Orbital maneuver

In spaceflight, an orbital maneuver (otherwise known as aburn) is the use of propulsion systems to change theorbit of a spacecraft.
For spacecraft far from Earth (for example those in orbits around the Sun) an orbital maneuver is called a deep-space maneuver
(DSM).

The rest of the flight, especially in atransfer orbit, is called coasting.

Contents
General
Rocket equation
Delta-v
Delta-v budget
Impulsive maneuvers
Applying a low thrust over a longer period of time
Assists
Oberth effect
Gravitational assist

Transfer orbits
Hohmann transfer
Bi-elliptic transfer
Low energy transfer
Orbital inclination change
Constant-thrust trajectory
Rendezvous and docking
Orbit phasing
Space rendezvous and docking
See also
References
External links

General

Rocket equation
The Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, or ideal rocket equation is an equation that is useful for considering vehicles that follow the
basic principle of a rocket: where a device that can apply acceleration to itself (a thrust) by expelling part of its mass with high speed
and moving due to the conservation of momentum. Specifically, it is a mathematical equation that relates the delta-v (the maximum
change of speed of the rocket if no other external forces act) with the effective exhaust velocity and the initial and final mass of a
rocket (or other reaction engine.)

For any such maneuver (or journey involving a number of such maneuvers):
where:

is the initial total mass, including propellant,

is the final total mass,
is the effective exhaust velocity ( where
is the specific impulse expressed as a time period
and is the gravitational constant),
is delta-v - the maximum change of speed of the
vehicle (with no external forces acting).

Delta-v
The applied change in speed of each maneuver is referred to asdelta-v ( ). Rocket mass ratios versus final
velocity calculated from the rocket
equation
Delta-v budget
The total delta-v for all and each maneuver is estimated for a mission and is called a
delta-v budget. With a good approximation of the delta-v budget designers can estimate the fuel to payload requirements of the
spacecraft using the rocket equation.

Impulsive maneuvers
An "impulsive maneuver" is the mathematical model of a maneuver as an
instantaneous change in the spacecraft's velocity (magnitude and/or direction) as
illustrated in figure 1. It is the limit case of a burn to generate a particular amount of
delta-v, as the burn time tends to zero.

In the physical world no truly instantaneous change in velocity is possible as this

would require an "infinite force" applied during an "infinitely short time" but as a
mathematical model it in most cases describes the effect of a maneuver on the orbit
very well. Figure 1: Approximation of a finite
thrust maneuver with an impulsive
The off-set of the velocity vector after the end of real burn from the velocity vector change in velocity
at the same time resulting from the theoretical impulsive maneuver is only caused by
the difference in gravitational force along the two paths (red and black in figure 1)
which in general is small.

In the planning phase of space missions designers will first approximate their intended orbital changes using impulsive maneuvers
that greatly reduces the complexity of finding the correct orbital transitions.

Applying a low thrust over a longer period of time

Applying a low thrust over a longer period of time is referred to as a non-impulsive maneuver (where 'non-impulsive' refers to the
maneuver not being of a short time period rather than not involvingimpulse- change in momentum, which clearly must take place).

Another term is finite burn, where the word "finite" is used to mean "non-zero", or practically
, again: over a longer period.

For a few space missions, such as those including a space rendezvous, high fidelity models of the trajectories are required to meet the
mission goals. Calculating a "finite" burn requires a detailed model of the spacecraft and its thrusters. The most important of details
include: mass, center of mass, moment of inertia, thruster positions, thrust vectors, thrust curves, specific impulse, thrust centroid
offsets, and fuel consumption.
Assists

Oberth effect
In astronautics, the Oberth effect is where the use of a rocket engine when travelling at high speed generates much more useful
energy than one at low speed. Oberth effect occurs because the propellant has more usable energy (due to its kinetic energy on top of
its chemical potential energy) and it turns out that the vehicle is able to employ this kinetic energy to generate more mechanical
power. It is named after Hermann Oberth, the Austro-Hungarian-born, German physicist and a founder of modern rocketry, who
apparently first described the effect.[1]

Oberth effect is used in a powered flyby or Oberth maneuver where the application of an impulse, typically from the use of a rocket
engine, close to a gravitational body (where the gravity potential is low, and the speed is high) can give much more change in kinetic
energy and final speed (i.e. higherspecific energy) than the same impulse applied further from the body for the same initial orbit.

Since the Oberth maneuver happens in a very limited time (while still at low altitude), to generate a high impulse the engine
necessarily needs to achieve high thrust (impulse is by definition the time multiplied by thrust). Thus the Oberth effect is far less
useful for low-thrust engines, such asion thrusters.

