Physics Notes 2 Kelly Black

Calculus Class Notes for the Combined Calculus and
Physics Course
Semester II
Kelly Black∗
December 14, 2001
∗
Support provided by the National Science Foundation - NSF-DUE-9752485
1
Section 0 2
Contents
1 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Complex Numbers and Euler’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3 Roots and Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4 Taylor Series Solutions to Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5 Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6 Introduction to Sequences and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7 Geometric Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8 The Integral Test and u-Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
9 Comparison Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10 More u-Substitution and Change of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
11 Integration Techniques: Trigonometric Substition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
12 Gauss’ Law and Calculating Fluxes Through Areas of Revolution . . . . 57
13 Flux Through a Plane and Electric Fields Due to Distributed Charges . . 65
14 Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
15 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
16 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
17 The Root and Ratio Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
18 Power Series and Alternating Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
19 Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
20 Systems of Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
21 Polar Cooridinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
22 Equations in Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
23 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
24 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
25 L’Hôpital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
26 L’Hôpital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
In Search of Newton Calculus and Physics

Section 1 3
1 Complex Numbers
An introduction to complex numbers is given. It is assumed that students have not

yet seen anything on complex numbers. The basic definitions and basic operations are
demonstrated on this day. The important thing is to introduce the idea of a new number
system, stress basic operations, and demonstrate different ways to represent these new
numbers.
1.1 Mini-Lecture I The basic operations are defined such as addition and multi-
plication. Ways to represent complex numbers as vectors are also given.
Begin Class Notes
2
Ex: What are the roots of f (t) = t − 1? t = 1, and t = −1.
Ex: What are the roots of g(t) = t2 + 1? t2 = −1 bad news!
√
Definition: Let j = −1. (This is an “imaginary num-
ber.”) Most books use an i rather than a j, but we will use
j here because i is used to denote “current” when we work
with electricity and magnetism. (Otherwise it would get very
confusing.)
Any “complex” number is a combination of “real” numbers and

“imaginary” numbers. A complex number is any number that
can be written as a sum of a real number and an imaginary
number: 3 + 2j, or 4 − 6j.
Complex numbers are added by adding their real and complex

parts:
(3 + 2j) + (4 − 6j) = 7 − 4j

Section 1 4
Note: The rules of multiplication are consistent with every-

thing we have always done:
(3 + 2j) (4 − 6j) = 12 + 8j − 18j − 12j 2,
= 12 + 8j − 18j + 12,
= 24 − 10j.
Notation: If a number, z, is a complex number we write

z ∈ C.
Graphical Views: We can treat the real part as the x-

component of a vector and the imaginary part as the y-component
of a vector. For example for 3 + 2j, the real part is 3 and the
imaginary part is 2. This can be treated like a vector whose x-
component is 3 and whose y-component is 2.
Any complex number can be written as x + jy.

End Class Notes
1.2 Mini-Lecture II A new number system has been defined. Basic operations are
examined again as well as a couple of basic operations.
Begin Class Notes
Again, the basic operations are defined, and we have to im-
plement them in a way that is consistent with what we have
already done:
(x + jy) (x − jy) = x2 + xyj − xyj − y 2j 2
Section 1 5
= x2 + y 2 .
If a complex number is expressed as z = x + jy then we
can also think of it as a vector with components x and y. The
√
length of such a vector is x2 + y 2. The method above can be
used to find the length of the vector associated with a complex
number.
Definition: The complex conjugate of a complex number, z̄,

is defined by
z = x + jy,
z̄ = x − jy.
From this definition, the product z z̄ is always a real number.

With this in mind we can make sense out of division:
z1 z1z¯2
= .
z2 z2z¯2
Example:
1 + 4j (1 + 4j) (1 + j)
= ,
1−j (1 − j) (1 + j)
−3 + 5j
= ,
2
3 5
= − + j
2 2
Note: Any complex number can be expressed as z = x + jy.

Then z z̄ is equal to x2 + y 2. Find all of the complex numbers that
Section 1 6
satisfy z z̄ = 4. If z = x + jy then this is the set of numbers that

satisfy x2 + y 2 = 4 which is a circle of radius two centered at the
origin.
End Class Notes
1.3 Mini-Lecture III Briefly discuss some of the work done in the previous activity
and provide an overview of the class. Also, give a taste of what will happen during the
next class meeting.
Begin Class Notes
The set of points that satisfy
(z − j) (z − j) = 4
is a circle of radius 2 centered at the point j. This provides us
with a convenient way to express a circle of radius R at any
point, z1,
(z − z1) (z − z1) = R2.
Note that if I take all of the points satisfying
(z) (z) < R2,
then z1 + z is the set of points inside the circle of radius R
centered at z1.
All of the vector operations that we have worked with in the pre-
vious semesters still hold. Because I can add components (real
Section 1 7
and imaginary) it is the same as adding x and y-components

with regular vectors.
Example:
(3 + 2j) + (−7 + 4j) = −4 + 6j.
Graphically, this is just like adding the two vectors “head to
tail.”
We can also multiply complex numbers:

(3 + 2j) · (−7 + 4j) = −29 − 2j.
Finally, we can also perform almost all of the operations based

on these basic operations:
√ √ 2
2 2 

 + j  = j,
2 2
√ √ 3 √ √
2 2 2 2

 + j = − + j,
2 2 2 2
√ √ 4
2 2 

 + j  = −1,
2 2
√ √ 5 √ √
2 2  2 2

 + j = − − j,
2 2 2 2
√ √ 6
2 2 

 + j  = −j,
2 2
√ √ 7 √ √
2 2 2 2

 + j = − j,
2 2 2 2
Section 2 8
 √ √ 8
2 2 

 + j  = 1.
2 2
Note that when these vectors are plotted out they all have an
angle of π4 between them. They also all have the same
√
length,
√
1. This result also implies that the 8 root of 1 is 2 + 22 j!
th 2
During the next meeting we will examine how to express a com-

plex number in terms of its distance and angle and will see what
this implies about finding roots.
End Class Notes

Section 2 9
2 Complex Numbers and Euler’s Formula
The representation of complex numbers as vectors is examined, and complex numbers

are represented in terms of length and angle. The main result of this day is Euler’s
Formula, and the student’s should struggle with the Taylor series during the first activity.
The majority of students will not be able to make the connection, though.
2.1 Mini-Lecture I Complex numbers are expressed in terms of their size and
angles. An example of this is given, and an example of finding the Taylor series is given.
Begin Class Notes
Given a complex number we can express it as a vector. For
example the complex number
−1 + j
can be drawn as a vector whose x-component is -1 and whose
y-component is 1.
In polar form, the length of this vector is

r √
(−1)2 + (1)2 = 2.
The angle is found using the inverse tangent function Be careful of
what
1
tan (θ) = , quadrant
−1 you are in.
3π
θ = .
4
So
√ 
3π
 
3π
 
−1 + j = 2 cos   + j sin   .
4 4
Note: The Taylor polynomial for a function, f (t), around t =

0 is
0 f 00(0) 2 f 000(0) 3 f IV (0) 4 f (n)(0) n
f (t) ≈ f (0) + f (0)t + t + t + t + ··· + t
2! 3! 4! n!
Section 2 10
What is
dn t
e?
dtn
What is the nth derivative of et evaluated at t = 0?
End Class Notes
2.2 Mini-Lecture II Euler’s Formula is derived.

Begin Class Notes
We will need the following Taylor Series:
1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8
et = 1 + t +t + t + t + t + t + t + t + ···
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8!
1 1 1
sin(t) = t − t3 + t5 − t7 + · · ·
3! 5! 7!
1 1 1 1
cos(t) = 1 − t2 + t4 − t6 + t8 + · · ·
2! 4! 6! 8!
Then let t = jθ,

1 1 1 1 1 1
ejθ = 1 + jθ + (jθ)2 + (jθ)3 + (jθ)4 + (jθ)5 + (jθ)6 + (jθ)7
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1 + jθ − θ2 − j θ3 + θ4 + j θ5 − θ6 − j θ7 + θ8 + · · ·
2! 3! 4! 5!  6! 7! 8!
1 1 1 1

= 1 − θ2 + θ4 − θ6 + θ8 + . . .
2! 4! 6! 8!
1 1 1
 
+j θ − θ3 + θ5 − θ7 + · · ·
3! 5! 7!
= cos(θ) + j sin(θ).
Euler’s Formula:
ejθ = cos(θ) + j sin(θ).

Section 2 11
Since any complex number can be written as

r cos(θ) + jr sin(θ) = r (cos(θ) + j sin(θ)) ,
= rejθ .
Any complex number can be represented using Euler’s Formula!
Note: Multiplying complex numbers:

jθ1 jθ2
r1 e r2 e = r1r2ej(θ1+θ2).
End Class Notes
2.3 Mini-Lecture III Give examples of how Euler’s Formula makes it easier to
multiply numbers as well as to find roots.
Begin Class Notes
Example:
√ 50
j5π/6 50

− 3+j = 2e ,
= 250ej(5π/6)50,
= 250ej125π/6,
= 250ej20π+j5π/6,
= 250ej5π/6.
You should get rid of that factor of 2π!
In terms of roots you have to do the operations in opposite

order:
√ 1 1
2 j5π/6 2
− 3+j = 2e ,
√ j5π/12
= 2e .
Section 2 12
However, there are always two roots for one number (ex:
(2)2 = (−2)2 = 4.).
Another way to write the number is to spin around the complex

plane a full revolution:
√ 1 1
2 j5π/6+j2π 2
− 3+j = 2e ,
√ j5π/12+jπ
= 2e .
√ j17π/12
= 2e .
This new complex number is a half a revolution away from
the first root that we found.
Example: If you want to find the roots of 1, you have to be

able to express it in a number of different ways
1 = ej0
= ej2π
= ej4π
= ej6π
= ej8π
...

Section 2 13
Find the three cube roots of 1.

End Class Notes

Section 3 14
3 Roots and Complex Numbers
A brief introduction to finding complex valued roots has been given. This is briefly
expanded upon and an example of how root finding is used to solve problems is given.
3.1 Mini-Lecture I A very brief overview of root finding is given. The first activity
should be relatively straight-forward and should not take a long time. Most of the time
in class should be taken in working on the second activity. This first activity is used to
repeat some of the material seen in the previous session.
Begin Class Notes
A point in the complex plain can be expressed in terms of its
distance from the origin and its angle,
r cos(θ) + jr sin(θ) = rejθ .
Problem: There is not a unique way to express the angle:

rejθ = rejθ+j2π = rej(θ+2π).
You can spin around once, twice, three times and more!
No Problem: This is actually an advantage! We can use this

idea to find roots:
1
(1) 4 = ?
Find a z that satisfies
z 4 = 1,
jθ 4

re = 1,
r4ej4θ = ej0, ej2π , ej4π , ej6π .
Now, how do I find the roots?
End Class Notes
3.2 Mini-Lecture II The basic ideas of root finding have been examined. At this
point we are going to examine linear, constant coeficient differential equations to motivate

Section 3 15
why we are interested in finding roots. Here a broad overview of how to identify a constant
coeficient differential equation is given as well as the general idea on how to find solutions.
Begin Class Notes
A differential equation is an equation in which the derivatives
of some unknown function are included in the equation. An
example is
ẍ(t) + 5ẋ(t) + 3x(t) = 0.
Since there are two derivatives of the function, this is called a
“second order differential equation.” Also, since the equation
consists of multiplying the derivatives by constants and adding
them up this is also called a “constant coeficient differential
equation.”
Other examples are

−5ẍ(t) − 1492ẋ(t) + 14x(t) = 0,
107ẍ(t) + π ẋ(t) − 1776x(t) = 0.
The goal is to find the function, x(t), that satisfies an equation.

To do this we make a simple assumption about the solution.
Since we are adding up a function and its derivatives we as-
sume that the solution is a simple exponential,
x(t) = remt.
This works out because derivatives of exponentials are expo-
nentials and we can hope that things will work out. So we
let
x(t) = remt,
Section 3 16
and plug this result into the equation. We then do the algebra to
find values of r and m that work.
End Class Notes
3.3 Mini-Lecture III The differential equation in the second activity is examined,
and the role of initial conditions is discussed.
Begin Class Notes
In the activity we had
ẍ(t) − 3ẋ(t) + 3x(t) = 0.
We let x(t) = remt:
ẋ(t) = mremt,
ẍ(t) = m2remt.
After substituting this back into the equation we get

m2remt − 3mremt + 3remt = 0,

mt 2
re m − 3m + 3 = 0,
3 1√
m = ± j 3.
2 2
There are two roots!
Let
x(t) = r1em1t + r2em2t,
√
3 +j 1 3 t
√
3 −j 1 3 t
= r1e 2  2  + r2e 2 2 ) ,
( ) (
3t 1 √ 1 √ 
= r1e 2 cos  3t + j sin  3t
2 2 
3t

1 √ 
1 √ 
+r2e 2 cos − 3t + j sin − 3t ,
2 2

Section 4 17
1√ 1√
    
3t
= r1e cos  3t + j sin  3t +
2 
2 2
3t
 
1 √  
1 √ 
r2e 2 cos  3t − j sin  3t ,
2 2
We do not have enough information to find the values of r1 and
r2. We need to be given additional information. For example,
we often know initial conditions
x(0) = 0,
ẋ(0) = 1.
From these equations we can find two equations with two un-
kowns (r1 and r2).
Important Aspect: Being able to find the solution to a full

problem isn’t the important thing just yet. (Although it will
be in the future.) For now, the important thing is how to
interpret the√roots from the equation. The roots in this case
were 32 ± j 12 3. Note that the real part, 32 , translated into
an exponential term. In√ this case we get exponential growth.
The imaginary part, 21 3, translated into the wave numbers
for trigonometric terms.
If the real part is negative we get exponential decay, and if the

real part is positive we get exponential growth. If the imaginary
term is large we get high frequencies, and if the imaginary term is
small we get low frequencies.
End Class Notes

Section 4 18
4 Taylor Series Solutions to Differential Equations
Another way to find the solution to differential equations is examined. In this case
we will find the Taylor Series solutions to differential equations. The first differential
equation examined is the equation ẍ(t) = −m2 x(t) which is the equation for simple
harmonic motion that will be examined in the physics course.
A solution for this is found by finding the Taylor expansion. The second half of the
day is then focused on trying to evaluate the Taylor Series at specific points in time.
The final activity of the day leads the students into the trap of trying to evaluate the
Harmonic Series.
4.1 Mini-Lecture I An overview of how differential equations are derived is given
with the derivation of the equation for simple harmonic motion. A brief description of
Taylor Series is given.
Begin Class Notes
Differential equations are important because they are usually
the result of applying some fundamental law that relates the
rates that things change. For example, a mass is connected to
a horizontal spring:
We will assume that there is no friction. Applying Newton’s

Second Law we get
F~ = m~a.
In this case the force acting on the mass is due to the spring.
If x(t) is the distance from the equilibrium position for the
spring then
F~ = −kx(t).

Section 4 19
So Newton’s Second Law for this case is

−kx(t) = m~a, or
mẍ(t) = −kx(t),
k
ẍ(t) = − x(t).
m
It turns out we need some additional information to solve this
equation. Usually this information comes in the form of the
intial position and initial velocity. (How should the solution
of this behave?)
In the first activity we will try to find the solution to this equa-
tion. The way that we will try to find the solution is through
finding the Taylor Series associated with the solution to the
differential equation.
The Taylor Series for x(t) around t0 = 0 is

ẍ(0) 2 x(3)(0) 3 x(4)(0) 4 x(5)(0) 5
x(0) + ẋ(0)t + t ++ t + t + t + ···
2! 3! 4! 4!
To find the values of the derivatives we will make use of the

differential equation. For example, in the pre-class work we
had
ẋ(t) = x(t) + 1,
x(0) = 1.
Then
ẋ(0) = 1 + 1,
Section 4 20
and
ẍ(t) = dtd ẋ(t) = d
dt (x(t) + 1) = ẋ(t),
= x(t) + 1.
ẍ(t)(0) = 2.
Also,
x(3)(t) = dtd ẍ(t) = d
dt (x(t) + 1) = ẋ(t),
= x(t) + 1.
(3)
x (0) = 2.
These terms give us the first four terms of the Taylor Series.
End Class Notes
4.2 Mini-Lecture II A quick overview of the previous activity is given.

