ in the present. 3 We political, utopian purposes, a politics of libera- and distributed knowledge about the indigenous
mal (1900-1950); the tion, a reflexive discourse constantly in search of other. Maoris, for example, contend that these
(1950-1970); blurred an open-ended, subversive, multivoiced episte- practices place control over research in the hands
risis of representation mology (Lather, 2007, pp. x-xi). of the Western scholar. This means, Bishop (2005)
. a period of experimen- Interpretive research practices turn the world argues, that the Maori are excluded from discus-
[990-1995); postexper- into a series of performances and representations, sions concerning who has control over the initia-
); the methodologically including case study documents, critical personal tion, methodologies, evaluations, assessments,
008); and the future experience narratives, life stories, field notes, representations, and distribution of the newly
he future, the eighth interviews, conversations, photographs, record- defined knowledge. The decolonization project
:thodological backlash ings, and memos to the self. These performances challenges these practices that perpetuate Western
ce-based social move- create the space for critical, collaborative, dialog- power by misrepresenting and essentializing
moral discourse, with ical work. They bring researchers and their indigenous persons, often denying them a voice or
textualities. The eighth research participants into a shared, critical space, an identity (Bishop, 2005).
cial sciences and the a space where the work of resistance, critique, and Second, however, critical, interpretive perfor-
r critical conversations empowerment can occur. mance theory and critical race theory, without
ler, class, nation-states, As indicated in the Preface, we locate indige- modification, will not work within indigenous set-
:ommunity. 4 Successive nous methodology in an intersection of dis- tings. The criticisms of G. Smith (2000), L. T. Smith
b.eorizing move across courses, the site where theories of performance, (1999, 2000), Bishop (1994, 1998), Battiste (2000a,
first decade of this new pedagogy, and interpretive practice come together. 2000b), Churchill (1996), Cook-Lynn (1998), and
teet qualitative research This produces a focus on performance, interpre- others make this very clear. Critical theory's criteria
and promises of a free tive pedagogies, indigenous inquiry practices, and for self-determination and empowerment perpetu-
theories of power, truth, ethics, and social justice. ate neocolonial sentiments while turning the
and indigenous Taking our lead from the performance turn in the indigenous person into an essentialized "other" who
moment, performing human disciplines (Denzin, 2003), we assert that is spoken for (Bishop, 2005). The categories of race,
t•lderstandin2: that the the performative is always pedagogical, and the gender, and racialized identities cannot be turned
6 1ill HANDBOOK OF CRITICAL AND INDIGENOUS METHODOLOGIES

into frozen, essential terms, nor is racial identity such codes, regulating the activities, roles, and pow-
a free-floating signifier (Grande, 2000, p. 348). ers of nonindigenous researchers, might serve as a
Critical theory must be localized, grounded in the preliminary model for other such communities.
specific meanings, traditions, customs, and com- Fifth, in arguing for a dialogue between critical
munity relations that operate in each indigenous and indigenous theories, Denzin and Lincoln rec-
setting. Localized critical theory can work if the ognize that they are outsiders to the indigenous
goals of critique, resistance, struggle, and emanci- colonized experience. We write as privileged
pation are not treated as if they have "universal Westerners. At the same time, we seek to be "allied
characteristics that are independent of history, con- others" (Kaomea, 2004, p. 32; Mutua & Swadener,
text, and agency" (L. T. Smith, 2000, p. 229). 2004, p. 4), fellow travelers of sorts, antiposi-
Third, there is a pressing need to decolonize tivists, friendly insiders who wish to deconstruct
and deconstruct those structures within the from within the Western academy and its posi-
Western academy that privilege Western knowl- tivist epistemologies. We endorse a critical episte-
edge systems and their epistemologies (Mutua & mology that contests notions of objectivity and
Swadener, 2004, p. 10; Semali & Kincheloe, 1999). neutrality. We value autoethnographic, insider,
Indigenous knowledge systems are too frequently participatory, collaborative methodologies (Fine
made into objects of study, treated as if they were et al., 2003). These are narrative, performative
instances of quaint folk theory held by the methodologies-research practices that are
members of a primitive culture. The decolonizing reflexively consequential, ethical, critical, respect-
project reverses this equation, making Western ful, and humble. These practices require that
systems of knowledge the object of critique and scholars live with the consequences of their
inquiry. research actions (L. T. Smith, 1999, pp. 137-139).
Fourth, paraphrasing L. T. Smith (2005), the
spaces between decolonizing research practices Ji!lli!lli!l
and indigenous communities must be carefully
and cautiously articulated. They are fraught with In calling for a dialogue between indigenous
uncertainty. Neoliberal and neoconservative polit- and nonindigenous qualitative researchers, we
ical economies both act to turn knowledge about are mindful of Terry Tempest Williams's cautious
indigenous peoples into a marketable commodity. advice about borrowing stories and narratives
There are conflicts between competing episte- from indigenous peoples. In her autoethnogra-
mological and ethical frameworks, including phy, Pieces of White Shell:A journey to Navajo land
(Western) institutional human subject research (1984, p. 3), she praises the wisdom of Navajo
regulations. Research is regulated according to stqrytellers and the stories they tell (p. 4) . But she
positivist epistemologies. Indigenous scholars and warns the reader we cannot emulate Native
native intellectuals are pressed to produce techni- peoples: "We are not Navajo ... their traditional
cal knowledge that conforms to Western standards stories don't work for us. Their stories hold
of truth and validity. Conflicts over who initiates meaning for us only as examples. They can teach
and who benefits from such research are especially us what is possible. We must create our own
problematic (Bishop, 2005). Culturally responsive stories" (p. 5) .
research practices must be developed. Such prac- As nonindigenous scholars seeking a dialogue
tices would locate power within the indigenous with indigenous scholars, we (Denzin and Lincoln)
community. What is acceptable and not acceptable must construct stories that are embedded in the
research is determined and defmed from within landscapes through which we travel. These will be
the community. Such work encourages self- dialogical counternarratives, stories of resistance,
determination and empowerment (Bishop, 2005). of struggle, of hope, stories that create spaces for
In fact, in some indigenous communities, such multicultural conversations, stories embedded in
practices are already codified (L. T. Smith, 1999); the critical democratic imagination.
Introduction 1i!l 7