Historically, a lack of understanding of this effect led investigators to conclude that interplanetary travel would require completely
gy are needed.[1]
impractical amounts of propellant, as without it, enormous amounts of ener

Gravitational assist
In orbital mechanics and aerospace engineering, a gravitational slingshot, gravity
assist maneuver, or swing-by is the use of the relative movement and gravity of a
planet or other celestial body to alter the path and speed of a spacecraft, typically in
order to save propellant, time, and expense. Gravity assistance can be used to
accelerate, decelerate and/or re-direct the path of a spacecraft.

The "assist" is provided by the motion (orbitalangular momentum) of the gravitating

body as it pulls on the spacecraft.[2] The technique was first proposed as a mid-
course manoeuvre in 1961, and used by interplanetary probes from Mariner 10
onwards, including the twoVoyager probes' notable fly-bys of Jupiter and Saturn.
The trajectories that enabled NASA's
twin Voyager spacecraft to tour the
Transfer orbits four gas giant planets and achieve
velocity to escape our solar system
Orbit insertion is a general term for a maneuver that is more than a small correction.
It may be used for a maneuver to change a transfer orbit or an ascent orbit into a
stable one, but also to change a stable orbit into a descent: descent orbit insertion. Also the term orbit injection is used, especially
for changing a stable orbit into a transfer orbit, e.g. trans-lunar injection (TLI), trans-Mars injection (TMI) and trans-Earth injection
(TEI).

Hohmann transfer
In orbital mechanics, the Hohmann transfer orbit is an elliptical orbit used to transfer between two circular orbits of different
altitudes, in the same plane.

The orbital maneuver to perform the Hohmann transfer uses two engine impulses which move a spacecraft onto and off the transfer
orbit. This maneuver was named after Walter Hohmann, the German scientist who published a description of it in his 1925 book Die
Erreichbarkeit der Himmelskörper(The Accessibility of Celestial Bodies).[3] Hohmann was influenced in part by the German science
fiction author Kurd Laßwitz and his 1897 book Two Planets.
Bi-elliptic transfer
In astronautics and aerospace engineering, the bi-elliptic transfer is an orbital
maneuver that moves a spacecraft from one orbit to another and may, in certain
situations, require lessdelta-v than a Hohmann transfer maneuver.

The bi-elliptic transfer consists of two half elliptic orbits. From the initial orbit, a
delta-v is applied boosting the spacecraft into the first transfer orbit with an apoapsis
at some point away from the central body. At this point, a second delta-v is
applied sending the spacecraft into the second elliptical orbit with periapsis at the
radius of the final desired orbit, where a third delta-v is performed, injecting the
spacecraft into the desired orbit.

While they require one more engine burn than a Hohmann transfer and generally
requires a greater travel time, some bi-elliptic transfers require a lower amount of
Hohmann Transfer Orbit
total delta-v than a Hohmann transfer when the ratio of final to initial semi-major
axis is 11.94 or greater, depending on the intermediatesemi-major axis chosen.[4]

The idea of the bi-elliptical transfer trajectory was first published by Ary Sternfeld
in 1934.[5]

Low energy transfer

A low energy transfer, or low energy trajectory, is a route in space which allows
spacecraft to change orbits using very little fuel.[6][7] These routes work in the
Bi-elliptic transfer from blue to red
Earth-Moon system and also in other systems, such as traveling between the circular orbit
satellites of Jupiter. The drawback of such trajectories is that they take much longer
to complete than higher energy (more fuel) transfers such as Hohmann transfer
orbits.

Low energy transfer are also known as weak stability boundary trajectories, or ballistic capture trajectories.

Low energy transfers follow special pathways in space, sometimes referred to as the Interplanetary Transport Network. Following
these pathways allows for long distances to be traversed for little expenditure of
delta-v.

Orbital inclination change

Orbital inclination change is an orbital maneuver aimed at changing the inclination of an orbiting body's orbit. This maneuver is
also known as an orbital plane change as the plane of the orbit is tipped. This maneuver requires a change in the orbital velocity
vector (delta v) at the orbital nodes (i.e. the point where the initial and desired orbits intersect, the line of orbital nodes is defined by
the intersection of the two orbital planes).

In general, inclination changes can require a great deal of delta-v to perform, and most mission planners try to avoid them whenever
possible to conserve fuel. This is typically achieved by launching a spacecraft directly into the desired inclination, or as close to it as
possible so as to minimize any inclination change required over the duration of the spacecraft life.