Begin Class Notes
In the activity we found the following:
First find the second derivative at t = 0:

ẍ(0) = −m2x(0) = −m2.
Next find the third derivative and evaluate it at t = 0:

d3
= dtd −m2x(t) = −m2ẋ(t),

dt3
x(t)
d3
dt3
x(0) = −m20 = 0.
Next find the fourth derivative and evaluate it at t = 0:

d4 d
−m ẋ(t) = −m ẍ(t) = −m −m x(t) = m4x(t),
2 2 2 2

dt4
x(t) = dt
d 4
dt4
x(0) = m4 1 = m4 .
Section 4 21
Next find the fifth derivative and evaluate it at t = 0:

d5
= dtd m4x(t) = m4ẋ(t)

dt5
x(t)
d 5
dt5
x(0) = m4 0 = 0.
Next find the sixth derivative and evaluate it at t = 0:

d6
= dtd m4ẋ(t) = m4ẍ(t) = m4 −m2x(t) = −m6x(t),

dt6
x(t)
d 6
dt6
x(0) = −m61 = −m6.
The Taylor polynomial is

t2 (3) t3 (4) t4 (5) t5 (6) t6
x(0) + ẋ(0)t + ẍ(0) + x (0) + x (0) + x (0) + x (0) + · · · =
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2t t 4t t 6t t 8t
1 + 0 · t − m + 0 · + m + 0 · + m + 0 · + m − ···,
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8!
2 4 6 8
(mt) (mt) (mt) (mt)
= 1− + − + − ···,
2! 4! 6! 8!
= cos (mt) .
The result is a cosine function! Does this make sense? What

should happen to the spring mass system if we ignore fric-
tion?r
What is the frequency from the spring mass system?
1
( 2π k/m). Note that we would get something different for
different initial conditions. (The solution is not always simply
a cosine.)
Section 4 22
We will now look at one more of these equations and try to

evaluate the resulting series.
End Class Notes
4.3 Mini-Lecture III The Taylor Series is examined, and we take a brief look at
the Harmonic series.
Begin Class Notes
The Taylor Series should look like
t2 (3) t3 (4) t4 (5) t5 (6) t6
y(0) + ẏ(0)t + ÿ(0) + y (0) + y (0) + y (0) + y (0) +
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
1 2! 3! 4!
= 0 − t − t2 − t3 − t4 − t5 − · · · ,
2! 3! 4! 5!
1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
= 0 − t − t − t − t − t − ···
2 3 4 5
When we evaluate this at t = 1 we get

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
−1 − 12 − 13 − 14 − 15 − · · · = −1 − − − − − · · ·
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
What number do we get? Notice something:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ + + + + + + + ··· =
2 3  4 5 6 7 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1+ + + + + + + +
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 
 + + + + + + +  + ···
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Notice that each thing in parenthesis is bigger that 21 ! You
can make an infinite number of these groupings, and each
group adds up to be bigger than 21 . If you add up 12 an infinite
number of times what do you get?

Section 4 23
Does every infinite sum give you an infinite number? What

about Zeno’s paradox? Suppose that a turtle is 1 metre from
a wall and is moving toward the wall in increments. At each
increment he covers half the distance that he did in the previ-
ous increment. He starts out in the first increment by traveling
half a metre. What is the total distance?
1 1 1 1
+ + + + ···
2 4 8 16
Does this add to a finite number? Can it add to a number
bigger than one?
Lesson: We have to be careful in dealing with these sums. We

will be spending a great deal of effort over the semester trying
to figure out how to handle these sums. We will need a general
way to approach this type of program including all kinds of
definitions in order to categorize the results that we will find.
Series A sum of an infinite number of numbers.

Sequence An ordered list of numbers.
Partial Sum The finite sum of the first numbers in a sequence.
The number of things to sum must be specified.
We will explore these definitions next time.

End Class Notes

Section 5 24
5 Fourier Series
The majority of the day is spent examining Fourier Series. The combined session on
Fourier Series should have already taken place. This day is spent on how to find analytic
solutions for the coefficients from Fourier Series rather than approximating them using
a Riemann sum.
While it may appear to the students that the day is spent looking at Fourier Series,
the primary calculus goal is to learn how to integrate trigonometric functions. In partic-
ular we examine how to integrate functions that consists of two sine or cosine functions
multiplied together.
To accomplish this the first activity focuses on some basic trigonometric identities
as well as basic properties of integrals of linear combinations. The second activity then
focuses on the integrals as well as the orthogonality of sine and cosine functions.
5.1 Mini-Lecture I In this activity the basic trigonometric identities are explored,
and the students see how they can be used to expand products of sines and cosines into
forms that can be integrated. Also, the integral of finite sums is examined with the idea
of demonstrating that the integral of a sum is the sum of the integrals.
Begin Class Notes
Basic Trigonometric Identities:
ejα = cos(α) + j sin(α),
ejβ = cos(β) + j sin(β),
⇒ ejα ejβ = (cos(α) + j sin(α)) (cos(β) + j sin(β)) .
ej(α+β) = (cos(α) cos(β) − sin(α) sin(β))
+j (sin(α) cos(β) + cos(α) sin(β)) .
Isolating the real and complex parts we have that

cos (α + β) = cos(α) cos(β) − sin(α) sin(β),
sin (α + β) = sin(α) cos(β) + cos(α) sin(β).
Note that this implies that

cos (α − β) = cos(α) cos(β) + sin(α) sin(β),
sin (α − β) = sin(α) cos(β) − cos(α) sin(β).

Section 5 25
By adding the first set of equations we get that

cos (α + β) + cos (α − β) = 2 cos(α) cos(β).
So what? Example:
Z 2π
0
cos(3t) cos(5t) dt = ?
Plan of attack: Use the identities to expand cos(3t) cos(5t) into a
sum of cosine functions and then integrate the result. So we will
first simplify the integrand and then do the integral.
End Class Notes
5.2 Mini-Lecture II We will now focus on the integrals now that we can simplify the
integrands. This is a relatively short mini-lecture in which the basic idea is demonstrated.
The students will look at specific examples in the activity. Most of the students will
probaly not finish the activity and will have a difficult time trying to see how the sums
simplify. This will be discussed in the final mini-lecture which will focus on Fourier Series.
Begin Class Notes
Integration: We know that
1 1
cos(3t) cos(5t) =
cos(8t) + cos(2t).
2 2
This means that when integrating we can first simplify the
integrand and then find two integrals:
Z 2π 1
Z 2π 1
0
cos(3t) cos(5t) dt = 0 2
cos(8t) + cos(2t) dt,
2
1 2π 1 2π
= sin(8t)0 + sin(2t)0 ,

16 4
= 0.
In general:
Z b 1Zb
a
cos(αt) cos(βt) dt = cos((α + β)t) + cos((α − β)t) dt,
2 a
Section 5 26
Z b 1Zb
a
cos(αt) sin(βt) dt = sin((α + β)t) + sin((α − β)t) dt,
2 a
Z b 1Zb
a
sin(αt) sin(βt) dt = cos((α − β)t) − cos((α + β)t) dt,
2 a
Reminder:
Z b 1 b
cos(mt) dt = sin(mt) ,

a m

a
Z b −1 b
sin(mt) dt = cos(mt) .

a m

a
What do you do if m = 0?
End Class Notes
5.3 Mini-Lecture III Most of the students should have a difficult time using
integrals to isolate the Fourier coefficients. The main focus of the final mini-lecture is to
go over this aspect of the day’s activities.
Begin Class Notes
There are times when we have a signal,
and we want to try to express the function as a linear combi-

nation of sines and cosines:
V (t) = a0 + a1 cos(t) + a2 cos(2t) + a3 cos(3t) + . . .
b1 sin(t) + b2 sin(2t) + b3 sin(3t) + . . .

Section 6 27
Question: Given V (t) how can I find the an’s and the bn’s?
Well:
1 Z 2π  X
N a0 Z 2π
 
a n cos(nt)  cos(mt) dt = cos(mt) dt +

π 0 n=1 π 0
a1 Z 2π
cos(t) cos(mt) dt +
π Z0
a2 2π
cos(2t) cos(mt) dt + . . . +
π Z0
aN 2π
cos(N t) cos(mt) dt.
π 0
Every integral will be zero except when n = m! When n = m
the integral is equal to π leaving only am.
1 Z 2π
am = f (t) cos(mt) dt,
π 0
1 Z 2π
bm = f (t) sin(mt) dt.
π 0
Note: There is one problem with this. What happens when

m = 0?
The important thing here is that we can isolate the coefficients

using integrals.
End Class Notes

Section 6 28
6 Introduction to Sequences and Series
There have been a number of exercises in which we have found Fourier Series and
Taylor Series. We will now ask what happens when we try to evaluate a series at a single
point in time. In this day’s activities we will introduce the basic idea and provide some
of the basic definitions. The primary goal for this day is to motivate the activites for the
rest of the semester.
The activities for this day are relatively straight forward and should not take a great
deal of time. The mini-lectures for this day are longer than usual and include many
definitions and basic concepts.
6.1 Mini-Lecture I A Fourier Series is given and is evaluated at a point. The basic
definitions of a sequence, series, and partial sums is given.
Begin Class Notes
We’ve seen Fourier Series and Taylor Series. What happens
when we try to evaluate a series at a single point in its domain?
Example:
1 1 1 1
f (t) = sin(t) − sin(2t) − sin(3t) + sin(4t) + sin(5t)
2 3 4 5
1 1 1
− sin(6t) − sin(7t) + sin(8t) + · · ·
6 7 8
π !
1 1 1
⇒f = 1 + 0 + + 0 + + 0 + + ...
2 3 5 7
1 1 1
= 1 + + + + ...
3 5 7
What does this equal?
This is an infinite sum so we cannot just add them up. We have

to look at the partial sums:
S1 = 1
1
S2 = 1 +
3
1 1
S3 = 1 + +
3 5
Section 6 29
1 1 1
S4 = 1 + + +
3 5 7
1 1 1 1
S5 = 1 + + + +
3 5 7 9
1 1 1 1 1
S6 = 1 + + + + +
3 5 7 9 11
This generates a sequence of numbers. We can then try to

make sense out of what happens to this sequence.
Definition: A sequence is an ordered list of numbers.
Example:
1 n∞ 1 1 1
  

 = 1, , , , ...

2 n=0 2 4 8
If the numbers in a sequence get arbitrarily close to a particular

number we say that the sequence converges. However, we must
be very precise in the way that we say this. For example:
1 1 1 1
1, , 1, , 1, , 1, , ...
2 4 8 16
In this sequence the even numbers approach zero, but the odd
numbers are all one.
For a sequence to converge, all of the numbers at some point

must be close to a number.
End Class Notes
6.2 Mini-Lecture II The focus for the second mini-lecture is the mathematical
language used to describe convergence of a sequence.

Section 6 30
Begin Class Notes

To specify that after some point all of the numbers converge
we have to show that we can find a number after which all
of the numbers that follow in the sequence are “close” to some
number.
1 3 7 15 31
Example:
n
Do the numbers in the sequence 2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , 32 , . . .,
1 − 12 , . . . converge? The first step is to decide what you
think the numbers converge to! If we graph these out it looks
like they get close to one. The next step is to show that our
hunch is indeed correct.
1. Choose any > 0. (This can be a number very close to zero

but must be positive.)
2. Can I find a number, N , so that every number in the se-
quence after the N th number is within of one? Is
n
1
   

1− − 1 <

   
2

for every n > N ?
Well...
1 n
 n
1
   

1− − 1 = ,

   
2 2

 n
1
=   .
2

Section 6 31
If
n
1
 
  < ,
2
then I am done.
1
 
n ln   < ln () ,
2
ln ()
n >
ln 12
1
ln 1000
n
1 1
If = 1000 then for every n > ln 12
the number 1 − 2 is
1
within 1000 of one.
We will see later that bizarre things can happen, and we must
be very precise now. This will be very frustrating, but a lot of very
good mathematicians have made significant mistakes because they
were not careful when dealing with series. This will be a difficult
topic, and we will be very careful.
Remember: Our goal is to evaluate series and see what hap-

pens at a specific point.
What do sequences have to do with this? Given a series,

a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + · · ·
define the N th partial sum to be
SN = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + · · · + aN .
Section 6 32
Example:
1 1 1 1
1+ + + + + ···
2 4 8 16
then
S1 = 1,
1
S2 = 1 +
2
1 1
S3 = 1 + +
2 4
1 1 1
S4 = 1 + + +
2 4 8
1 1 1 1
S5 = 1 + + + +
2 4 8 16
...
Definition: A series converges if its sequence of partial sums

converge.
End Class Notes
6.3 Mini-Lecture III A broad overview of series is given here. The goal is to provide
an overview of what the students can expect to see over the course of the semester. There
are many difficult aspects to series, and this mini-lecture is designed to provide a glimpse
of what the students will see over the course of the semester.
Begin Class Notes
Does the series
1 ∞
X
n=1 n
converge? No! (Harmonic Series)
Does the series

∞
X 1
2
n=1 n

Section 6 33
converge? Maybe? How can we tell?
Does the series

∞
X1
3
n=1 n
converge? Maybe? How can we tell?
Question: How do we show that the series converge when the

partial sums can be so messy?
We will keep coming back to this question throughout the semester.

We will develop a number of tests that we can use to deter-
mine if a given series converges. All of the tests are based on
the idea that the sequence of partial sums must converge if
the series converges.
Definition: A positive series is a series in which all of the

numbers added are positive. (Most of the examples we have
seen have been positive series.)
Examples of some of the tests for positive series:
1. Show directly that the partial sums converge. (This only

works in a few “nice” examples.)
2. Integral test. (Treat the series like a Riemann sum.) Note that
these two
3. Comparison Test. Compare a series to a series we know a lot tests require
that we have
In Search of Newton Calculus and Physics a “library”
of series
that we
know and
Section 6 34
about.
4. Limit Comparison Test. (Compare individual terms between
a series and a series we know a lot about.)
an+1
5. Ratio Test. (Examine an .)
1
6. Root Test. (Examine (an) .) n
By the end of the semester we will need to know all of these

tests. The hardest part will be recognizing when to use which test
for a given series.
Example: We have already used the comparison test.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Harmonic Series = 1 + + + + + + + + ···
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Let’s compare this to the following series:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ + + + + + +
2 4 4 8 8 8 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + + + + +
16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
1 1
+ + ··· + ···
32 32
What conclusion can we draw?

End Class Notes

Section 7 35
7 Geometric Series
This is the first session completely devoted to series. Here we will examine geometric
series as well as continue to develop the general methodology in examining series. In
particular, this is the first time the sigma notation is really used. By the end of this
session the geometric series is examined in a general form, and the requirements for
convergence are examined.
7.1 Mini-Lecture I The main focus here is to just examine the notation and
reiterate how partial sums are used to decide if a series converges or diverges.
Begin Class Notes
A series is a sum of numbers:
∞
a0 + a1 + a2 + a3 + · · ·
X
n=0
Special Case: Geometric series -

1 + r + r2 + r3 + r4 + r5 + · · ·
Example:
1 1 1 1
1+ + + + + ···
2 4 8 16
What is this equal to? (Remember Zeno’s Paradox?)
The way that we deal with this is to look at the partial sums:
1
S1 = 1 + ,
2
1 1
S2 = 1 + + ,
2 4
1 1 1
S3 = 1 + + + ,
2 4 8
...

