organizations needed to work closely with their customers, intermediaries as well as

suppliers thus fostering close working relationships with members of the marketing
system. Companies such as Intel, Xerox, and Toyota formed partnering
relationships with suppliers and customers to practice TQM.

Other developments such as an increase in the number of demanding customers,

increased fragmentation of markets, and generally high level of product quality
forced business to seek sustainable competitive advantages. A competitive
advantage is sustainable only when it is not easily replicated. One such sustainable
competitive advantage is the relationship that a firm develops with its customers.

SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT ON CRM

The relationship marketing is supported by the growing research interest in different

facets of this concept. Researchers in different countries observed this shift in
relationship and started exploring the
phenomenon. The initial approaches to CRM can be broadly classified as:

1. The Anglo-Australia Approach,

2. The Nordic Approach, and
3. The North American Approach.

The Anglo-Australian approach integrated the contemporary theories of quality

management services marketing and customer relationship economics to explain the
emergence of relationship marketing

7
The Nordic approach views relationship marketing as the confluence of interactive
network theory, services marketing and customer relationship economics. The
interactive network theory of industrial marketing views marketing as an interactive
process in a context where relationship building is an area of primary concern for
marketers.

Quality
Management

Services Customer
Marketing Relationship
Concepts Economics

Relationship
Marketing

Figure 1.2 Anglo-Australian Approach of Relationship Marketing

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 Interactive
Network

Customer
Service Relationship
Marketing Economics

Relationship
Marketing

Figure 1.3 Nordic Approach to Relationship Marketing

In contrast, the initial focus of the North American scholars was on the relationship
between the buyer and seller operating within the context of the organizational
environment which facilitated the buyer seller relationship.

Organisational Buyer
Environment

Relationship
Manager

Figure 1.4 North American Approach to Relationship Marketing

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One of the broader approaches to CRM emerged from the research conducted by
academics at the Centre for Relationship Marketing and Service Management at the
Cranfield University, U.K. The broadened view of relationship marketing addresses
a total of six key market domains, not just the traditional customer market. It also
advocated for a transition for marketing from a limited functional role to a cross-
functional role and a shift towards marketing activities for customer retention in
addition to the conventional customer retention in addition to the conventional
customer acquisition.

The six markets are as follows

1. Customer markets existing and prospective customers as well as

intermediaries.
2. Referral markets existing customers who recommend to other prospects,

hospital or a consultant who recommends a specific IT solution,

3. Influence markets government, consumer groups, business press and
financial analysts.
4. Recruitment markets for attracting the right employees to the organization,
5. Supplier markets suppliers of raw materials, components, services, etc.,
and
6. Internal markets - the organization including internal departments and staff.

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 Internal
Markets

Supplier Referral
Markets Markets
Customer
Markets

Recruitment Influence
Markets Markets

Figure 1.5 The Six Markets Framework

DEFINING CRM

The preceding discussions highlight the range of perspectives adopted by

researchers in understanding and explaining relationships. Similarly in marketing
literature, the terms customer relationship management and relationship marketing
have been used interchangeable to reflect a variety of themes and perspectives.

Some of these themes offer a narrow functional marketing perspectives while others
offer a perspective that is broad and somewhat paradigmatic in approach and
orientation. A narrow perspective of customer relationship management is database
marketing emphasizing the promotional aspects of marketing linked to database
efforts, Another view point is to consider CRM only as customer retention in which
a variety of after marketing tactics are used for customer bonding or staying in
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touch after the sale is done. A more popular approach with recent application of
information technology is to focus on individual or one to one relationship with
customer that integrates database knowledge with a long-term customer retention
and growth strategy.

Jackson applied the individual account concept in industrial market to suggest

markets CRM to mean, marketing oriented toward strong, lasting relationship with
individual accounts

McKenna offered a more strategic view by putting the customer first and shifting
the role of marketing from manipulating the customer (telling & selling) to genuine
customer involvement (communicating & sharing the knowledge).

Berry, in a broader term stressed that attracting new customers should be viewed
only as intermediate step in the marketing process. Developing closer relationships
with this customers and turning them into loyal is an equally important aspect of
marketing. Thus, he defined relationship marketing as attracting, maintaining, and,
enhancing customer relationships.