vities, roles, and pow- Iii PERFORMANCE AND CRITICAL PEDAGOGY of critical pedagogical theater that draws its
lers, might serve as a inspirations from Baal's major works: Theatre of
uch communities. Shaped by the sociological imagination (Mills, the Oppressed (1974/1979), The Rainbow of Desire
)gue between critical 1959), building on George Herbert Mead's (1938, ( 1995), and Legislative Theatre (1998). This theater
1zin and Lincoln rec- p. 460) discursive, performative model of the act, performs pedagogies that resist oppression
rs to the indigenous critical qualitative research methodology imagines (Balme &Carstensen, 200 1; Greenwood, 2001). 5 It
write as privileged and explores the multiple ways in which perfor- enacts a politics of possibility (Madison, 1998)
:, we seek to be "allied mance can be understood, including as imitation, grounded in performative practices that embody
; Mutua & Swadener, or mimesis; as poiesis, or construction; and as love, hope, care, and compassion.
s of sorts, antiposi- kinesis, movement, gendered bodies in motion Consider the following:
, wish to deconstruct (Conquergood, 1998, p. 31; Pollock, 1998, p. 43).
The researcher-as-performer moves from a view of In House Arrest and Piano, Anna Deavere Smith
:ademy and its posi-
performance as imitation, or dramaturgical stag- (2003) offers "an epic view of slavery, sexual miscon-
lorse a critical episte-
ing (Goffman, 1959), to an emphasis on perfor- duct, and the American presidency:' Twelve actors,
1S of objectivity and some in blackface, "play across lines of race, age and
thnographic, insider, mance as liminality, construction (McLaren, 1999),
gender to 'become' Bill Clinton, Thomas Jefferson,
methodologies (Fine to a view of performance as embodied struggle, as
Sally Hemings ... and a vast array of historical and
rrative, performative an intervention, as breaking and remaking, and as contemporary figures" (Kondo, 2000, p. 81 ).
practices that are kinesis, that is, a sociopolitical act (Conquergood,
1ical, critical, respect- 1998, p. 32). In Native Canadian Bill Moses' play Almighty Voice
ractices require that Viewed as struggles and interventions, perfor- and His Wife (1993) Native performers, wearing
nsequences of their mances and performance events become gen- whiteface minstrel masks, mock such historical fig-
l, 1999,pp.l37-139). dered, transgressive achievements, political ures as Wild Bill Cody, Sitting Bull, and young Indian
accomplishments that break through "sedi- maidens called Sweet Sioux. (Gilbert, 2003, p. 692)
:!I mented meanings and normative traditions"
(Conquergood, 1998, p. 32). It is this performative Contemporary indigenous playwrights and per-
! between indigenous model of emancipatory decolonized indigenous formers revisit and make a mockery of 19th-, 20th-,
ative researchers, we research that we endorse (see the Chapters 4, 9, and 21st-century racist practices. They interrogate
:st Williams's cautious 18, and 19, this volume). and turn the tables on blackface minstrelsy and the
tories and narratives The call to performance in the human disci- global colonial theater that reproduced racist poli-
In her autoethnogra- plines requires a commitment to a progressive tics through specific cross-race and cross-gender
]ourney to Navajoland democratic politics, an ethics and aesthetics of performances. These performances reflexively use
he wisdom of Navajo performance (Pollock, 1998) that moves from historical restagings, masquerade, ventriloquism,
they tell (p. 4). But she critical race theory (Ladson-Billings & Donnor, and doubly inverted performances involving male
nnot emulate Native 2005) to the radical pedagogical formulations of and female ~impersonators to create a subversive
jo ... their traditional Paulo Freire (1998, 1992/1999, 2000), as his theater that undermines colonial racial representa-
s. Their stories hold work is reformulated and reinvented by Antonia tions (see Gilbert, 2003; Kondo, 2000, p. 83). This
.mples. They can teach Darder (2002), Miron (Chapter 28, this volume), theater takes up key diasporic concerns, including
must create our own Kincheloe and McLaren (2000, 2005), McLaren those of memory, cultural loss, disorientation, vio-
and Jaramillo (Chapter 10, this volume), Giroux lence, and exploitation (Balme & Carstensen, 2001,
Iars seeking a dialogue and Giroux (Chapter 9, this volume), and others. p. 45). 6 This is a utopian theater that addresses
re (Denzin and Lincoln) This performance ethic borrows from and is issues of equity, healing, and social justice. 7
t are embedded in the grounded in the discourses of indigenous peoples
(Mutua & Swadener, 2004).
stories of resistance, Within this radical pedagogical space, the per- IEl A GLOSSARY AND A GENEALOGY
that create spaces for formative and the p6litical intersect on the terrain
stories embedded in of a praxis-based ethic. This is the space of post- Pedagogy: To teach in a way that leads. Pedagogy
colonial, indigenous participatory theater, a form is always ideological and political.
8 1ill HANDBOOK OF CRITICAL AND INDIGENOUS METHODOLOGIES