Section 7 36
1 1 1 1 N
 
SN = 1 + + + + ··· +  ,
2 4 8 2
Note:
1 N 
 
1 1 1 1 1
 
SN = 1 + + + + · · · +  ,
2 2 2 4 8 2
 N +1
1 1 1 1
= + + + ··· +   .
2 4 8 2
In the activity you will have the same thing only you will look
at what happens to factors of one-third rather than one-half.
Also note that in the example above

1 N +1
 
SN +1 = SN +  .
2
End Class Notes
7.2 Mini-Lecture II This is a very short mini-lecture. The results of the activity
are discussed in order to make sure that everyone has the same result and can identify
the main results of the example that they examined.
Begin Class Notes
We have the following:
 N
1 1 1 1
SN = 1 + + + + ··· +   ,
3 9 27 3
 N  N +1
1 1 1 1 1 1
SN = + + + ··· +   +   .
3 3 9 27 3 3
After subtracting these two results we get that

 N +1
2 1
SN = 1 −   .
3 3
Section 7 37
Isolating SN we get that

1 N +1
 
3
 
SN = 1 −  .
2 3
Note that as N gets very large the fraction

1 N +1
 
 
3
goes to zero. The series converges to 32 .
End Class Notes
7.3 Mini-Lecture III The general form of the geometric series has been explored
in the previous activity. The goal of the final mini-lecture is to make the results explicit
and state the requirements for the convergence of Geometric Series.
Begin Class Notes
In General a geometric series is in the form
∞
az n.
X
n=0
Let
N
SN = az n.
X
n=0
Then
(1 − z)SN = a + az + az 2 + az 3 + · · · + az N
−az − az 2 − az 3 − · · · − az N − az N +1.
This implies that
1 − z N +1
SN = a .
1−z
Section 7 38
If z = rejθ then
1 − rN +1ej(N +1)θ
SN = a .
1−z
a
If |r| < 1 then SN → 1−z .
If |r| > 1 then SN diverges.
What if |r| = 1? (There are two cases θ = 0 and θ 6= 0.)
This implies that the set of numbers for which the geometric
series converges is strictly inside the unit circle in the complex
plain.
So, for the Geometric Series in the form

∞
az n,
X
n=0

Section 7 39
then if |z| < 1, the series converges to

a
.
1−z
What does this say about the series

∞ 2 n
 
  ?
X
n=2 3
∞ 4 n
 
  ?
X
n=1 5
∞ 7 n
 
  ?
X
n=2 6
Note: Here we found the partial sums and were able to show
that the sequence of partial sums either converges or diverges. We
usually are not able to find the number a series converges to so
easily. It is much more common to have to make a comparison
with a known series. It is very important to know what a geomet-
ric series is and be able to use it when making a comparison.
End Class Notes

Section 8 40
8 The Integral Test and u-Substitution
There are two important aspects of this day’s activities. First, the integral test is
stated and is examined in the first activity. During the first activity the students will
show the requirements for the convergence of a p-series.
The second important aspect of the day is that u-substituion is introduced. The
context for the introduction of this technique is for use in the integral test, but it is
discussed as an important technique that is used in a wide array of circumstances.
Note that during the first activity the students will be working with improper inte-
grals. The notation should be very sloppy at this point. In the second mini-lecture the
notation is discussed. This is done to make sure that students concentrate on the ideas
behind the integral test and not get too caught up in the conventions of notation.
8.1 Mini-Lecture I The integral test is introduced. No concrete examples are given
since the students will examine two examples in the first activity.
Begin Class Notes
The Integral Test
The series
∞
a0 + a1 + a2 + · · · + am + an
X
n=m+1
converges if ∞ n=m+1 an converges. This last bit is called the

P
“tail” of the series. It determines whether or not the series

converges or not. Right now we will examine what happens if
the numbers in the tail satisfy some particular properties.
If after some point all of the numbers in a series are positive and
are decreasing, then we can look at an integral and determine
if the series converges or diverges.
Think about the Left Riemann Sum:

Section 8 41
The area from the Riemann sum is greater than for the integral
Z ∞
m
f (t) dt
where an = f (n).
R∞ P∞
If m f (t) dt diverges then n=m an diverges. (The series di-
verges.)
Think about the Right Riemann Sum:
The area from the Riemann sum is less than for the integral
Z ∞
m
f (t) dt
where an = f (n).
Section 8 42
R∞ P∞
If m f (t) dt is finite then n=m+1 an is finite. (The series con-
verges.)
This is called the “Integral Test”. It tells us whether or not a

series converges or diverges. Period. This is the only test that
is so clear-cut!
Note: Given a series, if you decide to test to see if it converges

using the Integral Test YOU MUST STATE IT LIKE
THIS:
(After showing your work)
The series ∞ n=0 an converges/diverges by the integral test.
P
You must state which test you used. Later on we will want to
make sure that you know and understand which of the different
tests are which!
End Class Notes
8.2 Mini-Lecture II We will now look at some specific series. We will also try to
go back and make sure that the notation that is used is more precise since we are now
working with improper integrals. This idea was glossed over earlier in order to avoid
flooding the students with too much information all at once.
Begin Class Notes
P∞
The Harmonic Series, n=1, diverges by the Integral Test.
P∞ 1
This is a special case of the “p”-series. The series n=1 np con-
verges if p > 1, and it diverges if p ≤ 1.
Which of the following series converge or diverge?

P∞ 1 P∞ 1 P∞ 1 P∞ 1
n=1 n2 n=1 n3 n=1 n1.001 n=1 n.999

Section 8 43
Does the series

∞
Xn3
4
n=0 1 + n
converge or diverge? Well,
Z ∞ t3
0 1 + t4
dt = ???
Yuk!
Notice something. The derivative of the denominator is in the

numerator! Let’s make a substitution. Let u = 1 + t4. Then
du = 4t3,
Z ∞ t3 11 Z ∞
dt = du,
0 1 + t4 1 4u
1ZM 1
= lim du
M →∞ 4 1 u
1 M
= lim ln(u)1 ,

M →∞ 4
1
= lim ln(m) − 0.
M →∞ 4
As M grows large the integral is unbounded. The series di-
verges.
Yes. You have to use the limit notation every time. If you do
not, then your work is not correct!
This idea of making a substituion is an important one. It can

help us with a wide variety of integrals. The basic idea is that if
Section 9 44
you see something that is a result of the chain rule, you can sim-
plify the integral a little bit. Sometimes you have to use several
substitutions, but in the end it can make a seemingly impossible
integral doable.
End Class Notes
8.3 Mini-Lecture III The technique of u-substitution is examined again. For the
most part examples are examined.
Begin Class Notes
Sometimes finding an anti-derivative means undoing the chain
rule.
Here are some examples: (For each one label u and do it out
the long way.)
Z cos(t) sin(t)
dt
Z
(1 + cos2(t))2
tan2(t) sec2(t) dt
Z s
√ ds
s2 + 1 
Z 1
4t3 t4 +  dt Don’t forget what we’ve learned in the past!

t
1
Z sin θ
2
dθ
Z √ θ √
s s + 1 ds let u = s + 1 and do a lot of algebra to simplify things
End Class Notes

Section 9 45
9 Comparison Tests
The two comparison tests for series, direct and limit comparison, are exmained during
this day. The first activity focuses on the direct comparison. This is not too tricky and
is relatively intuitive. The second part of the day focuses on the limit comparison which
can be much more difficult for students.
One of the more difficult aspects for students is to recognize the differences between
the different techniques. Some time is spent trying to make sure that the language used
is precise enough so that the students are forced to identify which tests they are using in
a given circumstance.
9.1 Mini-Lecture I The direct comparison test is introduced. This is a relatively
intuitive idea. By itself it usually does not create a problem for students, however, it can
be easily confused with the other methods.
Begin Class Notes
It is very rare that we can simply look at the partial sums and
determine whether or not a series converges or diverges. It is
more common that we must try to compare a new series to
one we already know.
P∞ 2n
Example: Does the series n=1 5n +1 converge? If n > 1 then
n
2 2n 2n
5 = 5n > 5 +1 .
n
n
The series ∞ 2
converges. (geometric series with r =
P
n=1 5
2
5 < 1.) What does this say about the original series?
P∞ 2n
Looking at the series n=1 5n
1. Each of the numbers are positive.

2. Each of the numbers is smaller than the numbers in a series
that converges.
This series must converge!

Section 9 46
This is called the “Direct Comparison Test.”
Note: If you use the direct comparison test you must state it
explicitly as part of your final answer. So here we would say:
2n
The series ∞ converges by direct comparison with the
P
n
n=1
n 5 +1
series ∞ 2
n=1 5 .
P
End Class Notes
9.2 Mini-Lecture II The direct comparison test was examined in the first activity.
Here several examples are given and an overview is given that will prepare the students for
the second activity. The second activity can be difficult since the students are expected
to make a some connections to some of the work that they have done in the past. It also
makes use of the direct comparison test to be able to draw a final conclusion.
Begin Class Notes
Examples: Which if the following series converge and why?
P∞ P∞
1. √ 1 (Compare with 1
n=1 n3 +1 n=1 n3/2 .)
P∞ 1 P∞ 1
2. n=1 n2n (Compare with n=1 2n .)
P∞ P∞
3. √1 (Compare with √1 .)
n=2 n−1 n=2 n
P∞ 1 P∞ 1
4. n=1 n2 +n (Compare with n=1 n2 .)
P∞ 1
5. n=2 n2 −n (Cannot compare with anything obvious!)
For this last one we will need something called the “Limit Com-
parison Test.” If we are given a positive series, ∞
n=1 an , we will find
P
P∞
another positive series, n=1 bn, and examine the ratio abnn . If that
ratio approachs some finite number we will be able to determine
if the series converges or diverges.

Section 9 47
Gameplan: The series ∞ ∞

n=1 an and n=1 bn have the prop-
P P
erty that abnn → c. You will show that you can find bounds on an
with respect to bn. These bounds will allow you to use a direct
comparison
P∞
test assuming that you know whether or not the series
n=1 bn converges or diverges.
End Class Notes
9.3 Mini-Lecture III The second activity requires that the students piece together
some different concepts that are not obvious. Some students may have had a difficult
time with this. The limit comparison test is explictly stated here and many examples
are given.
Begin Class Notes
The Limit Comparison Test: If ∞
P∞
n=1 an and n=1 bn are
P
positive series and abnn → c where c is a constant, then for any

> 0 we can find an N such that for n > N
a

n

− c < .

b

n

c
Let = 2 (we must have that c > 0). Then
c
2 bn < an < bn 3c2 .
P∞
If n=1 bn converges then so does ∞ 3c
n=1 2 bn . By direct compar-
P
ison the series ∞

n=1 an converges.
P
P∞ P∞ c
If n=1 bn diverges then so does n=1 2 bn . By direct comparison
the series ∞n=1 an diverges.
P
bn
What happens when you examine the ratio an ?
Examples:

Section 9 48
P∞ 1 P∞ 1
1. n=1 n2 −n (Compare with n=1 n2 .)
P∞ 3n P∞ 1
2. n=1 n2 +1 (Compare with n=1 n .)
√
P∞ n P∞ 1
3. n=1 n3 +15 (Compare with n=1 N 5/2 .)
n
P∞ 3n P∞ 3
4. n=1 7n n−1 (Compare with n=1 7 .)
P∞ 1
5. (Use the integral test. We can’t forget everything
n=1 n ln(n)
we have done.)
End Class Notes

Section 10 49
10 More u-Substitution and Change of Variables
This day’s activities are an extension of the previous activities for u-substition. This
is a skill that some students have a great difficulty in aquiring. For this reason, this extra
day has been included in the schedule. The activities are relatively short and should
not take the whole class period. The main purpose is to provide examples and have the
students work on the examples in the classroom.
10.1 Mini-Lecture I The idea of how u-substitution is used to simplify an integral
is given. The emphasis is on how the chain rule impacts the act of finding the anti-
derivative, and two examples are given.
Begin Class Notes
u-Substitution: We are going to explore how a change of
variables can simplify an integral and turn it into an integral
that is more easily solved.
the chain rule has a direct impact on how we can find an anti-
derivative:
d
f (g(t)) = f 0(g(t))g 0(t),
dt
Z b Z b d
0 0
a
f (g(t))g (t) dt = a (f (g(t))) dt.
dt
It is too easy to try and focus on f (g(t)) but the real question
is how can we recognize g 0(t)?
Example:
Z π r
2
0
sin(2t) cos(2t) dt.
Let u = sin(2t) then du = 2 cos(2t)dt. Substituting this back
into the integral we get
1 Z π2 r 1Z 1√
sin(2t) 2 cos(2t) dt = u du,
2 0 2 0
3
1 u 2 1
= ,
2 32 0
Section 10 50
1
. =
3
Given an integral you look for the derivatives of functions,
g 0(t), and not try to find the original function, f (t). Hopefully
after one or two substitutions it will be more clear what the
f (t) is.
Example:
Z π
4
sin(t)
0
dt.
cos(t)
Let u = sin(t) then du = cos(t)dt. Does this work? What should
I have done instead? Sometimes things do not work out so good
the first time, but there is no tragedy in trying something that
does not work. Just keep trying. (By the way what does this say
about the anti-derivative of the tangent function?)
End Class Notes
10.2 Mini-Lecture II More examples for a change of variables is given. Here an

example that requires more than one change is given.
Begin Class Notes
Sometimes you have to make more than one change of variable:
Z
t
cos tan e sec e et dt.
2 t
Let u = et then du = etdt:

Z
= cos (tan (u)) sec2 (u) du.
Let v = tan(u) then dv = sec2(u)du:
Z
= cos (v) dv
= sin(v) + c,
= sin(tan(u)) + c,

= sin tan et + c
Section 10 51
(Remember to undo all of your transformations when doing

indefinite integrals!)
Note: On this next activity you will be asked to provide a

little justification as to why these kind of substitutions work.
End Class Notes
10.3 Mini-Lecture III The final wrap up just provides more examples. There are
also examples here for students to work on at the front board.
Begin Class Notes
An example from the activity:
Z 5 2
(t−1)
0
(t − 1)e dt.
Let u = (t − 1)2 then du = 2(t − 1)dt.

R5 (t−1) 2 R 16 1 u
0 (t − 1)e dt = 1 2 e du
1 u 16
= 2 e 1
1 16 1
= 2 e − 2 e.
Have students work out the following examples in front of the

class:
√
3
1. sin 2 t dt.
R
1
2. ds.
R
s ln(s)
Rπ
r
3. 4
0 1 − cos(2t) sin(2t) dt.
Rπ
4. 0 esin(t) cos(t) dt.