By focusing on the value of interaction in marketing and its consequent impact on a

customer relationships, a broader perspective espouses that customer relationship
should be the dominant paradigm of marketing. As Gronroos stated: Marketing is to
establish, maintain and enhance relationship with customers and other partners, at a
profit, so that the objectives of the parties involved are met. This is achieved by a
mutual exchange and fulfillment of promises. The implication of Gronroos
definition is that customer relationships is should be devoted to building and
enhancing such relationship. Similarly, Morgan and Hunt suggested that
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relationship marketing refers to all marketing activities directed towards
establishing, developing and maintaining successful relationships.

Figure 1.1 Shift in focus.

Traditional Marketing Focus Provider

Parity

Product Price Customer

Consideration
and
Potential
Promotion Place Purchase

Customer Experience Focus Customer

Differential
Marketing Sales
Interactions Interactions Customer
Satisfaction
Loyalty,
Service Support and
Interactions Interactions Value

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BENEFITS OF CRM

Customers are Profitable over a period of time

Studies by the US-based Bain and Company have shown that a customer becomes
more profitable with time because the initial acquisition cost exceeds gross margin
while the retention costs are much lower. When an organization retains the
customer, it gets a larger share of the customers wallet at a higher profit-one percent
increase in sale to existing customer increase profits by 17 per cent while the same
amount of sale to new customer increased profit by only 3 per cent. This huge
different is explained by the fact that for most companies the cost of acquiring the
customer is very high. It costs six to eight times more to sell to a new customer than
to sell to an existing one. The same study also highlighted that a company can boost
its profit up 85 per cent by increasing its annual customer retention by only 5 per
cent.

Similarly, studies have shown that the probability of selling a product to a prospect
is 15 per cent while it is 50 per cent to a existing customer. Thus, the time, the effort
and the costs of selling are much lower for an existing customer.

Customer probability is Skewed

An analysis of the revenue and profit contribution of customer base of banks in the
US, Europe and Australia showed the following:

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 - The top 20 per cent of the customers contribute to 150 per cent of the profits
while the bottom 20 per cent drain 50 per cent of the profits and the rest 60
per cent just break even.

Experiences of Indian organizations are on similar lines. In a large public sector

Banks, the top 23 per cent of the customers contribute to 77 per cent of the
revenues. Similarly, the top 27 per cent customers of a leading cellular phone
service provider contributes to 75 per cent of the revenues.

The implication of such a skew in customer profitability and revenue contribution

would face serious problems. It also highlights the fact that one has to adopt
different strategies for different customer groups:

- Programmes have to be developed to retain and build stronger bonds with

- Activity-Based Costing analysis has to be done with the middle group of

addition, cross-selling and up selling should be done to increase the

profitability of these customers.

- An analysis of the bottom growth has to be done to identify those customers

service has to reduce by encouraging them to use lower cost channels. In

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 extreme cases, some of these customers will be encouraged to defect to
competitors. Outsourcing of loss making customers to specialized low
overhead agencies is an emerging trend.

Marketing Benefits of CRM

data. Collection of data related to buying and consumption behavior will be an

ongoing process. In many cases, the transaction data is automatically collected
some times real time as in the e-commerce transaction. This rich repository of
customer information and knowledge updated through regular interactions and
actual customer transactions and purchase behavior will help marketers to develop
and market customer centric products successfully.

Customized promotions-based customer preferences and purchase patterns will

substantially reduce the wasteful expenditure of mass communication and even
direct mailing. As a customized promotion are more focused and are based on a
deeper insight of existing customers, they have a greater chance of conversion to
sales.

Service Benefits of CRM

Research findings conducted across industries as a part of a Technical Assistance
Research Project (TARP) indicate that:

- 95 per cent of the customers do not bother to complain, the just take their
business else where.

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 - Most loyal customers take time to complain. This enables the product /
service provider to improve and ensure that such mistake do not recur.

- A typical dissatisfied customer will tell an average of 14 others about a bad

experience while she will tell only six about a satisfying experience with an
organization.