Cultural pedagogy: The ways that cultural pro- disciplinary techniques of surveillance" (Giroux
duction functions as a form of education, as "it & Giroux, 2005, p. 23).
generates knowledge, shapes values and constructs Critical pedagogy and its related critical
identity .. . cultural pedagogy refers to the ways par- methodologies can be summarized in terms of a
ticular cultural agents produce ... hegemonic ways of small set of principles involving cultural politics,
seeing" (Kincheloe & McLaren, 2000, p. 285; McLaren,
political economy, and critical theory. Critical ped-
1999, p. 441).
agogy embraces a dialectical, relational view of
Critical pedagogy: To performatively disrupt and
deconstruct these cultural practices in the name of
knowledge. It conceives of the human agent in
a "more just, democratic and egalitarian society" active terms. Following Gramsci, there is an
(Kincheloe & McLaren, 2000, p. 285). emphasis on critiques of ideology and the devel-
opment of counterhegemonic forms of discourse
and praxis, as well as theories of resistance that
mi. DEMOCRACY AND PEDAGOGY presume the historicity of knowledge (Darder,
Baltodano, & Torres, 2003, pp. 12-14). With the
The "democratic character of critical pedagogy is Frankfurt school, efforts are made to show how
defmed largely through a set of basic assumptions" theory and praxis are intertwined. Truth claims
(Giroux & Giroux, 2005, p. 21). Educational and are subject to the critiques of praxis as well as to
everyday realities "are constructed in and through critical pedagogy, to counterhegemonic discourses
people's linguistic, cultural, social and behavioral that embrace an emancipatory cultural politics,
interactions which both shape and are shaped by including principles of radical democracy.
social, political, economic and cultural forces" New regimes of truth are sought. What is true
(Fishman & McLaren, 2005, p. 33). It is not enough must also be just and right. What is just is based
to understand any given reality. There is a need to on pedagogies of kindness, hope, and love
"transform it with the goal of radically democratiz- (Darder, 2002, p. 32). Critical pedagogy and its
ing educational sites and societies" (Fishman & methodologies honor the experiences of indige-
McLaren, 2005, p. 33 ). Educators, as transformative nous persons and build on these experiences to
intellectuals, actively shape and lead this project. construct empowering cultures of compassion
Through performances, critical pedagogy dis- and care (Darder et al., 2003, p. 11).
rupts those hegemonic cultural and educational
practices that reproduce the logics of neoliberal
conservatism (Giroux & Giroux, 2005). Critical mi. THE CRITICS
pedagogy subjects structures· of power, knowl-
edge, and practice to critical scrutiny, demanding Critical pedagogy has not been without its critics
that they be evaluated "in terms of how they (Darder et al., 2003, pp. 16, 21; Ellsworth, 1989;
might open up or close down democratic experi- Grande, Chapter 12, this volume; Kincheloe, 2005,
ences" (Giroux & Giroux, 2005, p. 21). Critical pp. 48-49; Lather, 1991, pp. 43-49, 1998; Luke &
pedagogy and critical pedagogical theater hold Gore, 1992; L. T. Smith, 1999, pp.l85-189). While
systems of authority accountable through the committed to critical pedagogy's key values of
critical reading of texts, the creation of radical critique, resistance, struggle, and emancipation,
educational practices, and the promotion of criti- critics nonetheless take issue with how these val-
calliteracy (Giroux & Giroux, 2005, p. 22). Critical ues are implemented in practice. Indigenous
pedagogy is "a transgressive discourse, a fluid way scholars argue that some versions of critical
of seeing the world, a pedagogy of insubordina- pedagogy undertheorize and diminish the
tion'' (Steinberg, 2007, p. ix). In turn, critical ped- importance of indigenous concepts of identity,
agogy encourages resistance to the "discourses of sovereignty, land, tradition, literacy, and language.
privatization, consumerism, the methodologies of Grande (Chapter 12, this volume) fears that some
standardization and accountability, and the new critical pedagogy theorists persist in imposing
Introduction !i!l 9

surveillance" (Giroux Western, Enlightenment views of these terms on suggesting, with G. Smith (2000), that Kaupapa
the indigenous experience. Maori research is a "local theoretical position that
its related critical Poststructural and postmodern feminists is the modality through which the emancipatory
narized in terms of a assert that critical pedagogy did not adequately goal of critical theory, in a specific historical, polit-
ving cultural politics, engage the issues of biography, history, emotion- ical and social context, is practised" (L. T. Smith,
:U theory. Critical ped- ality, sexual politics, gender, and patriarchy. 2000, p. 229; see also Bishop, 2005). However, crit-
al, relational view of Furthermore, they challenge the privileging of ical theory is fitted to the Maori worldview, which
the human agent in reason "as the ultimate sphere upon which knowl- asserts that Maori are connected to the universe
;ramsci, there is an edge is constructed" (Darder et al., 2003, p. 16). and their place in it through the principle of
eology and the devel- Critics contended that the rationalist premise Whakapapa. This principle tells Maori that they
ic forms of discourse silences the voices of repressed persons (Darder are the seeds or direct descendants of the heavens.
"ies of resistance that et al., 2003, p. 16). Whakapapa turns the universe into a moral space
knowledge (Darder, Ellsworth (1989, p. 309) argued that the theory where all things great and small are intercon-
pp. 12-14). With the failed to interrogate the perspective of the White nected, including science and research.
e made to show how male theorist. She and others asserted that this The "local" that localizes critical theory is always
·twined. Truth claims failure compromises the emancipatory goals of historically specific. The local is grounded in the
Jf praxis as well as to the theory (Lather, 1991, p. 48; L. T. Smith, 1999, politics, circumstances, and economies of a partic-
hegemonic discourses p. 186). Feminist scholars of color pointed to the ular moment, a particular time and place, a partic-
tory cultural politics, failure of critical theory to take up "questions of ular set of problems, struggles, and desires. There is
al democracy. subordinate cultures from the specific location of a politics of resistance and possibility (Madison,
~ sought. What is true racialized populations themselves" (Darder et al., 1998; Pollock, 1998) embedded in the local. This is
What is just is based 2003, p.17). Working-class educators criticized the a politics that confronts and breaks through local
~ss, hope, and love theory because they felt its language was elitist structures of resistance and oppression. This is a
:al pedagogy and its and created a new form of oppression. Classroom politics that asks, "Who writes for whom? Who is
x:periences of indige- educators and curriculum theorists contended representing indigenous peoples, how, for what pur-
these experiences to that critical pedagogy was about politics and not poses, for which audiences, who is doing science for
tures of compassion education. Political economy critics argued that whom?" (L. T. Smith, 1999, p. 37).
l,p.ll). critical pedagogy theorists were obsessed with A critical politics of interpretation leads the
struggles surrounding culture and identity poli- indigenous scholar to ask eight questions about
tics. This meant they were retreating from issues any research project, including those projects
of class and capital, politics and the media. guided by critical theory:

een without its critics 1. What research do we want done?