Section 11 52
1
Rπ ( )
2 cos t
5. π
t2
dt.
4
R 4 3−et
6. 0 e2t dt. (Do not forget the basics that we have already
learned.)
7. sec(t) dt. (This is a trick question of course:
R
Z sec(t) (tan(t) + sec(t))

Z
sec(t) dt = dt,
tan(t) + sec(t)
Z sec(t) tan(t) + sec2 (t)
= dt,
tan(t) + sec(t)
= ln (tan(t) + sec(t)) + c.)
End Class Notes

Section 11 53
11 Integration Techniques: Trigonometric Substition
The idea of transforming an integral using trigonometric functions is examined during

this meeting period. The discussion centers on how the trigonometric identities may be
useful in reducing an integral into a form that can be tackled.
This idea will be used extensively in the physics portion of the class when the fluxes
through various surfaces are examined. In fact, the use of trigonometric functions is
important for many of the inverse square laws examined in the physics class. During the
class meeting periods in the week that follows, the flux and the electric fields through
various surfaces are examined, and the techniques used in the class meeting are used
extensively.
11.1 Mini-Lecture I The basic idea of how the trigonometric identities can simplify
a function are examined. This method is essentially a change of coordinates, and this
idea is hinted at in this mini-lecture.
Begin Class Notes
Trigonometric Identities:
sin2(θ) + cos2(θ) = 1,
tan2(θ) + 1 = sec2(θ).
These two identities provide a way to simplify many expres-
sions.
Example: For the function

√
f (t) = 4 − t2,
let t = 2 cos(θ). The new function is
r r
f (cos(θ)) = 4− 4 cos2(θ) = 2 1 − cos2(θ) = 2 sin(θ).
Note that the domain went from −2 ≤ t ≤ 2 to 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
Example: For the function

1+t
g(t) = √ ,
3 − t2
Section 11 54
√
let t = 3 cos(θ). The new function is
√ √ √
g( 3 cos(θ)) = √ 3 cos(θ)
1+
2
= 1+
√ 3 cos(θ)
3 sin(θ)
3−3 cos (θ)
= √1 csc(θ) + cot(θ).
3
So what? Look at an integral for f (t) above:

Z b Z b dt
a
f (t) dt = t=a
f (2 cos(θ)) ·
dθ,
Z b
dθ
= t=a f (cos(θ)) (−2 sin(θ)) dθ.
There are times when the resulting integral after this kind of sub-
stitution is much easier to solve.
End Class Notes
11.2 Mini-Lecture II An overview of the first activity is briefly discussed, and

an example is provided. The students are expected to be able to do the second activity
without much prompting.
Begin Class Notes
The basic idea is that the identities
sin2(θ) + cos2(θ) = 1,
sin2(θ) = 1 − cos2(θ),
can be exploited to reduce a complicated function into a form

that can be integrated. The basic idea is that if you see any-
thing of the form
a − t2
√
then try letting t = a cos(θ). Sometimes this will work and
reduce to an integral that can be solved. Of course it does not
always work. If it does not work it is no big deal. Just try
Section 11 55
something else. Be careful, though, it is always best to try to

use a u-substitution first. You may make a particular problem
even harder!
Example: In the following example let t = 4 cos(θ) which

implies that dt = −4 sin(θ)dθ.
Z 2 t Z 2 4 cos(θ) (−4 sin(θ))
0 3 dt = t=0 3 dθ,
(16 − t2) 2 (16 − 16 cos2(θ)) 2
Z 2 −16 cos(θ) sin(θ)
= t=0 3 dθ,
43 (1
− cos2(θ)) 2
Z 2 − cos(θ) sin(θ)
= t=0 dθ,
4 sin3(θ)
Z 2 − cos(θ)
= t=0 dθ.
4 sin2(θ)
(From here use a u-substituion, u = sin(θ), and solve the problem
using the techniques seen before. Be careful in transforming the
coordinate system back to t!)
End Class Notes
11.3 Mini-Lecture III The substitution that makes use of the second identity is
briefly discussed, and an example is given. At the end of the days several integrals are
provided for students to practice on at the front of the class.
Begin Class Notes
Another trick is to take advantage of the identity
tan2(θ) + 1 = sec2(θ).
√
a + t2 try t = a tan(θ),
If you see √
or t2 − a try t = a sec(θ).
√
Example: (Use the substitution t = 5 sec(θ) in the following
Section 11 56
integral.)
√
Z 20 t Z 20 5 sec(θ) √
√ dt = r 5 sec(θ) tan(θ) dθ,
10 2
t −5 t=10
5 sec2(θ)−5
Z 20 sec(θ) √
= t=10
r 5 sec(θ) tan(θ) dθ,
sec2(θ) − 1
Z 20 √
= t=10 5 sec2(θ) dθ,
√ 20
= 5 tan(θ)t=10,

√
√ t2 − 5 20
= 5 √ .
5 10

Examples: If there is time try the following examples.
√
t2 −5
1. dt. (Note that tan2(θ) = sec2(θ) − 1. The left hand
R
t
side is easier to integrate.)
R √
2. 1 − t2 dt.
√
3. et 1 − e2t dt.
R
t
4. dt.
R
1−2t2 +t4
End Class Notes

Section 12 57
12 Gauss’ Law and Calculating Fluxes Through Areas of

Revolution
During this week the calculus and the physics classes are closely linked together.
You may need to rearrange the activities to make sure that these activites coincide
with the physics class. (Note that the students will need to use u-substitution as well
as trigonometric sunstitution techniques for this activity.) Many of the results of the
calculus activities are designed to reinforce the concepts discussed in the physics class.
In particular students have to have a strong grasp on Gauss’ Law and know what “flux” is
and how to calculate fluxes through given areas. Most of this week is spent on extending
the ideas of calculating fluxes to more complex geometries.
At the end of the week, the students will also have to work on calculating electric
fields due to distributed charges. The students must have know how the superposition
of electric fields allows us to add up the fields from different charges.
Working with both the flux and the superposition of electric fields will help drive
home to difference between these two things.
12.1 Mini-Lecture I In the first activity the flux through a cylinder is found. For
this problem, a point charge is located at one end of the cylinder and the end of the
cylinder is not considered. The flux is found by forming the area using a revolution.
Here a straight, horizontal line a distance R from the x-axis is revolved around the x-axis
to form the cylinder.
Begin Class Notes
Riemann Sums:
1. Take the domain and break it into small pieces.

2. Find the desired quantitity for each small piece.
3. Add up all of the quantities for every small piece. We need to
find the following:
N
( ) 4x
X
n=0
where x comes from the domain of the function.

4. Convert the sum to an integral so that the Fundamental Tho-
erem of Calculus can be used to form an analytic result.

Section 12 58
Example: A horizontal line is a distance R above the x-axis.

If you revolve the line around the x-axis it forms a cylinder.
We have a function, f (x) = R, and we are revolving the curve

formed by this function around the x-axis. The domain, the x
values, can be divided into small pieces. Each small strip can then
be revolved around the x-axis.
The area of one of these little strips is

2πR4x.
An approximation for the total area can be found from the sum
of all of the strips
−1
NX Z L
2πR4x → 02πR dx,
n=0

Section 12 59
L
= 2πRx 0 ,

= 2πRL.
(The quantity L is the length of the cylinder.)
In the first activity you will find the flux through a cylinder if
a point charge is located at the origin, and a cylinder of radius R
and length L is located so that the it extends from the origin to
the right.
The domain of the function, f (x) = R, is 0 ≤ x ≤ L. The

domain is divided into small pieces: x0, x1, x2, . . ., xN . For
each point from xn to xn+1, a line segment is formed by join-
ing (xn, f (xn)) to (xn+1, f (xn+1)). This line segment is revolved
around the x-axis. Note that any point on the band that is formed
is the same distance from the point charge.
The flux can then be found by finding the component of the

electric field from the point charge that is in the same direction of

Section 12 60
the normal,

~ cos(θ).
E
In this activity you will have to find cos(θ) as a function of x, form
the Riemann sum to find the flux through the whole cylinder, con-
vert it to an integral, and solve the integral.
End Class Notes
12.2 Mini-Lecture II The flux through the cylinder is briefly discussed. Some of
the ramifications of this are then given.
Begin Class Notes
The flux through one piece is
2πRk q̂ R k q̂R
√ 4x = 3/2
· 2πR4x.
x2 + R 2 x2 + R 2 2
(x + R ) 2
The total flux is approximated by adding up over each small

piece in the domain
−1
NX k q̂R Z L 2πR2k q̂
· 2πR4x → dx.
n=0 (x2n + R2)3/2 0
(x2 + R2)3/2
to find the integral let x = R tan(θ) (and dx = R sec2(θ)).
Z L 2πR2k q̂R sec2(θ) L

dθ = 2πk q̂ sin(θ) x=0

x=0
R3 (tan(θ)2 + 1)3/2

x L
= 2πk q̂ √ 2

2
x +R 0

L
= 2πk q̂ √ 2 .
L + R2
Note that as L → ∞ the flux goes to 2πk q̂! How does this
Section 12 61
relate to Gauss’ Law? Half of the E-Field due to the point

charge should go through the pipe of infinite length.
What is the flux through a pipe that extends to x = −L and

x = L? Just double the result above. This implies that the
flux through an infinite cylinder due to a point charge is 4πk q̂
which matches Gauss’ Law!
Suugested home work problem:

Finally, what if the pipe extends to x = −L to x = L. What
is the difference between the flux between the pipe and a close
surface? Use this result to find the flux through a disk a
distance L from the point charge and of radius R.
In this problem we were fortunate since we had a horizontal

line. What if the curve is not so easy? We will first need to
find the following area:
The area of a line segment that is rotated around the x-axis

Section 12 62
is 2π R1+R
2 4s.
2
The height of the curve comes from the function, though:
The area of a line segment that is rotated around the x-axis

is 2π yn+12+yn 4s.
To find 4s we need to use the Pythagorean Theorem

r
4s = 4x2 + 4y 2,
v
2
u
4y
u  
u
= 1+u
t  4x.
4x
The area for the small piece is
r
2πf (xn)4s ≈ 2πf (xn) 1 + (f 0(xn))2 4x.
The total area can be approximated using the Riemann sum
which leads to an integral. The Fundamental Theorem can be
used to get an analytic solution.
In this next activity the flux due to a point charge at the origin
Section 12 63
through a sphere
√ centered at the origin is found by revolving a half
circe, f (x) = R2 − x2, around the x-axis. Note that the electric
field will always be perpindicular to the circle at every point.
End Class Notes
12.3 Mini-Lecture III The result from the second activity is examined. At this
point this will have been a very difficult day for the students, and a simple recap of the
activity is given. A broad overview of the day’s activities should also be given, but it is
not included in the notes below. Different classes may have different difficulties so this
aspect of the class may have to be taylored to specific experiences.
Begin Class Notes
The basic idea is to form a sphere by rotating a half circle around
the x-axis
The domain, −R ≤ x ≤ R is divided into small pieces. Line

segments are formed at the endpoints of the curve for each
of these small pieces. Each segment is revolved around the
x-axis, and the flux through each strip is then found.

Section 13 64
The area of each little strip is

Area ≈ 2πf (xn)4s
r
≈ 2πf (xn) 1 + (f 0(xn))2 4x.
Here we have that
2 1/2

2
f (x) = R −x ,
2 −1/2

0 2
f (x) = −x R − x .
The area of a strip can be approximated as

√
v
x2
u
u
2
Area: ≈ 2π R − x 1 + 2 2 u
t ,
R − x 2
√
v
u
u R 2
2
= 2π R − x t 22 u
,
R − x2
= 2πR.
The flux through the strip is

k q̂ 2πk q̂
2πR 2 cos(θ) = .
R R
The total flux is then

Z R 2πk q̂ 2πk q̂
−R R
dx = 2R
R
= 4πk q̂.
This is the result that Gauss’ Law says that we should get!
End Class Notes

Section 13 65
13 Flux Through a Plane and Electric Fields Due to

Distributed Charges
The first activity focuses on finding the flux through an infinite plane due to a single
point charge, and the second activity focuses on finding the electric field due to an infinite
plane with constant charge density. These exercises highlight the difference between
electric field and flux.
13.1 Mini-Lecture I An overivew of how an infinite plane can be divided into
conentric circles is given.
Begin Class Notes
Riemann Sums:

find the following:
N
( ) 4x
X
n=0
where x comes from the domain of the function.

Example: A point charge is located at the origin. What is

the flux through an infinite plane that is a distance x away?

Section 13 66

~ cos(θ) where θ is the angle between
Note that we need to find E

~ and the normal to the plane.
E
The way that we will tackle this problem is to divide the plane
into concentric circles.

Section 13 67
The idea is to find the flux through each little ring and then
add them all up. Note that we are keeping x fixed and changing
r!
End Class Notes
13.2 Mini-Lecture II The result from the previous activity is examined and what
it means in terms of Gauss’ Law is also examined. A brief introduction to the second
activity is then given.
Begin Class Notes
The component of the electric field normal to the ring is
k q̂ k q̂ k q̂x
x2 +r2
cos(θ) = x2 +r2
· √x2x+r2 = 3/2
(x2+r2)
The flux for each ring is

k q̂x r
3/2
2πr4r = 2πk q̂x 4r.
(x2 + r2) (x2 + r2)3/2
Adding up the flux for each ring we get

−1
NX r Z R r
2πk q̂x 3/2
4r → 2πk q̂x dr
n=0 (x2 + r2) 0
(x2 + r2)3/2
Z R 1
Let u = x2 + r2, du = 2r dr = πk q̂x du
x=0 u3/2
u−1/2 R
= πk q̂x
−1/2 x=0

1 R
= −2πk q̂x √ 2

x + r 2 x=0

1 1
 
= −2πk q̂x  √ 2 2
− 
R +r x
2πk q̂x
= 2πk q̂ − √ 2 2
.
R +r
Section 13 68
As the radius, R, gets arbitrarily large, the flux approaches

2πk q̂. Note that the value of x does not matter! Also note
that the flux is half of what you get from Gauss’ Law for an
enclosed surface.
What is the flux through two planes when a charge is between

the two planes? 4πk q̂.
What is the flux through two planes when the two planes are
on the same side of the charge? 0.

Section 13 69
In this next activity the electric field at a point above an infi-

nite plane that has a charge distribution is found. (The charge
density on the plane is σ.)
From your physics book, the electric field at a point that is a

distance x away from a ring of radius r, and width 4r is
derived and is
~ = σxr
E 3 4r.
20(x2 + r2) 2
What will the electric field due to a large plate of radius R be?
We will divide the plate into concentric rings and add up the elec-
tric field due to each plate.
End Class Notes
13.3 Mini-Lecture III Again, this will have been a long day for the student. The
main results from the activity are given, and a brief overview of some of the ramifications
are examined.
Begin Class Notes
The electric field for a plate of radius R is
−1
NX σxr Z R σx r
3/2
4r → dr.
n=0 20 (x2 + r2) 0 20 (x2 + r2)3/2
Section 13 70
The integral can be found using u-substition:

Let u = x2 + r2, du = 2r dr:
σx u−1/2 R

R R σx r RR σx 1
0 20 2 2 3/2 dr = r=0 40 u3/2 du = 40 −1/2 r=0
(x +r )
R

σx √ 1 σx √ 1 σx
= − 4 0 x 2 +r 2

r=0
= − 4 0 x 2 +R 2 + 4 0x
σ σx √ 1
= 40 − 40 x2 +R2
Note that as R gets arbitrarilty large, the magnitude of the

electric field is 4σ0 . The value of x is not in this formula! It
does not matter how far you are from the plane, the electric
field will always be the same, and it is always pointing in a
direction perpindicular to the plane.
In the following picture there are two planes, and each plane
has a uniform charge density σ. What is the electric field at
each of the three points?

Section 13 71
At (a) the electric field is − 2σ0 ı̂.
At (b) the electric field is 0.
σ
At (c) the electric field is 20 ı̂.
End Class Notes

Section 14 72
14 Partial Fractions
The main focus of this day is to examine how partial fractions are used to find anti-
derivativs for integrals. The first activity focuses on the process of finding the partial
fractions and offers an example in which the students are faced with a second order pole
in the denominator. The second activity is a set of relatively straight-forward examples.
14.1 Mini-Lecture I The general idea behind partial fractions is given. An example
is presented and the general plan for solving these integrals is given.
Begin Class Notes
Given a set of rational functions,
1 1 1
− +
t t − 1 (t − 1)2
they can be combined using their common denominators
1
.
t(t − 1)2
So, what is
Z 1
dt = ?
t(t − 1)2
Z 1 1 1
= − + dt.
t t − 1 (t − 1)2
1
We can integrate this, but how can I go from t(t−1)2
to 1t − t−1
1
+
1
(t−1)2
?
Example:
t+1 t+1 t+1 a b c
t3 +t2 −6t
= t(t2 +t−6)
= t(t−2)(t+3) = t + t−2 + t+3 .

