Physikalisch-chemisches Praktikum I Dipole Moment – 2016

Dipole Moment
Summary
In this experiment you will determine the permanent dipole moments of some po-
lar molecules in a non-polar solvent based on Debye’s theory and the Guggenheim
approximation. You will combine concentration-dependent measurements of refrac-
tive index for visible light and of relative permittivities at radio frequencies and
develop an understanding of the connection between these macroscopic quantities
and molecular properties.

Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Definition of the dipole moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Relative Permittivity, Polarization, and Polarizability . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Different Contributions to the Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 The Debye equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Relative Permitivity and Refractive Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 The Guggenheim Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Experiment 8
2.1 The Dipole Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 The Refractometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Practical Advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3 Data Analysis 12

1 Introduction
1.1 Definition of the dipole moment
Two separated charges of opposite sign, q1 = −q and q2 = +q form an electric dipole.
The dipole moment is defined by:

~ = q(~r2 − ~r1 ) = q~r

µ (1)

where ~r1 and ~r2 are the vectors that define the position of the two charges in space.
The dipole moment is thus a vector quantity. For a distribution of negative and
positive point charges qi the dipole moment is:
X
µ
~= qi~ri (2)
i

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1 + ( )

Figure 1: Definition of the dipole moment for two point charges and a continuous charge distri-
bution

where
R ~ri are the positions of the charges qi . For continuous charge distributions µ ~ =
e ρ(~r)~rd~r, where ρ is the charge density and e is the elementary charge. The electric
dipole moment of a molecule is the sum of the contributions of the positively charged
nuclei and the negatively charged electron distribution (~µ = µ ~+ + µ
~ − ). The nuclei can in
~+ = N ~
P
good approximation be treated as point charges: µ ~ + is thus given by µ i=1 Zi eRi ,
where Zi is the nuclear charge of nucleus i at position R ~ i . The electronic part µ ~ − is
determined by the electron distribution. It may be obtained from quantum chemical
calculations, which yield the electronic wavefunction ψ(r) and thus ρe (~r) = |ψ(~r)|2 .
In the SI system, the unit of the electric dipole moment is Coulomb·meter. Since these
units result in very small numbers, however, the unit Debye (1D = 3.33564 · 10−30 Cm)
is often used (in honor of Peter Debye, who was, from 1911-1912, professor of theoretical
physics at the University of Zurich).
According to general convention, the dipole moment points from the center of the
negative charge distribution to the center of the positive one. If the two centers do not
coincide the molecule has a permanent dipole moment. Its existence is strongly related to
the symmetry properties of a molecule. Molecules with inversion symmetry like benzene,
acetylene, or nitrogen, for instance, have no permanent dipole moment. In the case of
HCl, however, the centers of the two charge distributions do not coincide. If we place
two elementary charges (e = 1.602 · 10−19 C) of opposite sign at a distance of 1.28 · 10−10
m, i.e. the bond length of the HCl molecule, we obtain a dipole moment of 6.14 D. This
represents a purely electrostatic model for the ionic HCl structure. In practice, however,
only a dipole moment of 1.08 D is found. The molecule is thus only partially ionic. The
ionic character X describes partially ionic chemical bonds:
µexp
X= · 100% (3)
µcalc

for example X of HCl is 17.6%. Experimental dipole moments provide information about
the electron distribution in a molecule.
In this experiment dipole moments of some polar molecules in non-polar solvents are
determined. This is done by measuring relative permittivity and refractive indices of
solutions and pure solvents. The connection between these two macroscopic properties
and the molecular dipole moment is explained in the following sections.