Indigenous Research as ~
, 21; Ellsworth, 1989;
Localized Critical Theory 2. Whom is it for?
1me; Kincheloe, 2005,
43-49, 1998;Luke& Indigenous critics, including Bishop ( 1994, 3. What difference will it make?
1, pp. 185-189). While 2005) and L. T. Smith (1999, pp. 185-186), 4. Who will carry it out?
tgogy's key values of observe that critical theory failed to address how
e, and emancipation, indigenous cultures and their epistemologies 5. How do we want the research done?
.e with how these val- were sites of resistance and empowerment. This 6. How will we know it is worthwhile?
practice. Indigenous criticism, however, was muted by the commit-
versions of critical ment of indigenous scholars to the same values as 7. Who will own the research?
and diminish the critical theory-namely, to resistance and strug- 8. Who will benefit? (L. T. Smith, 2000, p. 239)
'concepts of identity, gle at the local level.
·,and language. Indeed, L. T. Smith (2000) connects her version These questions are addressed to indigenous
fears that some of indigenous inquiry, Kaupapa Maori research, ·and nonindigenous researchers alike. They must
persist in imposing with critical theory, as well as cultural studies, be answered in the affirmative; that is, indigenous
10 li!l HANDBOOK OF CRITICAL AND INDIGENOUS METHODOLOGIES

persons must conduct, own, and benefit from any 2. craft their own version of science and empirical
research that is done on, for, or with them. activity, including how science and scientific
These eight questions serve to interpret critical understandings will be used in their world;
theory through a moral lens, through key indige- 3. develop a participatory model of democracy
nous principles. They shape the moral space that that goes beyond the "Westminister 'one person,
aligns indigenous research with critical theory. one vote, majority rule"' (G. Smith, 2000, p. 212);
Thus, both formations are situated within the
4. use theory proactively, as an agent of change, but
antipositivist debate. They both rest on antifoun-
act in ways that are accountable to the indige-
dational epistemologies. Each privileges perfor- nous community and not just the academy;
mative issues of gender, race, class, equity, and
social justice. Each develops its own understand- 5. resist new forms of colonization, such as the
ings of community, critique, resistance, struggle, North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA),
while contesting neocolonial efforts to commod-
and emancipation (L. T. Smith, 2000, p. 228). Each
ify indigenous knowledge.
understands that the outcome of a struggle can
never be predicted in advance, that struggle is
In proactively framing participatory views of
always local and contingent; it is never final
science, empirical research, democracy, and com-
(L. T. Smith, 2000, p. 229).
munity, indigenous peoples advance the project of
By localizing discourses of resistance and by
decolonization.
connecting these discourses to performance
ethnography and critical pedagogy, indigenous
research enacts what critical theory"actually offers
to oppressed, marginalized and silenced groups . .. lEI. INDIGENOUS VOICES, CRITICAL PEDAGOGY,
[that is] through emancipation groups such as the AND EPISTEMOLOGIES OF RESISTANCE
Maori would take greater control of their own lives
and humanity" (L. T. Smith, 2000, p. 229). This Indigenous pedagogies are grounded in an opposi-
requires that indigenous groups "take hold of the tional consciousness that resists "neocolonizing
project of emancipation and attempt to make it a postmodern global formations" (Sandoval, 2000,
reality on their own terms" (L. T. Smith, 2000, pp. 1-2). These pedagogies fold theory, epistemol-
p. 229). This means that inquiry is always grounded ogy, methodology, and praxis into strategies of
in principles centered on autonomy, home, family, resistance unique to each indigenous community.
and kinship. It presupposes a shared collective com- Thus, the oppositional consciousness of Kaupapa
munity vision. Under this framework, research is Maori research is like, but unlike, Black feminist
not a commodity or "purchased product ... owned epistemology (Collins, 1991, 1998), Chicano femi-
by the state" (L. T. Smith, 2000, p. 231). nisms (Anzaldua, 1987; Moraga, 1995), Red peda-
Localized critical indigenous theory and criti- gogy (Grande, 2000; Harjo & Bird, 1997), and
cal indigenous pedagogy encourages indigenists, Hawaiian epistemology (Meyer, 2003). Still, there is
as well as nonindigenous scholars, to confront key a commitment to an indigenism, to an indigenist
challenges connected to the meanings of science, outlook, which, after Ward Churchill (1996), assigns
community, and democracy. G. Smith (2000, the highest priority to the rights of indigenous
pp. 212-215) and L. T. Smith (2000) have outlined peoples, to the traditions, bodies of knowledge, and
these challenges, asking that indigenists values that have "evolved over many thousands of
years by native peoples the world over" (p. 509).
1. be proactive; they should name the world for Indigenist pedagogies are informed, in varying
themselves-furthermore, "being Maori is an and contested ways, by decolonizing, revolution-
essential criterion for carrying out Kaupapa ary, and socialist feminisms. Such feminisms, in
Maori research" (L. T. Smith, 2000, pp. 229-230); turn, address issues of social justice, equal rights,
Introduction p 11