Section 14 73
The right hand side represents all possible combinations that

you might have started out with. Multiply both sides by the
denominator to get
t + 1 = a(t − 2)(t + 2) + bt(t + 3) + ct(t − 2).
Let t = 0 then 1 = −6a or a = − 16 .
3
Let t = 2 then 3 = 10b or b = 10 .
2
Let t = −3 then −2 = 15c or c = − 15 .
The basic idea is that if you have fg(t)

(t)
where both f (t) and g(t)
are polynomial functions then you can do the following:
1. Use polynomial division (with the remainder) to reduce the

function into a form where the polynomial in the numerator
has a lower degree than the polynomial in the denominator.
2. Factor the denominator.
3. Express the function in a general form that can repeat all
possible combinations of the factors in the denominator.
4. Solve for the unknowns.
End Class Notes
14.2 Mini-Lecture II More examples are provided including an example that has
a second order pole.
Begin Class Notes
If there is a double root in the denominator you have to com-
pensate because it could have come from two different rational

Section 14 74
functions,
1 a b c
= + + .
(t − 1)2(t − 2) t − 1 (t − 1)2 t − 2
a
You need the extra t−1 because it is possible that it could
have been in the original expression. For example
1 1 t
+ = .
t − 1 (t − 1)2 (t − 1)2
So for our problem:

1 = a(t − 1)(t − 2) + b(t − 2) + c(t − 1)2.
Let t = 1 then 1 = −b or b = −1.
Let t = 2 then 1 = c or c = 1.
Let t = 0 then 1 = 2a − 2b + c or a = −1.
We can now deal with the integral:

Z 1 Z −1 −1 1
dt = + + dt
(t − 1)2(t − 2) t − 1 (t − 1)2 t − 2
= − ln |t − 1| + (t − 1)−1 + ln |t − 2| + c.
End Class Notes
14.3 Mini-Lecture III More examples are givein including one in which polynomial
division is required to simplify the expression.
Begin Class Notes
Example:
Z t3
dt = ?
t2 − 1

Section 14 75
After polynomial division we get that

t3 t t
dt = t + t2−1 dt = t + (t−1)(t+1) dt.
R R R
t2 −1
Note that
t a b
= + ,
t2 − 1 t−1 t+1
t = a(t + 1) + b(t − 1).
1
So we get that a = 2 and b = 12 .
Z 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
t+ + dt = t2 + ln |t + 1| + ln |t − 1| + c.
2t + 1 2t − 1 2 2 2
Do the following examples:
1
1. dt.
R
t4 −2t2 +1
1−t2
2. dt.
R
t −t2 +t−1
3
et
3. dt.
R
e2 t+4et +3
cos(2t)
4. dt.
R
sin2 (2t)+5 sin(2t)+6
5. Find the solution to the differential equation

ẋ(t) = −x2(t) + 1.
To solve this one rewrite the equation as
ẋ(t)
= 1,
1 − x2(t)
Section 14 76
Z ẋ(t) Z
dt = dt,
1 − x2(t)
Z ẋ(t)
dt = t + c.
(1 − x(t))(1 + x(t))
Let u = x(t) then du = ẋ(t)dt and we get
Z 1
du = t + c.
(1 − u)(1 + u)
Now use partial fractions to solve the problem.
End Class Notes

Section 15 77
15 Integration by Parts
The method of integration by parts is introduced. The way that it is introduced is to

re-examine center of mass problems. This is an ideal situation
R
because the calculation of
the first moment requires that an integral of the form xλ(x) dx be found.
The first activity begins by looking at finding the center of mass of a rod whose
density is non-constant. The activity proceeds by then requiring that the students derive
the formula for integration by parts.
The second activity consists of three samples problems in which they have to use
integration by parts to find the Fourier series for f (t) = t on the interval t = −π to
t = π.
15.1 Mini-Lecture I The methods for finding the center of mass for a mass is
provided. This is a review from the first semester. A hint at the end of the lecture is
given in order to remind students about the product rule and the notation for the general
form of the product rule.
Begin Class Notes
Center of Mass: How do you find the center of mass of a
long, thin bar whose density is not constant?
We want to find the point at which the whole thing balances.

Another way to look at it is that it is the point at which a
force equal to weight can be applied and nothing moves. This
implies that the torques are all balanced under this situation.
What are the torques if a force equal to the weight of gravity is

applied at xcm?

Section 15 78
The torque due to gravity about the origin is approximately

−1
NX Z L
xnλ(xn)4xg → g 0
xλ(x) dx.
n=0
Likewise the total weight due to gravity is
Z L
g 0
λ(x) dx.
The torque due to a force equal to the weight applied at xcm
is just xcm multiplied by the weight. Setting the torues equal
we get
Z L Z L
xcmg 0
λ(x) dx = g 0
xλ(x) dx.
Solving this equation for the center of mass we get
RL
0 xλ(x) dx
xcm = RL .
0 λ(x) dx
Note: You will make use of the product rule in this activity.
d
(f (t)g(t)) = ?
dt
= f 0(t)g(t) + f (t)g 0(t).
End Class Notes
15.2 Mini-Lecture II The method of integration by parts is formally introduced in

this mini-lecture. The example from the activity is examined. The activity that follows
makes use of the same ideas.

Section 15 79
Begin Class Notes

We use u-substituion to simplify integrals that are made com-
plicated because of the chain rule. We can use a method called
“integration by parts” to simplify integrals that are made com-
plicated because of the product rule. Note that
d
(f (t)g(t)) = f 0(t)g(t) + f (t)g 0(t).
dt
Integrating both sides we get
Z b d Z b
a dt
(f (t)g(t)) dt = a
f 0(t)g(t) + f (t)g 0(t) dt,
b Z b Z b
f (t)g(t)a = a f 0(t)g(t) dt + a f (t)g 0(t) dt.

Solving this equation for one of the integrals we get that

Z b b Z b
0
f (t)g(t) dt = f (t)g(t) a − f (t)g 0(t) dt.

a
a
This is the formula for integration by parts. The basic idea is
that if you can identify two different functions in your original
integral, f 0(t) and g(t), you can shift the derivative off of one
of the functions and on to the other.
Example:
Z 2
0
tet dt = ?
0
Let f (t) = e and g(t) = t then f (t) = et and g(t) = 1.
t
2
Z 2 Z 2
t
0
te dt = tet0 − 0
et dt,
t 2
Z 2
0
tet dt = te − e 0.
t

Check:
d
dt (tet − et) = et + tet − et = tet.
Section 15 80
End Class Notes
15.3 Mini-Lecture III The results from the second activity are verified and several
examples are given.
Begin Class Notes
Rπ
What is the value of −π t sin(mt) dt (m is a positive integer)?
Let f 0(t) = sin(mt), and g(t) = t, then f (t) = − m1 cos(t) and

g 0(t) = 1.
Z π t π Z π 1
t sin(mt) dt = − cos(mt)−π + −π cos(mt) dt

−π m m
t π
1 π
= − cos(mt)−π + 2 sin(mt)−π

m m
π −π
= − cos(mπ) + cos(−mπ) + 0
m m
−2π
= (−1)m.
m
Rπ
What is the value of −π t cos(mt) dt (m is a positive integer)?
Let f 0(t) = cos(mt), and g(t) = t, then f (t) = 1

m sin(t) and
g 0(t) = 1.
Z π t π Z π 1
t cos(mt) dt = sin(mt)−π − −π sin(mt) dt

−π m m
t π
1 π
= sin(mt)−π + 2 cos(mt)−π

m m
π −π 1 1
= 0− 0 + 2 cos(πm) − 2 cos(−πm)
m m m m
= 0.

Section 16 81
What is the Fourier Series for f (t) = t from t = −π to t = π?

∞ −2(−1)m
sin(mt).
X
m=1 m
Integration by parts is a tool that allows us to rewrite integrals

into a different form. Hopefully the new form can then be
solved. Sometimes you may not choose an f 0(t) and g(t) that
makes life easier, but that is the chance you take in life.
Examples:
1. t ln(t) dt (Let f 0(t) = t and g(t) = ln(t). This is a very

R
common practice with inverse functions such as logs, arcsine,

etc..)
2. t2 sin(t) dt (Let f 0(t) = sin(t) and g(t) = t2 and use inte-
R
gration by parts again.)

3. ln(t) dt (Let f 0(t) = 1 and g(t) = ln(t).)
R
4. et cos(t) dt (Use integration by parts twice.)

R
End Class Notes

Section 16 82
16 Integration by Parts
Integration by parts is used repeatedly to first calculate the moment of intertia of

a thin uniform rod of varying density as well as to calculate the Fourier coefficients
of a symmetric function. The main goal is to have the students use the technique of
integration by parts twice to find the integral of a given function.
16.1 Mini-Lecture I The moment of inertia of a long thin rod with varying density
is found. The students will have seen integration by parts in the previous week. The
technique is still new, though, so this is session will give the students some practice with
the technique. It will also force students to remember some topics from the physics course
that they have not seen in a while.
Begin Class Notes
Riemann Sums:

find the following:
N
( ) 4r
X
n=0
where r comes from the domain of the function.

Note that for a discrete set of masses, mi, the moment of inertia
is
N
I = miri2.
X
i=0
For a continuous object we have to break it up into “small” pieces

and use Riemann sums.
Section 16 83
In the first activity today, you will have to take a long thin rod
that has a non-uniform density. The rod must be divided up into
small pieces, and the moment of inertia for each piece must be
added up. The task for you is to do this in a way that allows us
to use the Fundamental Theorem so that we can find the moment
of inertia.
End Class Notes
16.2 Mini-Lecture II The first problem is briefly discussed, and the students are
given example of how to use integration by parts twice to solve a specific problem. The
next activity makes use of Fourier series, but it is not mentioned here in order to force
them to think about what it is.
Begin Class Notes
The moment of inertia for the first problem is found by
PN −1 2 R2
I ≈ n=0 xn λ(xn )4x → 0 x2λ(x) dx,
R2 2 2 0 x
I = 0 x λ(x) dx (Let f = x and g = e .)
2

x2ex0
R2
= − 0 2xex dx,
2 x 2 2

− 2xex0
R2
= x e 0 + 0 2ex dx
2 x 2 x 2 2

= x e 0
+ − 2xe 0 2ex0
= 4e − 0 − re2 − 0 + 2e2 − 2 ,
2

= 2e2 − 2.
Here we used integration by parts twice to get the final answer.

There is another way in which we can use integration by parts
twice:
Z Z
e cos(t) dt = e sin(t) − 2e2t sin(t) dt
2t 2t
Z
= e sin(t) − 2e (− cos(t)) + 4e2t (− cos(t)) dt
2t 2t
The thing that we are trying to solve for is the original integral
so we can treat it the same way we would treat a variable:
Z
5 e2t cos(t) dt = e2t sin(t) − 2e2t (− cos(t)) + C
Section 16 84
Z
2t 1 2t 2t

e cos(t) dt = e sin(t) − 2e (− cos(t)) + C
5
End Class Notes
16.3 Mini-Lecture III The integral for the cosine term is derived and a brief
discussion of Fourier Series is given.
Begin Class Notes
t −t 0
If m 6= 0 Let f = e + e and g = cos(mt):
1
 
Z π
cos(mt) dt = et + e−t  sin(mt) |π−π −

−π
t
e + e−t
m
1

Z π
t −t 
−π
e − e sin(mt) dt
m
1
 
= et + e−t  sin(mt) |π−π

m
−1

 |π

t −t 
− e −e cos(mt) −π
m2
−t  −1

Z π
t
+ −π e + e 2
cos(mt) dt
m
1 Z π t
 

−t
⇒ 1 + 2 −π e + e cos(mt) dt =

m
1
 
et + e−t  sin(mt) |π−π

m
−1

− et − e−t  2 cos(mt) |π−π

m
−1
 
= (0 − 0) − eπ − e−π  2 cos(mπ)

m
−1
 
− e−π − eπ  2 cos(−mπ)

m
Section 16 85
2 m π −π
= (−1) e − e .
m2
If m = 0 then
Z π
t −t t −t π
−π
e + e dt = e − e |−π

π −π
−π π
= e −e − e −e
= 2 eπ − e−π .

This means that the Fourier series for et + e−t is

1 π ∞ 1 −1 2
 
−π m π −π
e −e + 1+ 2 (−1) e − e cos(mt)
X

π m=1 m πm2
Note that the function is symmetric since

f (t) = et + e−t,
f (−t) = e−t + et.

Section 16 86
The Fourier series for the symmetric function is composed only

of cosine functions which are also symmetric.
The Fourier series for a symmetric function should be composed

only of cosine functions. The symmetric function multiplied
by a sine function will be anti-symmetric, and the resulting
integral will be zero.
The Fourier series for an anti-symmretic function should be

composed only of sine functions. The anti-symmetric function
multiplied by cosines will be anti-symmetric, and the resulting in-
tegral will also be zero.
End Class Notes

Section 17 87
17 The Root and Ratio Tests
During this day the root and ratio tests are introduced. The first mini-lecture is a brief
introduction with only one example. Students are expected to complete two examples
and sketch out an outline for the proof of the root test in the first activity. The root test
is further expanded upon in the second mini-lecture.
During the second activity students are given a number of example problems to work
out. They include series that require tests that we have seen prior to this day as well as
the root and ratio tests. The reason for this is to give the students experience in trying
to figure out which tests should be used for different situations.
17.1 Mini-Lecture I The root and ratio tests are briefly stated. One quick example
is given, and the students are expected to sketch out the outline for the proof of why
the root test works during the activity. This is further expanded upon during the second
mini-lecture.
Begin Class Notes
We will look at two new tests for positive series.
The ratio test
P∞
Given a positive series, n=0 an , if
aN +1
lim = ρ,
N →∞ aN
then:
if ρ < 1 the series converges,

if ρ > 1 the series diverges,
if ρ = 1 no conclusion can be drawn from this test.

Section 17 88
The root test
P∞
Given a positive series, n=0 an , if
1
lim (aN ) N = ρ,
N →∞
then:
if ρ < 1 the series converges,

if ρ > 1 the series diverges,
if ρ = 1 no conclusion can be drawn from this test.
Example: ∞ 1
n=0 3n .
P
1
The Nth term is r3N
.
The Nth root is N 31N = 13 .
Since the result is strictly less than one, the series converges by
the root test.
Note: after you show the work you must state that
the series either converges or diverges, and you must
explicitly state which test you used.
Note about the preclass work: The factorial operation

can be written as (N +1)! = (N +1)N !. (For example: 6! = 6·5!.)
The ratio (NN+1)!
! N!
is (N +1)N 1
! = N +1 .
End Class Notes
17.2 Mini-Lecture II The root test is examined more closely with an explanation
as to why it works. A list of the tests that have been covered up to this point is also
included.