Maximum efficiency of inclination change is achieved at apoapsis, (or apogee), where orbital velocity is the lowest. In some cases,
it may require less total delta v to raise the satellite into a higher orbit, change the orbit plane at the higher apogee, and then lower the
satellite to its original altitude.[8]

Constant-thrust trajectory
Constant-thrust and constant-acceleration trajectories involve the spacecraft firing its engine in a prolonged constant burn. In the
limiting case where the vehicle acceleration is high compared to the local gravitational acceleration, the spacecraft points straight
toward the target (accounting for target motion), and remains accelerating constantly under high thrust until it reaches its target. In
this high-thrust case, the trajectory approaches a straight line. If it is required that the spacecraft rendezvous with the target, rather
than performing a flyby, then the spacecraft must flip its orientation halfway through the journey
, and decelerate the rest of the way.

In the constant-thrust trajectory,[9] the vehicle's acceleration increases during thrusting period, since the fuel use means the vehicle
mass decreases. If, instead of constant thrust, the vehicle has constant acceleration, the engine thrust must decrease during the
trajectory.

This trajectory requires that the spacecraft maintain a high acceleration for long durations. For interplanetary transfers, days, weeks
or months of constant thrusting may be required. As a result, there are no currently available spacecraft propulsion systems capable of
using this trajectory. It has been suggested that some forms of nuclear (fission or fusion based) or antimatter powered rockets would
be capable of this trajectory.

More practically, this type of maneuver is used in low thrust maneuvers, for example with ion engines, Hall effect engines, and
others. These types of engines have very high specific impulse (fuel efficiency) but currently are only available with fairly low
absolute thrust.

Rendezvous and docking

Orbit phasing
In astrodynamics orbit phasing is the adjustment of the time-position of spacecraft along its orbit, usually described as adjusting the
orbiting spacecraft's true anomaly.

Space rendezvous and docking

A space rendezvous is an orbital maneuver during which two spacecraft, one of which is
often a space station, arrive at the same orbit and approach to a very close distance (e.g. within
visual contact). Rendezvous requires a precise match of the orbital velocities of the two
spacecraft, allowing them to remain at a constant distance through orbital station-keeping.
Rendezvous may or may not be followed by docking or berthing, procedures which bring the
spacecraft into physical contact and create a link between them.

See also
Gemini 7 photographed from
Collision avoidance (spacecraft)
Gemini 6 in 1965
In-space propulsion technologies
Clohessy-Wiltshire equationsfor co-orbit analysis

References
1. NASA-TT-F-622: Ways to spaceflight p 200 - Herman Oberth(http://hdl.handle.net/2060/19720008133)
2. http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/bsf4-1.phpBasics of Space Flight, Sec. 1 Ch. 4,NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
3. Walter Hohmann, The Attainability of Heavenly Bodies(Washington: NASA Technical Translation F-44, 1960)
Internet Archive (https://archive.org/details/nasa_techdoc_19980230631)
.
4. Vallado, David Anthony (2001).Fundamentals of Astrodynamics and Applications(https://books.google.com/books?i
d=PJLlWzMBKjkC&printsec). Springer. p. 317. ISBN 0-7923-6903-3.
5. Sternfeld A., Sur les trajectoires permettant d'approcher d'un corps attractif central à partir d'une orbite keplérienne
donnée. - Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences (Paris), vol. 198, pp. 711 - 713.
 6. Belbruno, Edward (2004). Capture Dynamics and Chaotic Motions in Celestial Mechanics: W ith Applications to the
Construction of Low Energy Transfers (http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7687.html). Princeton University Press.
p. 224. ISBN 978-0-691-09480-9.
7. Belbruno, Edward (2007). Fly Me to the Moon: An Insider's Guide to the New Science of Space ravel
T (http://press.p
rinceton.edu/titles/8375.html). Princeton University Press. p. 176. ISBN 978-0-691-12822-1.
8. Braeunig, Robert A. "Basics of Space Flight: Orbital Mechanics"(http://www.braeunig.us/space/orbmech.htm#maneu
ver).
9. W. E. Moeckel, Trajectories with Constant Tangential Thrust in Central Gravitational Fields(https://archive.org/detail
s/nasa_techdoc_19980223074), Technical Report R-63, NASA Lewis Research Center, 1960 (accessed 26 March
2014)

External links
Handbook Automated Rendezvous and Docking of Spacecraftby Wigbert Fehse

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