f science and empirical and nationalisms of "every racial, ethnic, gender, Extending Sandoval (2000), indigenists enact
science and scientific sex, class, religion or loyalist type" (Sandoval, an ethically democratizing stance that is commit-
sed in their world; 2000, p. 7). Underlying each indigenist formation ted to "equalizing power differentials between
model of democracy is a commitment to moral praxis, to issues of self- humans" (Sandoval, 2000, p. 114). The goal "is to
:stminister 'one person, determination, empowerment, healing, love, com- consolidate and extend ... manifestos of libera-
:G. Smith, 2000, p. 212); munity solidarity, respect for the Earth, and tion in order to better identify and specify a mode
an agent of change, but respect for elders. of emancipation that is effective within first world
mntable to the indige- Indigenists resist the positivist and postposi- decolonizing global conditions during the twenty-
t just the academy; tivist methodologies of Western science because first century" (Sandoval, 2000, p. 2).
these formations are too frequently used to vali-
onization, such as the
date colonizing knowledge about indigenous
ieAgreement (NAFTA),
1ial efforts to commod- peoples. Indigenists deploy, instead, interpretive MI. TREATIES AS PoLITICAL PEDAGOGY
strategies and skills fitted to the needs, language,
and traditions of their respective indigenous These pedagogies confront and work through gov-
articipatory views of community. These strategies emphasize personal ernmental treaties, ideological formations, histor-
jemocracy, and com- performance narratives and testimonios. ical documents, and broken promises that connect
idvance the project of the indigenist group and its fate to the colonizing
capitalist state. Thus, for example, during the "first
MI. A MAORI PEDAGOGY 90-odd years of its existence the United States
entered into and ratified more than 370 separate
As an example, Maori scholar Russell Bishop treaties ... [and] has ... defaulted on its responsi-
=RITICAL PEDAGOGY, (1994, 1998, 2005; see also Chapter 21, this vol- bilities under every single treaty obligation it ever
OF RESISTANCE ume) presents a collaborative, participatory epis- incurred with regard to Indians" (Churchill, 1996,
temological model of Kaupapa Maori research. pp. 516-517). First Nation tribes in Canada did not
~ounded in an opposi- This model is characterized by the absence of a have aboriginal rights recognized in law until the
·esists "neocolonizing need to be in control, by a desire to be connected Constitution Act of 1982 (Henderson, 2000, p. 165).
ms" (Sandoval, 2000, to and to be a part of a moral community where In New Zealand, Maori debate the Treaty of
old theory, episternal- a primary goal is the compassionate understand- Waitangi, which was signed between Maori chiefs
xis into strategies of ing of another's moral position (Bishop, 1998, and the British Crown in 1840. Pedagogically,
digenous community. p. 203; Heshusius, 1994). The indigenist these treaties inscribed and prescribed only one
:iousness of Kaupapa researcher wants to participate in a collaborative, way of being indigenous-that is, as a person sub-
unlike, Black feminist altruistic relationship, where nothing·"is desired servient to the colonial powers-to-be.
1998), Chicano femi- for the self" (Bishop, 1998, p. 207), where When R,!goberta MenchU accepted the Nobel
aga, 1995), Red peda- research is evaluated by participant -driven crite- Peace Prize on behalf of indigenes, she reminded
' & Bird, 1997), and ria, by the cultural values and practices that cir- her audience that "we indigenous Peoples attach a
rer, 2003). Still, there is culate, for example, in Maori culture, including great importance to the Treaties, Agreements, and
nism, to an indigenist metaphors stressing self-determination, the other constructive accords that have been reached
mrchill (1996), assigns sacredness of relationships, embodied under- between Indigenous Peoples and the former colo-
rights of indigenous standing, and the priority of community over nial powers or states. They should be fully
nes of knowledge, and self. Researchers are led to develop new story respected in order to establish new and harmo-
er many thousands of lines and criteria of evaluation reflecting these nious relationships based on mutual respect and
rorld over" (p. 509). understandings. These participant -driven crite- cooperation" (MenchU, quoted in Cook-Lynn,
e informed, in varying ria function as resources for resisting positivist 2001, p. 34). Thus, does MenchU announce aneth-
izin!!. revolution- and neoconservative desires to "establish and ical tenet, a requirement that the agreements of
maintain control of the criteria for evaluating the past be respected and honored, held as sacred
Maori experience" (Bishop, 1998, p. 212). truths (Cook-Lynn, 2001, p. 35)?
12 1i!1 HANDBOOK OF CRITICAL AND INDIGENOUS METHODOLOGIES