Section 17 89
Begin Class Notes

The root test: The series ∞ n=0 an is
a positive series. Assume
P
1
that limN →∞ (an) n = ρ which is a finite number. Therefore,
I can find an N satisfying
√
| n an − ρ| < ,
for all n > N . Another way to say this is
√
− < n an − ρ <
√
ρ − < n an < ρ +
(ρ − )n < an < (ρ + )n.
If ρ < 1 then a number, , can be found so that ρ+ < 1. For
this value of the series ∞ n
n=0 (ρ + ) converges because it is
P
a geometric series. So by direct comparison the series ∞

n=0 an
P
must also converge.
Note that if ρ > 1 then a number, , can be found so that

(ρ − ) > 1 so that the series ∞ n
n=0 (ρ + ) diverges. This
P
implies that the original series diverges by direct comparison.
We now have the following tests to help us evaluate whether or

not a series converges or diverges:
1. Integral test
2. Direct Comparison test
3. Limit Comparison test
4. Root test
Section 17 90
5. Ratio test
We also know about the p-series as well as the geometric series to

help us determine what kind of comparisons to make.
End Class Notes
17.3 Mini-Lecture III The final activity is a collection of examples. Some more
examples are examined in the final mini-lecture.
Begin Class Notes
P∞ 1
Example: n=1 (2n)! .
1 1
(2(N +1))! (2N +2)! (2N )! 1
1 = 1 = (2N +2)(2N +1)(2N )! = (2N +2)(2N +1) .
(2N )! (2N )!
Taking the limit we get that

1
lim = 0.
N →∞ (2N + 2)(2N + 1)
The series converges by the ratio test.
P∞ n+2
Example: n=1 n! .
N +3
(N +1)! N +3 N ! N +3 1+ N3
N +2 = = = .
N!
N +2 (N +1)! (N +2)(N +1) (1+ N2 )(N +1)
Looking at the limit
1 + N3
lim = 0.
N →∞ 1 + 2 (N + 1)
N
The series converges by the ratio test.
ln(n ) 3
Example: ∞ n=2 n .
P
P∞ 3 ln(n)
The series can be rewritten as n=2 n . Using the integral
Section 18 91
test we get that

Z M ln(t) M
lim dt = lim ln | ln |t|| 2 ,

M →∞ 2 t M →∞

= lim ln | ln |M || − ln | ln |2||.
M →∞
The series diverges by the integral test.
n
P∞ t
Example: Find the values of t for which the series n=0 2
converges. (Use the ratio test.) Note that if a series is abso-
lutely convergent then it converges. Do not forget to check
the endpoints separately.
n
P∞ n
Example: n=0 3n+1 (Root test.)
P∞ n
Example: n=0 3n (Ratio test.)
n
P∞ 2
Example: n=0
√
n (Root test.)
t−2 n

P∞
Example: Find the values of t for which the series n=0 3
converge. Do not forget to check the endpoints separately.
(Root test.)
P∞ 3n
Example: n=0 n! (Ratio test.)
End Class Notes

Section 18 92
18 Power Series and Alternating Series
The interval of convergence for power series is introduced in the first mini-lecture,
and the first activity focuses on the idea of finding the interval of convergence for a given
series. The second half of the day focuses on alternating series in order to decide if the
endpoints converge for the resulting power series.
18.1 Mini-Lecture I The definition of a power series is given and a few notes on
the interval of convergence are given. The first activity is composed of three examples
for finding the interval of convergence. It is very important in terms of time that the
students finish the pre-class work before beginning the activities.
Begin Class Notes
Power Series: A power series is a series which is a function
of at least one variable:
∞
an(t − t0)n.
X
n=0
An example of a power series is the Taylor series.
The question that we are going to focus on is for what values

of t does a series converge. Before we do that we need a few
other concepts.
Definition: A series, ∞ ∞
n=0 an , is absolutely convergent if n=0 |an |
P P
converges. We will not prove this, but if a series is absolutely

convergent the series itself converges.
1 n

P∞
Example: The series n=0 − 2 is absolutely convergent so
the series converges.
To find out for what values a power series converges to, find
all of the values for which the series is absolutely convergent.
Then check the endpoints of the resulting interval to see if

Section 18 93
either of the endpoints converges.
P∞ n
Example: For what values does the series n=0 t converge?
Use the ratio test:
n+1
limn→∞ |t||t|n = limn→∞ |t| = |t|.
The series converges for |t| < 1. If |t| > 1 the series diverges.
What about |t| = 1? We have to check those separately.
P∞
If t = 1 the sum is n=0 1 which diverges.
If t = −1 the sum is ∞ n
n=0 (−1) . The sequence of partial sums
P
does not converge so the series diverges.

End Class Notes
18.2 Mini-Lecture II The last example from the activity is examined. The decision
as to whether or not the left endpoint converges is left as part of the exercises in the next
activity.
Begin Class Notes
For what values of t does the Taylor Series for the solution to
the differential equation
ẋ(t) = −e−x(t),
x(0) = 0,
converge?

Section 18 94
x(0) = 0
ẋ(t) = −ex(t)
ẋ(0) = −ex(0) = −1.
ẍ(t) = ẋ(t)ex(t) = −e−2x(t)

ẍ(0) = −e−2x(0) = −1
xIII (t) = 2ẋ(t)e−2x(t) = −2e3x(t)

xIII (0) = −2e3x(t) = −2
xIV (t) = 3!ẋ(t)e3x(t) = −3!e4x(t)

xIV (0) = −3!e4x(0) = −3!
xV (t) = 4!ẋ(t)e4x(t) = −4!e5x(t)

xV (0) = −4!e5x(0) = −4!
...
x(n)(t) = −(n − 1)!enx(t)
x(n)(0) = −(n − 1)!enx(0) = −(n − 1)!
The resulting Taylor polynomial is

t2 2t3 3!t4 4!t5 (n − 1)!tn
P (t) = 0 − t − − − − − ··· − − ···
2! 3! 4! 5! n!
∞ tn
= − .
X
n=1 n

Section 18 95
Use the ratio test:

|t|N +1
(N +1) N |t|N +1
|t|N
=
(N + 1) |t|N
N
1
= |t|.
1 + N1
Letting N get large we have that
1
lim |t| = |t|,
N →∞ 1 + 1
N
for any finite value of t.

The series converges for all finite t by the ratio test if |t| < 1,
and it diverges if |t| > 1. We now have to check the endpoints
since when |t| = 1 the ratio test is inconclusive.
Let t = 1 and we get

∞ 1
− .
X
n=1 n
This is the Harmonic series so it diverges.
Let t = −1 and we get

∞ (−1)n
− .
X
n=1 n
This is an alternating series, and we will examine it in next activ-
ity. We will see that the interval of convergence is −1 ≤ t < 1.
End Class Notes
18.3 Mini-Lecture III The definition for an alternating series is given, and the
interval of convergence for the previous problem is explicitly stated.
Begin Class Notes

Section 18 96
Definition: If an > 0 for all n then the series

∞
(−1)n+1an
X
n=1
is called an “alternating series.”
We will look at the even and then the odd partial sums,
S2n = (a1 − a2) + (a3 − a4) + (a5 − a6) + · · · + (a2n−1 − a2n).
If the numbers are decreasing, an > an+1, then each pair,
am −am+1, is positive. The sequence of partial sums is strictly
increasing.
Also note that

S2n = a1 − (a2 − a3) − (a4 − a5) − (a6 − a7) − · · · −
(a2n−2 − a2n−1) − a2n,
which implies that S2n < a1. Since the sequence is increasing
and is bounded above, it must converge.
What about the odd partial sums? The odd partial sums can
be defined in terms of the even partial sums,
S2n+1 = S2n + a2n+1.
The limit can then be found
lim S2n+1 = n→∞
n→∞
lim S2n + a2n+1.
If the individual terms from the series , am, go to zero, then
the odd terms in the sequence converge to the same number
as the even terms.
Section 18 97
Alternating Series Test: If an > 0, an+1 < an, and

limn→∞ an = 0 for all n, then the series
∞
(−1)nan
X
n=1
converges.
(This is a new test and is the only one we have for a series which
is not a positive series.)
P∞ (−1)n
From our previous problem we want to know if the series n=1 n
converges. Looking at the terms
1
> 0,
n
1 1
< ,
n+1 n
1
lim
n→∞ n
= 0.
The series converges by the alternating series test.
The interval of convergence for the original series,

∞
X tn
n=1 n
is −1 ≤ t < 1.
End Class Notes

Section 19 98
19 Circuits
The main focus for the day is how to develop differential equations describing circuits
and find the solutions to the differential equations. The technique that is examined is
the use of integrating factors. The full method is introduced late in the day, and the
students begin to test the method in the second activity.
During the first mini-lecture an example of the derivation of differential equations for
a single loop RC circut is given. During the second mini-lecture the technique of using
integrating factors in introduced, and this is further examined in the second activity. For
the final mini-lecture the last problem of the second activity is examined.
19.1 Mini-Lecture I An example is given in which the differential equation de-
scribing an RC circuit is derived. A hint is given as to how to deal with the resulting
inhomogeneity, but this is not explored until the second mini-lecture.
Begin Class Notes
Suppose that we have an RC circuit, and the capacitor has an
initial charge, q0.
The differential equation that is used to describe the charge on

the capacitor is found by setting the voltage drop around any
loop to zero
q(t)
V (t) − Rq̇(t) − = 0.
C
Note that this implies that

−q(t) V (t)
q̇(t) = +
RC R
Section 19 99
Given the charge at any time, the slope of the graph of q(t) can
be found. This means that for this problem we can find the
slope field and get a qualitative feel for the different solutions
to the equations.
Hint for the activity: Given a D.E. which is not homoge-

neous, you can first find the solution to the homogeneous part and
then ask what can you add to make it all work out.
End Class Notes
19.2 Mini-Lecture II The use of integrating factors is introduced. A clear example

of how to find the actual integrating factor is not given until the final mini-lecture. We
will only use the method for constant coefficient equations.
Begin Class Notes
How do we find a solution to
1 V (t)
q̇(t) + q(t) = .
RC R
If we multiply both sides by emt we get
1 mt V (t) mt
emtq̇(t) + e q(t) = e .
RC R
Question: Can I find an m so that the product rule can be used

to reduce this to
d mt V (t) mt
e q(t) = e .
dt R
If so, then I can simply integrate both sides

d mt
Z Z V (t)
e q(t) dt = emt dt.
dt R
The left hand side of the equation can be integrated easily while
we hope that the techniques of integration that we have will allow
Section 19 100
us to deal with the right hand side.

End Class Notes
19.3 Mini-Lecture III The example from the second activity is examined.
Begin Class Notes
The differential equation for the circuit is
q(t) V (t)
q̇(t) + =
RC R
Multiply both sides of the differential equation by emt and let

1
m = RC :
q(t) V0 mt
emtq̇(t) + emt = e sin(ωt).
RC R
1
Let m = RC and use the product rule to get
d t
!
V0 mt
q(t)e RC = e sin(ωt).
dt R
Integrating both sides we get

Z t d s Z t V0 s
0
q(s)e RC ds = 0
e RC sin(ωs) ds.
ds R
Lets focus on the right hand side

Z
mt 1 mt Z ω mt
e sin(ωt) dt = sin(ωt) e − e cos(ωt) dt,
m m
1 ω
= sin(ωt) emt − 2 emt cos(ωt) −
m m
Z ω2
mt
e sin(ωt) dt,
m2
Section 20 101
ω 2  Z mt
 
1 mt ω mt
1 +

e sin(ωt) dt = sin(ωt) e − e cos(ωt) + C,
m2 m2

m
Z m ω
emt sin(ωt) dt = sin(ωt) 2 emt
− emt
cos(ωt)
m + ω2 m2 + ω 2
+C.
This result can be used to give us the charge on the capacitor,


1
s t V0  RC
s
q(s)e RC = sin(ωs)

e RC −
0 R 1 2

RC + ω2

ω s  t
e RC cos(ωs) 
,
1 2

 0
RC + ω2
 
1
t V0  RC
t ω t 
q(t)e RC − q(0) = sin(ωt)

2 e RC − 2 e RC cos(ωt)

R  1
+ ω2 1
+ ω2

RC RC
 
V0  ω 
+ 
 2

 ,
R 1
+ ω2

RC
−t
q(t) = e RC q(0)
ω(RC 2) 
 
V0  RC
+ sin(ωt) − cos(ωt) +
R 1 + (RCω)2 1 + (RCω)2
V0 −t ω(RC 2)
e RC .
R 1 + (RCω)2
Note that the only terms that do not decay in time or the cosine
and sine terms. Also note that C by itself does not matter, rather
it is the product RC which matters.
End Class Notes

Section 20 102
20 Systems of Differential Equations
The focus for this day is how to derive systems of differential equations. We do not
find solutions to the systems but discuss how to perform some basic analysis as well as
introduce the use of matrices.
It is unlikely that the class will be able to get beyond the first activity. If that is the
case it is okay to skip the second activity. The second activity and third mini-lectures
are designed to be optional and are to be examined only if the class is able to complete
the first activity in a short time.
20.1 Mini-Lecture I The use of slope fields for differential equations is examined
as well as briefly re-examining how to find the steady state solution for a differential
equation.
Begin Class Notes
Given a differential equation
1 V0
q̇(t) + q(t) = ,
RC R
1 V0
q̇(t) = −
q(t) + .
RC R
we can look at what different solutions look like.
At what point is the slope zero? Does the slope ever get to
be zero? For what values of q(t) is q(t) increasing or decreasing?
Does this equation have a steady state? What is it?
End Class Notes

Section 20 103
20.2 Mini-Lecture II Here the derivations of systems is examined and a brief

mention of “state” is given.
Begin Class Notes
The system of equations for this circuit can be reduced to the
following:
q1(t) q2(t)
q̇2(t) = − ,
30 60
q̇1(t)
q̇1(t) + q̇2(t) = 6 − ,
20
q̇1(t)
q̇1(t) = −q̇2(t) + 6 − ,
20
q1(t) q2(t) q̇1(t)
q̇1(t) = − + +6− ,
30 60 20
q1(t) q2(t)
= 6− +
12 60
The system was approximated with the following matlab code:
>> clear
>> tFinal = 400;
>> t0 = 0;
>> N = 3000;
>> dt = (tFinal-t0)/N;
>> t = t0:dt:tFinal;
>> q1(1) = 0;
>> q2(1) = 0;
>>for i=2:N+1,
q1(i) = q1(i-1) + dt*(6-q1(i-1)/12+q2(i-1)/60);
q2(i) = q2(i-1) + dt*(q1(i-1)/30-q2(i-1)/60);
end
>> plot(t,q1,t,q2)
Section 20 104
>> grid on
Here is the resulting approximation for the system:
Note that the charges on the two capacitors act on two different
time scales. The charge on the first capacitor increases much faster
than the charge on the second capacitor. The first capacitor gets
closer to its steady state more quickly than the second capacitor.
Also, if you look very closely, there is a change in concavity for

the charge on the second capacitor. It starts out concave up and
then becomes concave down. The charge on the second capacitor
is not as steep as the charge on the first, and the concavity is much
less pronounced as well.
Another way to look at the approximation is in the “phase

space.” Since the slopes of q1(t) and q2(t) depend on one another,
we can plot the two functions out as if they depended on one an-

Section 20 105
other.
This representation helps demonstrate the two time scales in the

problem.
End Class Notes
20.3 Mini-Lecture III Systems are examined again, and matrix notation is intro-
duced. We will not take advantage of the use of matrices. Matrices are given here simply
to introduce the notion and insure that they are not a mystery when seen later in a linear
algebra class.
Begin Class Notes
The system of equations is the following

Loop 1 V − q̇1R1 − Cq11 − R3 (q̇1 + q̇2 + q̇3) = 0,
Loop 2 − Cq22 + Cq11 + R1q̇1 = 0,
Loop 3 − Cq22 + R2q̇3 + Cq33 = 0.
Section 20 106
We can rewrite it in the following way

q1(t)
(R1 + R3)q̇1(t) + R3q̇2(t) + R3q̇3(t) = − +V
C1
q1(t) q2(t)
R1q̇1(t) = − +
C1 C2
q2(t) q3(t)
R2q̇3(t) = −
C2 C3
Yuk. This is a lot to keep track of. Note that the state of the
system depends on the value of the functions
 
 q1 (t) 
 
 q2 (t)  .
 
 
q3(t)
 
We can try to organize things by keeping track of them in

terms of the vector above.
We can also define a 3 by 3 matrix as 9 numbers

 


a11 a12 a13 


 a21 a22 a23 
a31 a32 a33
 
where anm are numbers.
We can now define matrix multiplication by

    


a11 a12 a13   q1 



q1a11 + q2a12 + q3a13 


 a21 a22 a23   q2 

 = 

 q1a21 + q2a22 + q3a23  .
a31 a32 a33 q3 q1a31 + q2a32 + q3a33
    

Section 20 107
We can now express the original differential equation using ma-

trices
 
1
 −C
      
(R3 + R1) R3 R3   q1 0 0 q1   V
d 1
   
 
=  − C11 C12 0
  
R1 0 0   q2 q2  +  0
    
   
 dt 
   

0 0 R2 q3 0 C12 − C13 q3 0
      
What is the difference?
At first it does not seem to make things any easier. However,

this makes it much easier to implement a numerical approx-
imation on the computer. You only need one subroutine to
handle matrix-vector multiplication and define two matrices
at the beginning of your program. Most computer languages
allow you to do these things in a very efficient manner.
It also turns out that linear algebra was designed to help us

deal with these kinds of things. In a linear algebra class (or your
D.E. class) you will learn how to use matrices to find the analytic
solutions to the equations.
End Class Notes

Section 21 108
21 Polar Cooridinates
An introduction to polar coordinates is given here. The main thrust is to describe the
how a point can be represented in polar form and be able to make the transition to and
from cartesian form. By the end of the class the idea of functions in polar form is given
with an emphasis on what it means to be in the domain of a function in polar form.
21.1 Mini-Lecture I A very basic introduction to polar coordinates is given. The
use of polar coordinates is given in the same context in which students have been working
with vectors in the physics class. The basic idea is to be able to express a single point in
polar form and be able go back and forth between polar and cartesian forms.
Begin Class Notes
A vector can be written in component form
~v = −3~ı + 3~.
This is called the “cartesian form.” The same vector can be
expressed in “polar form”
√ √ √
length = 9 + 9 = 18 = 3 2,
3
θ = arctan −3 = 3π
4.