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1.2 Relative Permittivity, Polarization, and Polarizability

Consider the electric field between two charged plates of a capacitor (in vacuum). If the
distance between the two plates is much smaller than the surface of the plates, the field
is approximately homogeneous except in the border regions (Figure 2). The electric field
strength E0 is given by
q
E0 = = σ0 /0 (4)
S0
where σ0 = q/S denotes the surface charge density of one capacitor plate (S = surface area,
q = charge on one plate) and 0 is the vacuum permittivity (0 = 8.85419·10−12 J−1 C2 m−1 ).
The voltage U0 between the two plates is proportional to the charge q:
+ − + −
+ 0 - + -+ -+ -+ -
+ - + -
-+ -+ -+
+ - + -
+ - + -+ -+ -+ -
+ - + -+ -+ -+ -
+ - + -
+ - + -+ -+ -+ -
+ - + -+ -+ -+ -
+ - + -
-+ -+ -+
+ - + -
+ - + -+ -+ -+ -
+ - + -+ -+ -+ -

U0 U

Figure 2: Electric field inside a capacitor with charge q on the capacitor plates and plate spacing
d. Left: in vacuum. Right: filled with a dielectric. Polarized and oriented molecules are shown
schematically.

q = C0 · U0 (5)
The proportionality factor C0 is called capacitance. Capacitance and field field strength
E0 inside the capacitor are related via:

C0 = q/U0 = q/(E0 · d). (6)

When the capacitor is filled with (non-conducting) matter and charge q and plate sep-
aration d are kept constant, the capacitance increases and the voltage is reduced (right
hand side of Fig. 2). As a result, the field between the capacitor plates is smaller than in
vacuum:
C = C0 , U = U0 / ⇒ E = E0 / (7)
The constant  > 1 is called relative permittivity of the material (also called dielectric).
It is useful to introduce a quantity called polarization P~ of a dielectric in a field E
~ 0,
defined by:
P~ = 0 (E
~ 0 − E)
~ = 0 ( − 1)E
~ (8)

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Assuming that the vectors P~ , E ~ and E~0 are parallel, we can insert 4 into 8 to obtain the
scalar relation
σ0 − P def σ
E= = (9)
0 0
The electric field E in a dielectric can thus be treated the same way as a field in vacuum.
However, its strength no longer corresponds to the surface charge density σ0 as in equa-
tion 4, but to a reduced density σ = (σ0 − P ). Polarization can thus be regarded as a
surface charge density that is induced by the field E ~ 0 on the interface between dielectric
and capacitor plates. This induced charge density partially compensates σ0 as it is of
opposite sign. 1 If we write P explicitly as a surface charge density we obtain a more
intuitive picture of polarization:
q0 · d q0 · d
P = q 0 /S = = . (10)
S·d V
Polarization can thus be regarded as the electric dipole moment q 0 · d per unit volume V
of the material. When the material consists of individual dipoles µ
~ (j), the dipole moment
per unit volume P should correspond to the vector sum:
N
~ 1 X
P = µ
~ (j) (11)
V j=1

where N is the number of molecular dipole moments in volume V . Equation 11 provides

an interpretation of the macroscopic quantity P~ in terms of molecular properties.

1.2.1 Different Contributions to the Polarization

With this microscopic picture in mind, we can distinguish three contributions to the
polarization P , which arise at the molecular level from different types of response to an
external electric field:
P = P E + PA + Pµ (12)
Electronic polarization PE is observed for any material. It is caused by the fact that
the centers of positive charges (nuclei) and negative charges (electrons) are pulled in
different directions in an electric field. Atomic polarization PA is only found in polar
molecules and is caused by changes in bond lengths and angles between charge-carrying
units. Both PE and PA are due to the distortion of the charge distribution of a molecule
by an electric field E~ 0 . The electric field induces a molecular dipole moment µ
~ I . As long
as E 0 is not too strong, we can write
~ 0 = (αE + αA )E
~ I = αE
µ ~ 0. (13)

The proportionality factor α is called the polarizability of a molecule. It indicates how

easily the charge distribution of a molecule can be distorted. Here we assume that the
1
There can be no real change of charge on the capacitor plates, since the material we consider is
insulating. As illustrated on the right hand side of Figure 2, there can, however, be a net surface charge
density, when molecular dipoles re-orient or positive and negative charges inside the material are pulled
apart in the external field.