mi. DECOLONIZING THE ACADEMY Pedagogies of Resistance

As argued above, critical indigenist pedagogy con- In response to the continuing pressures of
tests the complicity of the modern university with neocolonialism and neocolonization, L. T. Smith
neocolonial forces (Battiste, 2000a, p. xi). It encour- (1999, pp. 142-162) outlines some 25 different
ages and empowers indigenous peoples to make indigenous projects, including those that create,
colonizers confront and be accountable for the name, democratize, reclaim, protect, remember,
traumas of colonization. In rethinking and radi- restore, and celebrate lost histories and cultural
cally transforming the colonizing encounter, this practices. 8 These indigenous projects embody a
pedagogy imagines a postcolonial society and pedagogy of hope and freedom. They turn the
academy that honor difference and promote heal- pedagogies of oppression and colonization
ing.A decolonized academy is interdisciplinary and into pedagogies of liberation. They are not purely
politically proactive. It respects indigenous episte- utopian, for they map concrete performances that
mologies and encourages interpretive, first -person can lead to positive social transformations. They
methodologies. It honors different versions of embody ways of resisting the process of coloniza-
science and empirical activity, as well as values cul- tion. They encourage processes that mobilize and
tural criticism in the name of social justice. It seeks transform communities at the local level. They
models of human subject research that are not con- honor indigenous cultural practices and, in so
strained by biomedical, positivist assumptions. It doing, contribute to steps that heal the wounds of
turns the academy and its classrooms into sacred colonization. Thus are issues of cultural survival
spaces, sites where indigenous and nonindigenous and collective self-determination addressed.
scholars interact, share experiences, take risks,
explore alternative modes of interpretation, and
participate in a shared agenda, coming together in mi. CRITICAL PERSONAL NARRATIVE
a spirit of hope, love, and shared community.
AS COUNTERNARRATIVE
This decolonizing project attempts to rebuild
nations, communities, and their people through The move to the politics of performance has been
the use of restorative indigenous ecologies. These accompanied by a shift in the meaning of ethnog-
native ecologies celebrate survival, remembering, raphy and ethnographic writing. Richardson
sharing, gendering, new forms of naming, net- (2000) observes that the narrative genres con-
working, protecting, and democratizing daily life nected to ethnographic writing have "been
(Battiste, 2000b; L. T. Smith, 199.9, pp. 142-162).
blurred, enlarged, altered to include poetry, [and]
Theory, method, and epistemology are aligned drama" (p. 929). She uses the term creative ana-
in this project, anchored in the moral philoso- lytic practice (CAP) to describe these many differ-
phies that are taken for granted in Maori and ent reflexive performance narrative forms.
other indigenous cultures and language commu-
These forms include not only performance
nities (L. T. Smith, 2000, p. 225). A pedagogy of autoethnography but also short stories; conversa-
emancipation and empowerment is endorsed, a tions; fiction; personal narratives; creative nonfic-
pedagogy that encourages struggles for auton- tion; photographic essays; personal essays;
omy, cultural well-being, cooperation, and collec- personal narratives of the self; writing stories; self
tive responsibility. This pedagogy demands that stories; fragmented, layered texts; critical autobi-
indigenous groups own the research process. It ography; memoirs; personal histories; cultural
speaks the truth "to people about the reality of criticism; co-constructed performance narra-
their lives" (Collins, 1998, p. 198). It equips them tives; and performance writing that blurs the
with the tools to resist oppression, and it moves
edges between text, representation, and criticism.
them to struggle, to search for justice (Collins, Critical personal narratives are counternarra-
1998, pp. 198-199).
tives, testimonies, autoethnographies, performance
Introduction 11!1 13

texts, stories, and accounts that disrupt and dis- disciplines that will help indigenous and nonin-
turb discourse by exposing the complexities and digenous peoples recover meaning in the face of
ttinuing pressures of contradictions that exist under official history senseless, brutal violence, violence that produces
)nization, L. T. Smith (Mutua & Swadener, 2004, p.16). The critical per- voiceless screams of terror and insanity. Cynicism
es some 25 different sonal narrative is a central genre of contemporary and despair reign on a global scale. Never have we
ing those that create, decolonizing writing. As a creative analytic prac- had a greater need for a militant utopianism to
1, protect, remember, help us imagine a world free of conflict, oppres-
tice, it is used to criticize "prevailing structures
1istories and cultural and relationships of power and inequity in a rela- sion, terror, and death. We need oppositional per-
ts projects embody a tional context" (Mutua & Swadener, 2004, p. 16).9 formance disciplines that will show us how to
!dom. They turn the Counternarratives explore the "intersections of create radical utopian spaces within our public
1 and colonization institutions.
gender and voice, border crossing, dual conscious-
1. They are not purely The central tensions in the world today go
ness, multiple identities, and selfhood in
!te performances that a ... post -colonial and postmodern world" beyond the crises in capitalism and neoliberal-
ransformations. They (Mutua & Swadener, 2004, p.16). The testimonio is ism's version of democracy. The central crisis, as
e process of coloniza- another form of counternarrative. Its purpose, in defined by Native Canadian, Hawaiian, Maori,
ses that mobilize and part, is to raise political consciousness. In it, the and American Indian pedagogy, is spiritual,
the local level. They writer bears witness to social injustices experi- "rooted in the increasingly virulent relationship
practices and, in so between human beings and the rest of nature"
enced at the group level (Mutua &Swadener, 2004,
at heal the wounds of (Grande, 2000, p. 354). Linda Tuhiwai Smith
p. 18). It is always an indigenous project, for it pre-
s of cultural survival (1999) discusses the concept of spirituality
sumes that the subaltern can speak, and does, with
ltion addressed. within Maori discourse, giving added meaning to
power, conviction, and firsthand experience.
The testimonio has a central place in this pro- the crisis at hand:
ject. Rigoberta MenchU (1984, p. 1) begins her
\JARRATIVE testimonio with these words: "My name is The essence of a person has a genealogy which
TE Rigoberta MenchU, I am twenty-three years old, could be traced back to an earth parent. . . .
and this is my testimony:' Critics contended that A human person does not stand alone, but shares
erformance has been MenchU made up her story, that it was not truth- with other animate ... beings relationships
~ meaning of ethnog- ful and could not be verified through scientific based on a shared "essence" of life ... [including]
.YTiting. Richardson methodology (Cook-Lynn, 2001, p. 203). But as the significance of place, of land, of landscape, of
Cook-Lynn (2001) observes, respectfully remem- other things in the universe .... Concepts of spir-
arrative genres con-
ituality which Christianity attempted to destroy,
vriting have "been bering and honoring the past, not factual truth-
and then to appropriate, and then to claim, are
include poetry, [and] fulness, is how the testimonio should be read. critical sites of resistance for indigenous peoples.
,e term creative ana- Furthermore, MenchU was asking that the treaty The val~e, attitudes, concepts and language
Je these many differ- agreements of the past be respected, so that new embedded in beliefs about spirituality repre-
native forms. and harmonious relationships based on mutual sent ... the clearest contrast and mark of differ-
t only performance respect and cooperation could be built (Cook- ence between indigenous peoples and the West. It
::>rt stories; conversa- Lynn, 2001, p. 34). This ethical tenet and utopian is one of the few parts of ourselves which the West
:ives; creative nonfic- impulse have been ignored by MenchU's critics cannot decipher, cannot understand and cannot
.; personal essays; (Cook-Lynn, 2001, p. 35). The struggle of colo- control ... yet. (p. 74)
f; writing stories; self nized indigenous peoples to tell their own stories
texts; critical autobi- is at stake in these criticisms. A respectful performance pedagogy honors
tl histories; cultural these views of spirituality. It works to construct a
Jerformance narra- vision of the person, ecology, and environment
that blurs the mi. PERFORMANCE, PEDAGOGY, AND POLITICS that is compatible with these prif!ciples. This ped-
and criticism. agogy demands a politics of hope, of loving, of
are counternarra- Clearly, the current historical moment requires caring nonviolence grounded in inclusive moral
. performance morally informed performance and arts-based and spiritual terms.
14 Jill HANDBOOK OF CRITICAL AND INDIGENOUS METHODOLOGIES