Section 21 109
In general, for ~v = x~ı + y~
√
r = x2 + y 2 x = r cos(θ)
y
tan(θ) = x y = r sin(θ).
Note: A curve is a set of points that satisfy a relationship,

y = f (x) for example. We can also find a curve the same way
using polar cooridinates. Just use the formula above and try to
manipulate the equation to get r = f (θ). For any given angle,
you can find the distance from the origin.
End Class Notes
21.2 Mini-Lecture II Functions in polar coordinates are further examined here.

Examples from the activity are examined.
Begin Class Notes
A relationship, f (x, y) = 0, defines a set of points, (x, y). Since
each point can be expressed in terms of (r, θ) as well, we can
express the relationship in polar coordinates as well.
Example: Express the relationship, x2 +y 2 = 4, in polar form.

r2 cos2(θ) + r2 sin2(θ) = 4,

2 2 2
r cos (θ) + sin (θ) = 4,
r2 = 4,
Section 21 110
r = ±2.
This is the set of all points a distance 2 from the origin.
Express the relationship, x2 + xy + y 2 = 1, in polar form.

r2 cos2(θ) + r cos(θ)r sin(θ) + r2 sin2(θ) = 1,

r cos (θ) + sin (θ) + r2 cos(θ) sin(θ) = 1,
2 2 2
r2 + r2 cos(θ) sin(θ) = 1,
r2 (1 + cos(θ) sin(θ)) = 1,
1
r2 = ,
1 + cos(θ) sin(θ)
1
r = r ,
1 + cos(θ) sin(θ)
We are not able to treat a circle or an ellipse as “y as a func-

tion of x,” but we can treat them both as “r as a function of
Section 21 111
θ.”
Here the domain is the set of all angles, and a point in the do-
main means that there is a coresponding angle for that point.
In terms of graphing these things we can think of this as turn-
ing to a given angle and then walking a certain distance in that
direction (a negative distance means walking backwords).
Graphing: To graph these functions in matlab do the follow-

ing:
>> theta = 0:2*pi/300:2*pi;

>> r = 1./(sqrt(1+cos(theta).*sin(theta)));
>> polar(theta,r)
End Class Notes
21.3 Mini-Lecture III The examples from the activity are examined.
Begin Class Notes

Section 21 112

θ
Graph the function r = 1 − cos 2 .
Graph the relationship r2 = cos(θ).
Be careful here because the negative values of r also work!

That is why there are two lobes. The square root operation

Section 21 113
has the same problems in polar coordinates as it does in carte-

sian coordinates.
Find the points where the two curves, r2 = 4 cos(θ) and r =

1 − cos(θ), intersect. Plot the two curves and mark the inter-
section points.
4 cos(θ) = (1 − cos(θ))2,
4 cos(θ) = 1 − 2 cos(θ) + cos2(θ),
0 = 1 − 6 cos(θ) + cos2(θ),
√
6 ± 32
cos(θ) = .
2
The two curves also
cross at the origin as
well as at (2, π).
Find and graph all of the points on the curve r = 2 cos(2θ) in

which the distance from the origin is 2. Plot the curve and
label the points.

Section 21 114
π 3π 5π 7π 9π
θ = 0, 2, π, 2, 2π, 2, 3π, 2 , 4π, 2 , 5π, . . .
End Class Notes

Section 22 115
22 Equations in Polar Coordinates
Functions in polar coordinates are further examined as well as finding the work done
along a curve defined by an equation in polar coordinates. The first mini-lecture focuses
on how equations in polar coordinates are represented and a brief introduction to arc-
length is given. The second mini-lecture makes the transition from arc-length to work
integral and offers a preparation for the second activity. Finally, the third mini-lecture
goes over the second activity.
22.1 Mini-Lecture I The representation of a function in polar coordinates is dis-
cussed, and a brief introduction to arc-length in polar coordinates is discussed at the end
of this mini-lecture.
Begin Class Notes
The curve r = cos(θ) looks like

n2π n2π
The astericks mark the points r , for n = 0, 1, 2,
10 10
. . .,10. Half of these points overlap, so they plot to the same
point on the
graph.

For

example

the points

for n = 1 and
2π 2π 6·2π 2π
n = 6 are cos 10 , 10 and cos 10 , 10
Be Careful: Different coordinates plot to the same point.

This is a problem with the graphical representation that we
choose to use with polar coordinates. The reason that we do
this is that we use polar coordinates to give us a simpler repre-
sentation of a relationship, but the relationship should remain

Section 22 116
relavent to the cartesian coordinates that we see around us.
Work: The main focus today is to calculate the work done

by moving some object along some curve when some force is
applied to the object.
Before we can discuss work we must first figure out the arc-
length along a curve since
Z x
work = x1
2
F~ · d~x.
The problem for us is that the domain is in terms of the angle,
θ, rather than on a distance, x.
How do we find the distance?
√
The distance is 4x2 + 4y 2. The problem is that
x = r(θ) cos(θ),
y = r(θ) sin(θ).

Section 22 117
How do we get things in terms of

−1
NX
( )4θ?
n=0
This will be explorered in the first activity today. Remember
that we need to do this so that we can convert the sum into
an integral and then use the fundamental theorem.
Hint for the activity: The formula for a circle is r(θ) = R

where R is a constant.
End Class Notes
22.2 Mini-Lecture II The arc-length formula for polar coordinates is explorered,

and the formula for work is then derived.
Begin Class Notes
The arclength of a curve from an angle α to an angle β is
Z β r
α
r2(θ) + (r0(θ))2 dθ.
Example: What is the length of the curve r(θ) = R sin(θ)

from α to β?
r(θ) = R sin(θ)
r0(θ) = R cos(θ)
Z β r
arc-length = α
R2 sin2(θ) + R2 cos2(θ) dθ,
Z β
= α R dθ
= R(β − α).
Who cares about arc-length? Well, we need this same idea if we

want to find the work due to a force on an object that moves
along some curve.
Section 22 118
Example: Suppose that a mass moves through space along a

line, x = 2. If there is a mass, M , at the origin and the mass
of the object is m what is the work done on the object due to
gravity?
We need to isolate the following things:
GM m
1. Find the total force on the object, r2
.
2. Find the component that is along the direction of travel. This
depends on the angle θ.
3. Approximate the work using a Riemann sum. The work along
any small segment is the distance times the force in the direc-
tion of movement.
4. Convert the sum to an integral, and solve the integral.

Section 22 119
End Class Notes
22.3 Mini-Lecture III The work integral from the activity and its solution are
found. This is simply an overview of the activity itself.
Begin Class Notes
Example: Suppose that a mass moves through space along a
line, x = 2. If there is a mass, M , at the origin and the mass
of the object is m what is the work done on the object due to
gravity?
Note that the line x = 2 can be cnverted to polar form by

2 = r cos(θ),
2
r(θ) = cos(θ) = 2 sec(θ).
The force tangent to the curve on the particle is in the direction

along the hypotenuse in the graph above. The component

Section 22 120
that is along the direction of the travel is along the edge of

the triangle opposite the angle θ. The component of the force
in the direction of the travel must be
GM m
sin(θ).
r2
The resulting work integral is

Z π GM m r
Work = 4
−π 2
sin(θ) r2(θ) + (r0(θ))2 dθ
4 r
Z π GM m r
= 4
−π 2
sin(θ) 4 sec2(θ) + 4 sec2(θ) tan2(θ) dθ
4 4 sec (θ)
Z π GM m r
2
= 4
−π cos (θ) sin(θ) 4 sec2(θ) (1 + tan2(θ)) dθ
4 4
Z π GM m r
2
= 4
−π cos (θ) sin(θ)2 sec(θ) 1 + tan2(θ) dθ
4 4
Z π GM m
= 4
−π cos2(θ) sin(θ)2 sec2(θ) dθ
4 4
Z π GM m
4
= −π sin(θ) dθ
4 2
GM m π
4
= − cos(θ) −π
2 √ 4
√
GM m 2 GM m 2
= − +
2 2 2 2
= 0.
Does this make sense? Why should the work be zero? Look
at the direction of the work in relation to the direction of
travel.
Hint for the homework: What is the work done in a grav-

itational system for an object moving in a circle? The formula for
Section 23 121
a circle is r(θ) = R. Since the direction of the force of gravity is

perindicular to the direction of movement, the work is zero.
End Class Notes

Section 23 122
23 Limits
Limits were seen at the very beginning of this course. However, the approach rested
on the heuristics of limits and was not rigorous. A more rigorous approach to limits is
begun at this time. The hope is that by the end of the course the students will have the
maturity to understand the concepts as well as apply them.
The potential due to a rod with a uniform charge density is examined. The potential
is derived in the first mini-lecture, and the first activity focuses on finding the potential
at different points for rods of different lengths. This is a fairly low-key exercise. The
main goal is for the students to realize that the potential near the origin depends on a
non-trivial way on the length of the rod and and the distance from the rod.
The second mini-lecture focuses on the limit. An attempt is made to examine the
heuristics and give a graphical view of what limits are. The second activity reinforces this
and begins an epsilon/delta type argument for a specific limit. This is further expanded
upon in the last mini-lecture.
23.1 Mini-Lecture I The potential due to a rod of length L which has a uniform
charge density is derived. The resulting formula is used to explore what a limit is.
Begin Class Notes
The potential above a rod of length L with a uniform charge
density, λ, is found. The potential at a point that is a distance
d above the left end of the rod is found.
potential =
PN −1
n=0
√ kλ 4x →
RL
0
√ kλ dx.
2 d +x2n d2 +x2
To solve this equation we use trigonometric substitution, x =

Section 23 123
d tan(θ). The integral becomes

Z L kλ Z L kλ 2
√ dx = d sec (θ) dθ
0 d2 + x2 x=0 d sec(θ)
Z L
= x=0
kλ sec(θ) dθ
L
= kλ ln (sec(θ) + tan(θ)) x=0

√


2
x +d 2 x  L
= kλ ln 
 +  0
d d
√ 
2
L +d 2 L
= kλ ln 
 +   − kλ ln(1)
d d
√ 
2
L +d 2 L
= kλ ln 
 +  .
d d
Question: What happens to the potential as you get close to
the origin? What if the length, L, also gets close to zero?
End Class Notes
23.2 Mini-Lecture II The basic idea the limit is explored during the second mini-
lecture. The basic idea is to remind the students of what the limit is. This is mostly a
graphical view, and a more rigorous example is examined in the third mini-lecture.
Begin Class Notes
What is the potential near the origin as you let L and d get
close to zero? It depends on how they go to zero!
We cannot just plug in values like L = 0 and d = 0. It is much

more complicated than that. It turns out that this is a very
weird example, and the problem is that we are changing two
things at once. This kind of problem will be the kind of thing
you will look at in a multi-variate course. For now, we will
have to simplify things a bit before we can tackle anything
this complicated.

Section 23 124
Example: Sketch a plot of the function



 0 t ≤ 0,
f (t) =  e−1/t
2

t > 0.
Is this function continuous? You cannot just plug in values of

t = 0 into the function! Instead you have to look at what
happens to the value of the function as t gets closer and closer
to zero.
1
One way to do this is let tn = 2n and see what happens as n
gets bigger and bigger:

Section 23 125
It looks like the function gets closer and closer to 0 as t gets

closer and closer to zero.
We will try to make this more concrete in the next activity.
End Class Notes
23.3 Mini-Lecture III The results of the second activity are examined.
Begin Class Notes
What happens to f (t) = tt−1 2 −1 as t approaches 1?
As t gets closer and closer to one the numerator gets close to

zero and the denominator gets close to zero. Even though
you can factor the denominator, the function is not defined at
t = 1. To examine the behavior of the function you have to
see what happens away from t = 1.

1
In fact of you plot f 2n you get
it looks like it gets close to 12 . How do we show this?
the basic idea is to show that the values where the function is

Section 23 126
1
close to 2 is in some small area close to t = 0.
I start out assuming that the function is close to 21 . The question

I then ask is whether or not this is true for all values of t in
some neighborhood close to t = 0:

t−1 1

t2 −1 − 2
<
t−1 1
− <

(t−1)(t+1)
2

1 1
−
t+1 2 <
1 1
− < t+1 − 2 <
−2(t + 1) < 2 − (t + 1) < 2(t + 1)
(1 − 2)(t + 1) < 2 < (1 + 2)(t + 1)
This gives us two different equations:
2
t+1 <
1 − 2
2
t < −1
1 − 2
1 + 2
t <
1 − 2
We also have that the following identity must be satisfied:

2
t+1 >
1 + 2
2
t > −1
1 + 2
1 − 2
t >
1 + 2
For every value of t between these two values the value of

the function is within of 12 .
Section 23 127
For any positive value of there is a neighborhood around t = 0

for which every value of t in the neighborhood the value of the func-
tion is within of 21 . Moreover, as gets closer and closer to zero,
the length of the neighborhood gets closer and closer to zero.
End Class Notes

Section 24 128
24 Limits
The main focus on this day is limits. During the first semester a brief graphical view
of limits was given. The goal for the next two days is to make the ideas more concrete.
This day leads up to the -δ view of limits.
During the first mini-lecture a graphical view is given and he ideas behind the -δ
proofs is given. The second mini-lecture focuses on the limit as a process and what it
means to approach a point in the domain and what happens in the domain of the function.
The final mini-lecture provides a broad overview to limits and gives some pathalogic
examples in order to demonstrate some of the things that have to be considered when
using limits.
24.1 Mini-Lecture I A graphical example of a limit is given. The example is
followed up with a brief discussion on how we are trying to find some points in the
domain given that the a collection of points in the range of the function is close to a
particular value.
Begin Class Notes







2t t≤1
f (t) = 

1 t=1
 4 − 2t t > 1.