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induced dipole moment µ~ I is always oriented in the direction of E ~ 0 , i.e. that α is a scalar.
If the molecules have a permanent dipole moment µ ~ 0 , the total dipole moment in and
external field is:
µ
~ =µ ~I
~0 + µ (14)
Orientation polarization Pµ is only observed when the molecules have a permanent
dipole moment µ ~ 0 . It is caused by a partial alignment of the molecular dipole moments in
an electricl field. In contrast to PE and PA , Pµ varies strongly with temperature because
thermal motion opposes the full alignment of the molecular dipoles.
The reason why it is not quite so straightforward to turn equation 11 into a relation
between measurable quantities, such as  and the molecular polarizability α and perma-
nent dipole moment µ0 is the fact that in dense media the local field E ~ 0 , which enters
in equation 13 or determines the alignment of polar molecules, is not equal (not even on
average) to the macroscopic field E ~ of equation 8.

1.3 The Debye equation

Figure 3: The Debye model: Solute Molecules experience the electric field inside the cavity of a
dielectric but do not interact with neighboring molecules

The theory developed in 1912 by Debye is based on a model, where the local field E ~0
seen by the individual molecules is that inside a spherical cavity in a continuous medium
~
of relative permittivity  and electric field E:

~ 0 = 1 ( + 2)E
E ~ = 1  + 2 P~ (15)
3 30  − 1
The last identity uses the definition of the polarization 8. Combining this with equa-
tions 11, 14, and 13 and averaging over the thermal distribution of dipole orientations in
an external field, we arrive at the following formula, known as the Debye equation:
µ20
 
−1 NA
V = αE + αA + (16)
+2 30 3kB T
where V = M/ρ is the molar volume of the substance, NA Avogadro’s number, and µ0
the permanent dipole moment of the molecule in the cavity. The polarizability terms on
the right hand side correspond to the electronic and atomic displacement polarization and
the last term to the orientation polarization. Note that the latter contribution becomes

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smaller with rising temperature, a consequence of thermal motion. The Debye model
neglects polar interactions of dipoles with their surroundings. It is therefore valid only for
polar gases at low pressure or for dilute solutions of polar molecules in non-polar solvents.
In the latter case the Debye equation can be re-written:
µ20
 
−1 1 − 1 NA
[V1 + x(V2 − V1 )] − V1 (1 − x) = x αE + αA + (17)
+2 1 + 2 30 3kB T
where x is the mole fraction of the solute, and V1 and V2 are the partial molar volumes
of solvent and solute. The relative permittivity  is that of solvent with solute, while the
solvent alone has a relative permittivity 1 . Quantities on the right hand side only refer
to solute properties. With the help of this equation, we could in principle determine µ0
of the solute molecules by measuring relative permittivities at different temperatures. In
this practical course, however, we will employ a different method which makes use of the
fact that  is actually not a constant but is strongly frequency dependent.

1.4 Dispersion
Dispersion generally denotes the frequency dependence of a physical quantity. The dis-
placement of charge in a molecule due to an external field as well as the re-orientation
of the permanent dipole moments require a finite amount of time. The same is true for
the reverse case, when the polarizing field is switched off and the molecules return to
their non-polarized disordered initial state. The relaxation time τ indicates how much
time is needed until the polarization effects are reduced to 1/e after the external field
has been switched off. This time is not purely a characteristic of the molecules but can
strongly depend on solvent properties such as viscosity. Orientation of dipoles or the
distortion of polar molecules will only contribute to the polarization of a medium if the
polarizing electric field changes slowly enough so the molecules can adapt to changes of
field strength or direction. This condition is fulfilled in static fields but usually also in
alternating fields up to MHz frequencies, since the relaxation times τ are much smaller
than 1 µs. At frequencies larger than 1010 Hz (10 GHz) re-orientation of the permanent
dipoles can no longer follow the fast sign changes of the external field, and orientation
polarization is no longer observed. At frequencies higher than 1014 Hz (100 THz), i.e.
beyond the vibrational frequencies of molecules, atomic motion also stops to respond to
the rapid field changes and only electronic polarization is possible. The strong frequency
dependence of the polarization is schematically depicted in Figure 4.