Jm CULTURAL POLITICS AND AN claims. The Maori moral position also privileges
INDIGENOUS RESEARCH ETHIC storytelling, listening, voice, and personal per-
formance narratives (see also Collins, 1991 ,
There is much to be learned from indigenous pp. 208-212). This moral pedagogy rests on an
scholars about how radical democratic practices ethic of care and love and personal accountability
can be made to work. As indicated above, indige- that honors individual uniqueness and emotion-
nous scholars are committed to a set of moral and ality in dialogue (Collins, 1991, pp. 215-217). This
pedagogical imperatives and "to acts of reclaim- is a performative, pedagogical ethic, grounded in
ing, reformulating, and reconstituting indigenous the ritual, sacred spaces of family, community,
cultures and languages ... to the struggle to and everyday moral life (Bishop, 1998, p. 203). It is
become self-determining" (L. T. Smith, 1999, ·not imposed by some external, bureaucratic
p. 142). These acts lead to a research program agency. This view of knowing parallels the com-
devoted to the pursuit of social justice. In turn, a mitment within certain forms of Red pedagogy to
specific approach to inquiry is required. In his the performative as a way of being, as a way of
discussion of a Maori approach to creating knowl- knowing, as a way of expressing moral and spiri-
edge, Bishop (1998) observes that researchers in tual ties to the community (Grande, 2000, p. 356;
Kaupapa Maori contexts are Graveline, 2000, p. 361).

repositioned in such a way as to no longer need to Moral Codes and the


seek to give voice to others, to empower others, to
emancipate others, to refer to others as subjugated
Performative as a Site of Resistance
voices, but rather to listen and participate . . . in a Because it expresses and embodies moral
process that facilitates the development in people ties to the community, the performative view of
as a sense of themselves as agentic and of having an meaning serves to legitimate indigenous world-
authoritative voice .... An indigenous Kaupapa views. Meaning and resistance are embodied
Maori approach to research ... challenges colonial
in the act of performance itself. The performa-
and neo-colonial discourses that inscribe "other-
ness:' (Bishop, 1998, pp. 207-208) tive is where the soul of the culture resides. In
their sacred and secular performances, the
members of the culture honor one another and
This participatory mode of knowing privileges the culture itself.
sharing, subjectivity, personal knowledge, and the
A new set of moral and ethical research proto-
specialized knowledges of oppressed groups. It
cols is required. Fitted to the indigenous (and
uses concrete experience as a criterion for mean-
nonim!igenous) perspective, these are moral
ing and truth. It encourages a participatory mode
matters. They are shaped by the feminist, com-
of consciousness (Bishop, 1998, p. 205), asking
munitarian principles of sharing, reciprocity,
that the researcher give the group a gift as a way of
relationality, community, and neighborliness
honoring the group's sacred spaces. If the group
(Lincoln, 1995, p. 287). They embody a dialogic
picks up the gift, then a shared reciprocal rela-
ethic of love and faith grounded in compassion
tionship can be created (Bishop, 1998, p. 207). The
(Bracci & Christians, 2002, p. 13; West, 1993).
relationship that follows is built on understand-
Accordingly, the purpose of research is not the
ings involving shared Maori beliefs and cultural
practices. production of new knowledge per se. Rather, the
purposes are pedagogical, political, moral, and
In turn, research is evaluated by Maori-based
ethical, involving the enhancement of moral
criteria. Like Freire's revolutionary pedagogy,
agency, the production of moral discernment, a
West's (1993) prophetic pragmatism, and Collins's
commitment to praxis, justice, an ethic of resis-
(1991) Afrocentic feminist moral ethic, the Maori'
tance, and a performative pedagogy that resists
value dialogue as a method for assessing knowledge
oppression (Christians, 2002, p. 409) .
Introduction a 15