What happens to f (t) as t gets closer and closer to 1? When

t = 1 the function is 1. However, if you are just a little bit
away from 1 the story is quite different. Here is the procedure
that we will follow:

Section 24 129
1. We ask what happens to the value of f (t) when t is close to

t̂ = 1 but not equal to 1. We are concentrating on the range
of the function given that we are restricting the domain to be
close to 1.
2. Is the value of the function close to some number, L = 2
(excluding when t is exactly equal to t̂).
3. If the range of the function looks like it is close to some number
on the restricted domain we then try to make an analytic
argument.
(a) We insist that the function is close to some number,
|f (t) − L| < .
(b) We then ask if we can find a small interval to the left of t̂

for which this is always true
t̂ − t < δ.
(We hope to be able to show what δ > 0 is given any
small, positive number .)
(c) We ask if we can also find a small interval to the right of
t̂ for which this is always true as well
t − t̂ < δ.
If we can find a δ for which this is true for every t in the interval
and the value of δ depends only on then we say that the limit
exists and is L,
lim f (t) = L.
t→t̂

Section 24 130
In our example above the limit exists and is equal to 2 even

though the value of the function is actually equal to 1 at t̂ = 1.
End Class Notes
24.2 Mini-Lecture II The graphical idea of limit is expanded upon, and the idea
of focusing on the what is happening in the range given that the domain is restricted is
examined. The principle idea here is that the idea of limits is a process and not simply
just looking at the value of the function at one point.
Begin Class Notes
The idea of finding a limit is not about just plugging in the
value of one particular value from the domain and looking at
the value returned by the function. Instead, we are looking
at a process in which you ask what is happening to the range
over all of the points in some restricted part of the domain.
Here we are doing two things:
1. Decide if we think that the function has a limit. (Here we

graph the function and maybe even plug in a whole bunch of
different numbers. The main goal here is to just understand
the function.)
2. Prove whether or not the limit exists.
We need the first step to understand the mathematics. We need

the second step to communicate the mathematics.
We will concentrate on the first part today. During the next

meeting we will concentrate on the second part. In terms of the
first part we will play a game:

Section 24 131
n
1
1. Approximate the limit on the left. Let tn = t̂ − 2 . Graph
the values of f (tn).
n
1
2. Approximate the limit on the right. Let tn = t̂+ 2 . Graph
the values of f (tn).
If the two numbers are the same it may be that the limit exists
and is equal to that number. If they are different it may be that
the limit does not exist.
End Class Notes
24.3 Mini-Lecture III A final overview of limits is given. Several examples are also
provided. Most of the examples in the activity are relatively straightforward so some of
the standard pathalogical examples are given here just as a warning about some of the
strange things that can happen. The formal defintion of the limit is given at the end of
the day.
Begin Class Notes
The basic idea is that we look at what happens to the range
of a function on a restricted domain. The way that we will
eventually show that limits exist is a bit backwards. We will
restrict the range and then find the cooresponding restriction
in the domain. For now, we are concentrating on the process
of finding the limits in the first place.
Example: What happens to the following function near the

origin,
|x|
f (t) = ?
x

Section 24 132
lim f (t) = −1
x− →0
lim f (t) = 1.
x+ →0
The limit does not exist.
Example: What happens to the following function near the

origin,
1
 
f (t) = sin   .
t
1 1
For any interval that looks like t1 − t2 = 2π we get one full
Section 25 133
cycle of the sine wave. Since the values of 1t go from [1, ∞) for
0 < t ≤ 1 there is an infinite number of these little intervals.
The limit does not exist. Extra credit find three different
sets of points t0, t1, t2, t3, . . . the approach the origin
and the function converges to a different number for each
sequence of points.
Definition of the limit. The limit,

lim f (t) = L,
t→t̂
exists if given any > 0 we can find an interval such that

|f (t) − L| <
(i.e. f (t) is “close” to L) for every value of t in the domain
t̂ < t < t̂ + δ
t̂ − δ < t < t̂.
Given an can we find the δ?

End Class Notes

Section 25 134
25 L’Hôpital’s Rule
The main focus of this day is L’Hôptial’s Rule. The rule is motivated using Taylor
polynomials. The rule is not proved, but it is mentioned that the correct way to do this
is to use the Mean Value Theorem.
The basic situation is outlined in the first mini-lecture. This is a rather short mini-
lecture since both activities may take a fair amount of time. The second activity outlines
the approach used in the second activity and provides the general form for Maclaurin
Series. In the final mini-lecture L’Hôpital’s Rule is explicitly given and several examples
are given.
25.1 Mini-Lecture I This is a very brief lecture. The day’s activities may take a
long time so the lecture time for the first two mini-lectures is kept to a minimum. The
basic goal is to just lay out the basic situation for when L’Hôptial’s rule is used.
Begin Class Notes
We will examine limits of the form
f (t)
lim .
t→t̂ g(t)
If both of the functions, f (t) and g(t), get close to zero as t

approachs t̂, what happens to the ratio? It will turn out that
what really matters is the rate at which they approach zero.
For the first activity try to approximate the limits numerically.

We will discuss how to get an analytic answer at the end of the
class.
End Class Notes
25.2 Mini-Lecture II Again, this is a brief lecture. The basic situation is reiterated,
and a brief refresher on Maclaurin Series is given.
Begin Class Notes
Here we are looking at limits that look like ratios
f (t)
lim .
t→t̂ g(t)
Again, if both of the functions, f (t) and g(t), approach zero

then what we have to pay attention to is the rate at which
they approach zero. The function that gets close to zero faster
will have more influence.
Section 25 135
In the next activity we will need to find a Maclaurin Series for

a function, f (t), around a point, t̂,
(t − t̂)2 00
0 (t − t̂)3 000
P (t) = f (t̂) + (t − t̂)f (t̂) + f (t̂) + f (t̂) +
2! 3!
(t − t̂)4 IV (t − t̂)n (n)
f (t̂) + · · · + f (t̂) + · · ·
4! n!
In particular you will have to find the ratio

f (t)
“=”
g(t)
2 3 4
f (t̂) + (t − t̂)f 0(t̂) + (t−2!t̂) f 00(t̂) + (t−3!t̂) f 000(t̂) + (t−4!t̂) f IV (t̂) + · · ·
2 3 4
g(t̂) + (t − t̂)g 0(t̂) + (t−2!t̂) g 00(t̂) + (t−3!t̂) g 000(t̂) + (t−4!t̂) g IV (t̂) + · · ·
What happens to this ratio when f (t) and g(t) approach zero near
t̂?
End Class Notes
25.3 Mini-Lecture III L’Hôpital’s Rule is formally stated and many examples are
given.
Begin Class Notes
The ratio can be rewritten in terms of the Maclaurin series.
Here we assume that both f (t) and g(t) approach zero:
f (t)
“=”
g(t)
2 3 4
(t − t̂)f 0(t̂) + (t−2!t̂) f 00(t̂) + (t−3!t̂) f 000(t̂) + (t−4!t̂) f IV (t̂) + · · ·
2 3 4
(t − t̂)g 0(t̂) + (t−2!t̂) g 00(t̂) + (t−3!t̂) g 000(t̂) + (t−4!t̂) g IV (t̂) + · · ·
!
0 (t−t̂) 00 (t−t̂)2 000 (t−t̂)3 IV
(t − t̂) f (t̂) + 2! f (t̂) + 3! f (t̂) + 4! f (t̂) + ···
= (t−t̂) 00 (t−t̂)2 000 (t−t̂)3 IV
! .
(t − t̂) g 0(t̂) + 2! g (t̂) + 3! g (t̂) + 4! g (t̂) + ···

Section 25 136
The (t − t̂) can be factored out. As t approaches t̂ the result

0
looks like fg0((t̂)t̂) .
This leads to L’Hôpital’s Rule. If

lim f (t) = 0, and
t→t̂
lim g(t) = 0,
t→t̂
then
f (t) f 0(t)
lim = lim 0 .
t→t̂ g(t) t→t̂ g (t)
The same result is true if both of the functions diverge (go
to ∞) as well.
We motivated the idea using Maclaurin Series, but this is not

the correct way to prove this result. The proper way to prove
this result is to use the Mean Value Theorem.
√
x+2−2
Example: limt→2 x−2 .
Example: limt→0 sin(t)

t .
t
Example: limt→∞ te2 .
Example: 01 t cos(t)−sin(t) dt.

R
t2
This is an improper integral and looks like
sin(t) 1
lim
a→0 t a


Section 25 137
Example: limt→∞ ln(t)

t .
Example: 01 ln(t) dt
R
This is an improper integral

1 ln(t) 1
lim t ln(t) − t a = lim − t a.

a→0

a→0 1
t
Note that this is a handy trick. If you have something that looks
like 0 · ∞ it can be converted to look like ∞1 .
0
End Class Notes

Section 26 138
26 L’Hôpital’s Rule
L’Hôpital’s Rule is examined again. During this day the method is further expanded
upon in order to work with composition of functions. The first mini-lecture is used
to recap the method and also provides an example of how composition can be used to
simplify some very difficult limits. The following two mini-lectures look primarily at
different examples and recap the activities.
26.1 Mini-Lecture I L’Hôpital’s Rule is stated again, and a brief discussion on
composition of functions is given.
Begin Class Notes
L’Hôpital’s Rule If
lim f (t) = 0, and
t→t̂
lim g(t) = 0,
t→t̂
then
f (t) f 0(t)
lim = lim 0 .
t→t̂ g(t) t→t̂ g (t)
The same result is true if both of the functions diverge (go
to ∞ or −∞) as well.
When working with limits we can also take advantage of com-

position of functions as well. For example if
lim g(t) = L, and
t→t̂
lim f (t) = M,
t→L
then
lim f (g(t)) = M.
t→t̂
So what? In some circumstances we can redefine a function in

terms of composition. For example, what is
lim (t)t?
t→0

Section 26 139
Well, define g(t) to be the natural log of the original function,

t

g(t) = ln (t) = t ln(t).
Then (t)t = eg(t). Looking at the limit for g(t) we get
ln(t)
lim t ln(t) = lim 1 ,
t→0 t→0
t
1
= lim t ,
t→0 −1
t2
= lim −t,
t→0
= 0.
This means that
limt→0 (t)t = e0 = 1.
End Class Notes
26.2 Mini-Lecture II Examples from the activity are examined.

Begin Class Notes
1
Example: Show that t ln(t) is equal to e for all t > 0.
1
Let L = t ln(t) then
1 !
1
ln(L) = ln t ln(t) = ln(t) ln(t) = 1.
L = e1 = e.
1
Example: Show that limt→0(1 + t) t is equal to e.
1 1
ln (1 + t) t = t ln(1 + t)
1
limt→0 1t ln(1 + t) = limt→0 ln(1+t)
t = limt→0 1+t
1 = 1.
1
⇒ limt→0(1 + t) t = e1 = e.
Section 26 140
1
Example: Find limt→∞ (et − 1) t .
1 ln(et −1)
!
t
ln (e − 1) t = t
et
ln et −1
( ) t
(e −1) t t
limt→∞ t = limt→∞ 1 = limt→∞ (ete−1) = limt→∞ eet = 1.
1
limt→∞ (et − 1) t = e1 = e.
End Class Notes
26.3 Mini-Lecture III Again, the examples from the activity are examined.
Begin Class Notes
Example: Which of the following series converge?
n−5 n

P∞
1. n=1 n . We will look at the individual terms:
n−5 n 5 n

n = 1 − n .
n
ln 1 − n5 = n ln 1 − n5 .
1 5
ln(1− n5 ) 5 n2
1− n
limn→∞ 1 = lim n→∞ − 1 = limn→∞ −5 1−1 5 = −5.
n n2 n

limn→∞ n−5
n = e−5.
The individual terms do not go to zero so the series cannot
converge.
P∞ n!
2. n=1 nn .
(n+1)!
(n+1)n+1 (n)n n n

n! = (n + 1) (n+1)n+1 = n+1
nn

Section 26 141

n n  
n 
 
ln    = n ln 
n+1 n+1
(ln(n) − ln(n + 1))
lim
n→∞
n (ln(n) − ln(n + 1)) = lim
n→∞ 1
n
1 1
n − n+1
= n→∞
lim −1
n2
n2
= lim −n +
n→∞ n+1
n(n + 1) n2
= lim −
n→∞
+
n+1 n+1
2
n − n(n + 1)
= lim
n→∞ n+1
−n
= lim
n→∞ n + 1
= −1.
The original term converges to e−1 which is less than one so
the series converges by the ratio test.
P∞ nn
3. n=1 2n2 .
1 1
nn n n n n

n
22n
= 22
= 4 .
As n → ∞ the equation diverges. The series diverges by the
root test.
End Class Notes

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Calculus Class Notes for the Combined Calculus and

In Search of Newton Calculus and Physics

An introduction to complex numbers is given. It is assumed that students have not

Ex: What are the roots of g(t) = t2 + 1? t2 = −1 bad news!

Any “complex” number is a combination of “real” numbers and

Complex numbers are added by adding their real and complex

In Search of Newton Calculus and Physics

Note: The rules of multiplication are consistent with every-

Notation: If a number, z, is a complex number we write

Graphical Views: We can treat the real part as the x-

Any complex number can be written as x + jy.

Definition: The complex conjugate of a complex number, z̄,

From this definition, the product z z̄ is always a real number.

Note: Any complex number can be expressed as z = x + jy.

satisfy z z̄ = 4. If z = x + jy then this is the set of numbers that

End Class Notes

and imaginary) it is the same as adding x and y-components

We can also multiply complex numbers:

Finally, we can also perform almost all of the operations based

During the next meeting we will examine how to express a com-

In Search of Newton Calculus and Physics

2 Complex Numbers and Euler’s Formula

The representation of complex numbers as vectors is examined, and complex numbers

In polar form, the length of this vector is

Note: The Taylor polynomial for a function, f (t), around t =

2.2 Mini-Lecture II Euler’s Formula is derived.

Then let t = jθ,

In Search of Newton Calculus and Physics

Since any complex number can be written as

Any complex number can be represented using Euler’s Formula!

Note: Multiplying complex numbers:

End Class Notes

In terms of roots you have to do the operations in opposite

Another way to write the number is to spin around the complex

Example: If you want to find the roots of 1, you have to be

In Search of Newton Calculus and Physics

Find the three cube roots of 1.

In Search of Newton Calculus and Physics

3 Roots and Complex Numbers

Problem: There is not a unique way to express the angle:

No Problem: This is actually an advantage! We can use this

In Search of Newton Calculus and Physics

Other examples are

The goal is to find the function, x(t), that satisfies an equation.

After substituting this back into the equation we get

In Search of Newton Calculus and Physics

Important Aspect: Being able to find the solution to a full

If the real part is negative we get exponential decay, and if the

In Search of Newton Calculus and Physics

4 Taylor Series Solutions to Differential Equations

We will assume that there is no friction. Applying Newton’s

In Search of Newton Calculus and Physics

So Newton’s Second Law for this case is

The Taylor Series for x(t) around t0 = 0 is

To find the values of the derivatives we will make use of the

4.2 Mini-Lecture II A quick overview of the previous activity is given.

First find the second derivative at t = 0:

Next find the third derivative and evaluate it at t = 0:

Next find the fourth derivative and evaluate it at t = 0:

Next find the fifth derivative and evaluate it at t = 0:

Next find the sixth derivative and evaluate it at t = 0:

The Taylor polynomial is

The result is a cosine function! Does this make sense? What

1. Choose any > 0. (This can be a number very close to zero