1.5 Relative Permitivity and Refractive Index

The plane wave solution of Maxwell’s equations in a medium with relative permittivity
 (and relative magnetic susceptibility µm = 1) yields a wave with phase velocity (the
product of wavelength and frequency):
c
v = λf = √ (18)

where c is the speed of light in vacuum. Defining the refractive index n as the ratio of
phase velocity in the dielectric and the phase velocity in vacuum (n = c/v) and we thus

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Radio

Orientation THz
IR
Visible
UV
Atomic

Electronic
103 106 109 1012 1015
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 4: Schematic representation of the frequency dependence of polarization.

have
n2 =  (19)
i.e. the relative permittivity corresponds to the square of the refractive index n. Its
magnitude and frequency dependence are a measure for the electronic polarization and
its relaxation time. You are probably much more familiar with the refractive index than

λ1 =
1
n1
n2
λ2 =
2

Figure 5: Refraction of light at the interface between two media with refractive indices n2 > n1 .
Blue lines indicate wave maxima, which can only match at the interface if the propagation
direction changes.

with the permittivity. For example, a light beam is diffracted at the interface between
two materials with different n according to Snell’s law (see Fig. 5):
sin α n2
= (20)
sin β n1
This is a direct consequence of the requirement that the electric field must not have dis-
continuities at the boundary between the two media in which the wave travels at different
speeds, i.e. where the spacing between successive maxima of the wave are different. A nice
demonstration of the refraction of waves at an interface can also be found in this Mathe-
matica demonstration project.

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Here we will use this effect to determine  at high (optical) frequencies with a re-
fractometer. In the region of visible light (4 − 8 · 1014 Hz) we can neglect the atomic
polarizability αA and the static dipole term and replace  by n2 in equation 17 to obtain:

n2 − 1 n21 − 1 NA
2
[V1 + x(V2 − V1 )] − 2
V1 (1 − x) = x αE (21)
n +2 n1 + 2 30

1.6 The Guggenheim Method

In a paper which appeared in 1949,[1] E. A. Guggenheim combined equations 17 and 21,
which essentially eliminates the electronic polarizability αE . He proposed to measure and
plot  and n2 as a function of the solute concentration, yielding the slopes b and bn2 .
Under the assumption that the atomic polarizability αA of a molecule is proportional to
its molar volume, he could show that the difference b − bn2 is equal to

(1 + 2)(n21 + 2) NA µ2
(22)
3 30 3kB T
The corresponding (approximate) formula for the dipole moment of a polar molecules in
non-polar solvents is thus:
27kB T 1
µ20 = 0 (b − bn2 ) (23)
NA (1 + 2)(n21 + 2)

You will use the Guggenheim method and analyze your experimental data with this
equation. The slopes b can be obtained by plotting  and n2 against the weight fraction
w2 = m2 /(m1 + m2 ). You then need to divide them by ρ1 /M2 , the ratio of the density
of the pure solvent and the molar mass of the solute. The density (ρ1 ), the relative
permittivity (1 ) and the refractive index (n1 ) of the pure solvent must be determined
independently, or taken from literature.

2 Experiment
2.1 The Dipole Meter
To determine the relative permittivity  at low frequencies, where all contributions to
the polarizability are effective (see Fig. 4) we use a dipole meter, which operates in the
region of radio waves (≈ 106 Hz). A dipole meter consists of an electric circuit with an
inductance L and capacitor into which the solution can be filled (Figure 6). It oscillates
at its resonant or eigenfrequency:
r
1 1
f= (24)
2π LC
The eigenfrequency is measured with a frequency counter. Filling the capacitor with a
liquid changes the capacitance C according to 7:

C = C0 (25)

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(a) +V (b) +V

B A

R C R C
L L

L’
180° Phase shift
switch at A switch at B
(charging) (discharging)

1
∆ =

Figure 6: (a) When discharging through an inductance L, he voltage

q across a capacitor with
1 1
capacitance C oscillates with a characteristic eigenfrequency 2π LC . (b) Schematic represen-
tation of an oscillator circuit in a dipole meter, which leads to continuous oscillations at the
eigenfrequency. For more information see for example this link.