- 70 per cent of customers who complain will do business with a company

again if it quickly takes care of a service problem.

ENABLES FOR THE GROWTH OF CRM

The tremendous growth of interest and investment in CRM across the globe can be
attributed to the following macro environmental factors:

(a) Emergence to service economy,

(b) Emergence of market economy
(c) Global orientation of businesses, and
(d) Aging population of the economically advanced economies.

Emergence of Service Economy

The emergence of service economy is a global phenomenon. In the US, the service
sector accounts for over 75 per cent of GNP and employees 80 per cent of the work
force. The service sector contribute to 60 70 per cent of the GDP of economically
advanced nations of Western Europe, Canada and Japan. The increasing
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contribution of service sector is not limited to develop countries. Developing
economies like China, Indonesia and Thailand employ about 40 per cent of the
work force in the service sector. In the year 2001, the service sector contributed to
48 per cent of GDP in India, 54 per cent in Philippines and 33 per cent in China.
The average annual growth rate of the services during the decade of 1990s was 8
per cent in India, 9 per cent in China and 4.1 per cent in Philippines (Statistical
Outline of India, 2002 2003).

Advanced countries progressed from agriculture to industrial and then to post

industrial economies. The shift from manufacturing to services was spread over a
few decades of the last century. However, in developing countries, the growth is
lead by all three sectors of the economy in varying proportions.

The growing importance of services resulted in greater customer orientation as

services are characterized by simultaneity / inseparability. It implies that the
production and consumption of services are inseparable. In services, one needs to be
closed to customers to deliver the service offering. The factory is where the
customer is and services offered in real time. The customer perceives the production
process as part of service consumption, not just the outcome of production process
as in traditional marketing of physical goods. Therefore, it is not surprising that
service businesses like hotels, airlines, banking, financial services, telecom and
retailing where the early adopters of CRM.

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Emergence of Market Economy

In addition to the shift towards service, there is a global emergence of the market
economy. The power is more to the market as compare to the controlled economy.
Market regulation was in place all over the world including the US, Europe, USSR,
China and India. The 1990s witnessed acceleration in the deregulation of many
large industries including banking, telecommunications, broadcasting and airlines
across the world. As a result, market orientation firms operating intensely
competitive market now takes decision that was once controlled by the government.
The focus have shifted from capacity creation under control to the markets. Market
oriented economy necessitated a customer focus and boosted the importance of
CRM.

Global Orientation of Businesses

National boundaries are giving way to either a borderless world or atleast a regional
world resulting in the emergence of trading blocks like North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA), European Union and the Association of South East Asian
Nations (ASEAN). The abolishment of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT). And the emergence of World Trade Organization (WTO) helped create a
global orientation for business establishment. Increasing international trade became
the growth engine for the global economy. Liberalisation of markets and trade
proved to be a far stronger growth engine. It has eased the entry into foreign
markets. Firms need stronger customer orientation to be able to tab opportunities
in new markets while defending themselves in their home markets.

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Aging Population in Economically Developed Countries

The economically advanced nations are witnessing an aging of their population. In

2000, 12.6 per cent of the US population was 65 years of age or older. The
comparative figures for Sweden and Japan were 17.2 per cent and 17 per cent of
their respective population (Sheth and Mittal, 2004). This trend is visible in most
part of Europe, except in Ireland (Leeflang and Raij, 1995). Aging of population has
been attributed to the combined effects of a slow down in birth rate and an
increased in life expectancy. While an aging population creates new opportunities
for wellness, financial wellbeing, safety and security and recreation (Sheth and
Mittal, 2004), it has also slowed the markets for traditional goods and services
designed for a younger population. Therefore, in these markets, growth is being

driven by a growing population. Marketers are now forced to develop a deep

understanding of their existing customers and meet their ever changing needs
through suitable products and services. Indeed, most large companies, especially the
services sector, wants to become One-Stop-Shop for the customers.

After identifying and discussing the factors responsible for the growth of CRM
across the globe, we now evaluate the reasons as to why managing customer
relationship has become critical for business.

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