sition also privileges A code embodying these principles interrupts Indigenous ethical and moral models call into
, and personal per- the practice of positivist research, resists the idea question the more generic, utilitarian, biomedical,
also Collins, 1991, of research being something that White men do to Western model of ethical inquiry (see Bracci &
edagogy rests on an indigenous peoples. Furthermore, unlike in the Christians, 2002; Christians, 2000, 2002). They out-
rsonal accountability United States, where an institutional review board line a radical-ethical path for the future. They tran-
1eness and emotion- (IRB) model of inquiry is used that is not content scend IRB principles that focus almost exclusively
'1, pp. 215-217). This driven, indigenous codes are anchored in a cul- on the problems associated with betrayal, decep-
al ethic, grounded in ture and its way of life. Unlike the IRB mode, it tion, and harm. They call for a collaborative social
· family, community, connects its moral model to a set of political and science research model that makes the researcher
LOp, 1998, p. 203). It is ethical actions that will increase well-being in responsible, not to a removed discipline (or insti-
ternal, bureaucratic indigenous culture. The code refuses to defme tutiori) but rather to those studied. This model
1g parallels the com- indigenous peoples as subjects who have been stresses personal accountability, caring, the value of
.s of Red pedagogy to turned into the natural objects of White inquiry. individual expressiveness, the capacity for empathy,
1f being, as a way of Indigenous codes reject the Western utilitarian and the sharing of emotionality (Collins, 1991,
;ing moral and spiri- model of the individual as someone who has p. 216). This model implements collaborative, partic-
Grande, 2000, p. 356; rights distinct from the rights of the larger group, ipatory performative inquiry. It forcefully aligns the
"for example the right of an individual to give ethics of research with a politics of the oppressed,
his or her own knowledge, or the right to give with a politics of resistance, hope, and freedom.
informed consent ... community and indige- This model directs scholars to take up moral
nous rights or views in this area are generally projects that respect and reclaim indigenous cul-
.esistance
not . . . respected" (L. T. Smith, 1999, p. 118). tural practices. Such work produces spiritual,
1d embodies moral Individual Maori do not have these rights. social, and psychological healing. Healing, in
Jerformative view of Research ethics for Maori and other indige- turn, leads to multiple forms of transformation at
:e indigenous world- nous communities "extend far beyond issues the personal and social levels. These transforma-
ance are embodied of individual consent and confidentiality" tions shape processes of mobilization and collec-
tself. The performa- (L. T. Smith, 2000, p. 241). These ethics are not tive action. These actions help persons realize a
e culture resides. In "prescribed in codes of conduct for researchers radical performative politics of possibility. This
performances, the but tend to be prescribed for Maori researchers in politics enacts emancipatory discourses and crit-
1or one another and cultural terms" (L. T. Smith, 2000, p. 242). These ical pedagogies that honor human difference and
terms ask that researchers show respect for the draw for inspiration on the struggles of indige-
thical research proto- Maori by exhibiting a willingness to listen, to be nous persons. In listening to the stories of indige-
the indigenous (and humble, to be cautious, to increase knowledge, to nous storytellers, we learn new ways of being
re, these are moral not "trample over the mana of people" (L. T. Smith, moral and ~olitical in the social world. We come
y .the feminist, com- 2000, p. 242). together in a shared agenda, with a shared imagi-
sharing, reciprocity, nation and a new language, struggling together to
and neighborliness find liberating ways of interpreting and perform-
:y embody a dialogic Jm CONCLUSION: TURNING
ing in the world (L. T. Smith, 1999, p. 37). In this
THE TABLES ON THE COLONIZERS way, does research cease to be a dirty word?

Here at the end, it is possible to imagine scenarios


that turn the tables on the neocolonizer. It is
possible to imagine, for example, human subject
Jm NOTES
research practices that really do respect human
1. The list of names is long. It is nearly impossible
rights, protocols of informed consent that inform
to be complete. In addition to the indigenous authors
and do not deceive,,research projects that do not in this handbook, see Bishop (2005, p.ll1), L. T. Smith
harm, and projects that in fact benefit human (2005, pp. 103-107), Ladson-Billings and Donnor
communities. (Chapter 4, this volume), and Battiste (2000a, 200b).
16 !ill HANDBOOK OF CRITICAL AND INDIGENOUS METHODOLOGIES

2. For a concise overview of the Campbell and imposed by one culture or nation on another; it must
Cochrane models, see Mosteller and Boruch (2002). come from within the culture itself.
3. Jameson (1991, pp. 3-4) reminds us that any 7. At another level, indigenous participatory the-
periodization hypothesis is always suspect, even those ater extends the project connected to Third World pop-
that reject linear, stage-like models. It is never clear ular th~ater. This is political "theatre used by oppressed
what reality a stage refers to. What divides one stage Third World people to achieve justice and develop-
from another is always debatable. Our eight moments ment for themselves" (Etherton, 1988, p. 991). The
are meant to mark discernible shifts in style, genre, International Popular Theatre Alliance, organized in
epistemology, ethics, politics, and aesthetics. the 1980s, uses existing forms of cultural expression to
4. See Denzin and Lincoln (2005, pp. 2-3, 13-20, fashion improvised dramatic productions that analyze
for an extended discussion of these moments). This situations of poverty and oppression. This grassroots
model has been termed a "progress narrative" by . approach uses agit-prop and sloganizing theater
Alasuutari (2004, pp. 599-600) and Seale, Gobo, (theater pieces devised to foment political action) to
Gubrium, and Silverman (2004, p. 2). The critics assert create collective awareness and collective action at the
that we believe that the most recent moment is the local level. This form of theater has been popular in Latin
most up-to-date, the avant-garde, the cutting edge America, Africa, parts of Asia, India, and among Native
(Alasuutari, 2004, p. 601). Naturally, we dispute this populations in the Americas (Etherton, 1988, p. 992).
reading. Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003, pp. 5-8) have 8. Other projects involve a focus on testimonies,
modified our historical periods to fit their historical new forms of storytelling, returning to, as well as
analysis of the major moments in the emergence of reframing and regendering, key cultural debates.
mixed methods in the past century. 9. Cast in this form, the critical personal narrative
5. This theater often uses verbatim accounts of counters the criticisms that it is inherently conserva-
injustice and violence in daily life. See Mienczakowski tive because it romanticizes marginality, ignores
(1995, p. 5; see also Chessman, 1971) for a history of issues of political economy, and engages in simplistic,
"verbatim theater" and Mienczakowski's extensions of chauvinistic essentialisms (see Darder & Torres, 2004,
this approach, using oral history, participant observa- pp. 103-104).
tion, and the methods of ethnodrama. A contemporary
use of verbatim theater is the play Guantanamo: Honor
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