We can thus rewrite Equation 24 and obtain

r r r
1 1 1 κ
f= = 2
= (26)
2π LC0  4π LC0  
where all constant terms have been merged into a constant factor κ. This yields the
relation between the frequency readout and the relative permittivity:
κ
= (27)
f2
For calibration, the proportionality constant κ can be determined using a liquid of known
relative permittivity .

2.2 The Refractometer

√
The refractive index n =  should be measured at frequencies, where the electronic
polarization dominates and contributions from orientation or atomic polarization can be
neglected. This is conveniently done in the visible region of the electro-magnetic spectrum
with a refractometer as proposed by Abbe. It uses the fact that there is a maximum angle
of refraction βmax under which light traveling in a medium with refractive index n1 can
enter a medium with a higher refractive index n2 (Figure 7a). This angle is reached when
the incidence angle α approaches 90◦ (sin α = 1) and is thus given by
n1
sin βmax = (28)
n2
An Abbe refractometer (Figure 7b) contains two prisms made of flint glass of high optical
density (large n2 ), one prism on top with a rough finished side for illumination and one
polished prism for detection (bottom). The sample forms a layer with a thickness of 0.1

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(a) (b)

n1
Illuminating
n2 Telescope
prism
Sample (n1)

Amici prism
Detection
compensator
prism (n2)

(c)

Figure 7: Abbe Refractometer. (a) Enlarged view of the interface between sample and detection
prism. Light propagation in this prism is limited by a critical refraction angle βmax . (b) Complete
view of the refractometer. (c) Light distribution in the focal plane of the telescope. Light entering
the detection prism under the angle βmax is collected at the line separating bright and dark areas.

mm between the two prisms. Light entering the refractometer through the top prism
is scattered at the rough interface such that it is traveling in arbitrary directions inside
the sample. Because the refractive index of the bottom prism is higher than that of the
sample, however, the angles under which light can enter the prism and propagate to the
observer are limited by the critical angle βmax . When viewed through a telescope, adjusted
to infinite distance, light propagating at different angles appears at different positions in
the focal plane (Figure 7c) . We thus observe a bright region for β ≤ βmax and a dark
region for β > βmax . Usually, a reflecting mirror is rotated to place the birght-dark edge
at the center of a cross wire in the telescope objective. The refractive index can then be
read off on a calibrated scale.
When white light is applied, the frequency-dependence of the refractive index (disper-
sion) and, as a consequence, of βmax blurs the sharp separation of dark and bright regions,
unless it is compensated. A typical compensator consists of a pair of double Amici prisms
that can be rotated against each other. This construction constitutes a system of variable
dispersion that can be adjusted to balance the dispersion of the detection prism.

2.3 Measurements
• Turn on the dipole meter and the thermostat. The apparatus has to reach a stable
temperature before measurements can be made. This takes about 15 min. Dipole-
and refractometer have to be kept very accurately at the same constant
temperature. Otherwise, the different measurements cannot be properly
combined in the final analysis.

• Prepare three solutions of the substance indicated by the assistant in heptane. It

is very important that you keep to the following instructions and make
proper notes in your lab journal:

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In a 100 mL graduated flask weigh about 100 mL of heptane. Then, using a syringe,
add as much sample as you need to obtain a weight fraction of about 3%. 15 mL of
this solution is put into a second flask (weighed exactly!). The remaining 85 mL are
stored well-closed and can be used by other students or to repeat measurements. Di-
lute the 15 mL with solvent to 50 mL and weigh again in order to exactly determine
the weight fraction. It should be below 1%. Apply the same procedure to prepare
a solution with a weight fraction below 0.3%. Carefully note all weights (para
and netto) in your notebook!. You will calculate your exact weight fractions
from the actual, measured weights.

• Use a 20 mL syringe and plastic tube to fill the dipole meter with solution or solvent.
Do it carefully and make sure, that no liquid is spilled at the top of the cell. Any
air captured between the capacitor plates would perturb the measurement. After
filling in solvent or solution, always wait about 5-10 min until the solvent is in
thermal equilibrium with the apparatus. Then read off the eigenfrequency from the
frequency counter.

• As a first measurement, measure the pure solvent, i.e. fill the measuring cell with
heptane. Read off the frequency at least three times and take an average. Make
sure that the cell is clean and dry before any new solution is filled in so that the
concentrations are not changed. Use a dryer first hot, then cold, until no solvent
can be smelled. After each measurement, the cell should be rinsed with solvent and
the solvent measured again to check for drifts.

• In parallel, determine vis by measuring the refractive indices of solvent and all
solutions with the refractometer. Pipette drops of solvent or solution on the detec-
tion prism, then close with the lighting prism. After every measurement, clean the
prisms using soft tissue and acetone or ethanol. Take care not to scratch the
prisms!

• When you have finished with the first substance, repeat the with the (stock-)solutions
prepared by the other groups.

2.4 Practical Advice

• The indicated concentrations do not have to be exactly those specified, but they
have to be known exactly.

• Check carefully that pipettes, flasks, etc are clean and dry.

• Use different pipettes for different substances.

• Always close the flasks to avoid change of concentration due to evaporation.

• Keep the solutions after the measurements in case you have to repeat some of them.

• Begin with low concentrations and move to higher ones.

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• When the concentration is changed, the cell has to be rinsed twice with pure solvent
and dried with the dryer until you cannot smell any solvent.

• Monitor the temperature carefully during the whole experiment. Wait approxi-
mately ten minutes after every change of sample such that thermal equilibrium can
be reached.

• Repeat every measurement three times and average the results.

3 Data Analysis
• Use the measurement of the pure solvent with known relative permittivity Heptane =
1.924 − 0.00140(T [◦ C] − 20) to calculate the calibration constant κ in equation 27.
Also determine the experimental uncertainty for κ.

• For each substance, determine the relative permitivitiy of your different solutions
from the measured eigenfrequencies (mean values and uncertainties) as well as the
corresponding weight fractions. Plot  against weight fraction and calculate the
slope by linear regression. Specify units and experimental error for the slopes b .

• Repeat this analysis for the refractive index measurements to obtain the slopes bn2 .

• Use the Guggenheim equation 23 to calculate the static dipole moment µ0 of the
solute molecule. Use error propagation to establish the experimental uncertainty.
The density ρ1 of the solvent is given in Table 1 and the molar weight of the dissolved
substance M2 should be known.

• Compare your experimental values for the dipole moments of chloro-cyclohexane,

dichloromethane, trichloro-methane (chloroform) and monochloro-benzene to refer-
ence values from the literature. What does the difference between chloro-cyclohexane
and monochloro-benzene indicate about their charge distributions.

• Use the measured dipole moment of chloro-cyclohexane (µ1 ) to estimate the ionic
character of the C-Cl bond:
µ1
X= (29)
d·e
(d = bond length C-Cl, e = elementary charge).
[1–5]

References
[1] E. A. Guggenheim, A proposed simplification in the procedure for computing electric
dipole moments, Trans. Faraday Soc. 1949, 45, 714–720 [link].

[2] G. Wedler, H.-J. Freund, Lehrbuch der Physikalischen Chemie, 6th ed., Wiley-VCH,
Weinheim, 2012 [link].

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[3] P. W. Atkins, J. D. Paula, Physikalische Chemie, 5th ed., Wiley - VCH, Weinheim,
2013 [link].

[4] C. J. F. Böttcher, P. Bordewijk, Theory of Electric Polarization, vol. II, Elsevier

Science, Amsterdam, 1978.

[5] H. B. Thompson, The determination of dipole moments in solution, J. Chem. Educ.

1966, 43, 66–73 [link].

Table 1: Useful values, all constants are in the SI system

e 1.602177 · 10−19 C
0 8.85419 · 10−12 J−1 C2 m−1
Heptane (1 ) 1.924 − 0.00140(T [◦ C] − 20)
ρHeptane (ρ1 ) 0.681 g/cm3
MHeptane (M1 ) 100 g/mol
bond length C-Cl 1.77 Å

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