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Drying Technology
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To cite this Article Hossain, M. A., Amer, B. M. A. and Gottschalk, K.(2008)'Hybrid Solar Dryer for Quality Dried Tomato',Drying
Technology,26:12,1591 — 1601
To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/07373930802467466
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07373930802467466
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Drying Technology, 26: 1591–1601, 2008
Copyright # 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0737-3937 print/1532-2300 online
DOI: 10.1080/07373930802467466
1591
1592 HOSSAIN ET AL.
three air controllers at the inlet, outlet, and just before the flexible pipe with insulation. There were five trays placed
suction opening of the air blower to control the air flow at on after another in the drying chamber with an air gap
the inlet, outlet, and mixing point, and these air controllers of 120 mm between two trays. Each tray was
could be controlled manually as shown in Fig. 3. 600 mm 520 mm and made of a wooden frame and plastic
net. The trays were placed in such a way that hot air can
Heat Exchanger with Heat Storage Unit flow through, over, and under the products. There was a
The heat exchanger consisted of 15-mm-diameter copper door in front of the dryer to open and close the drying
tubes placed inside the solar collector, 100 mm below the chamber. The sidewalls, roof, and floor of the dryer were
glass cover and 100 mm above the absorber plate. The heat made with 1-mm-thick metal sheet insulated with 5-mm
exchanger consisted of 70 tubes covering the whole area of polystyrene.
the drying collector. These tubes were fixed and placed
Experimental Procedure
over a metal holder of width 20 mm at each side of the solar
collector. Two ends of the copper tubes were connected to Several experimental runs under different drying con-
the water storage tank with 15-mm-diameter plastic tubes. ditions for solar and sun drying of tomato were carried
The capacity of the water tank was 500 L. Water circulated out at Leibniz Institut für Agrartechnik Potsdam-Bornim
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through the plastic and copper tubes by a small water (ATB), Germany, during the period June to September
pump of capacity 20 L=h from water tank. The heat 2006 (mid-European summer conditions). Fresh and uni-
exchanger provided a part of the heat collected during form size of ripe tomatoes (variety Roma) were purchased
the sunshine, which was carried by air inside the solar col- from Potsdam supermarket. Average diameters varied
lector to the water inside the copper tubes. The water from 49.3 to 61.7 mm and average weights varied from
passed very slowly inside the copper tubes to be able to 73.1 to 139.3 g. Color of fresh and dried tomato surface
take heat from the hot air contacted with the external sur- was measured by a Minolta CR-300 Chromameter
face of the tubes. This water was stored inside a plastic (Minolta Co., Tokyo, Japan) in L (from black to white),
tank of 500-L volume and insulated by 50-mm fiberglass. a (from green to red), and b (from blue to yellow) chroma-
The heat stored during the day in the water tank could ticity coordinates using a CIElab color difference meter. The
be used again at night. The temperature of this water could instrument was standardized each time with a white ceramic
be raised by 6-kW water heaters located inside the tank to plate. Firmness of fresh tomato was determined by a pen-
provide the desired temperature for drying during the night etrometer (Zwick Universal Testing Machine, Germany)
and for maintaining the temperature throughout the drying with a 60-mm-wide flat plate probe at a constant speed
process. of 2 mm=min. Before starting an experimental run, the
whole apparatus was operated for at least one hour to
stabilize the air temperature and air velocity inside the dryer.
Drying Unit Tomatoes were cut into halves with a sharp knife and
The prototype of the dryer was designed for drying of then placed in a single layer on the drying trays placing
about 20 kg fresh tomatoes (half-cut) per batch and it is cut side up in the dryer. To compare the performance of
suitable for small farmholders in developing countries. the dryer with that of sun drying, control samples of
The dryer was designed on the basis of heat and mass bal- half-cut tomatoes were also placed on trays in a single layer
ance equations. The overall dimensions of the dryer were beside the dryer in the open sun. Drying was started after
1.0 m 1.0 m 1.0 m. Air could be blown from the collector completion of the loading, usually at 9 a.m., and discontin-
to the drying chamber either from the bottom or top end of ued up to reach the final moisture content of tomato.
the dryer. The air inlet connection was a 120-mm-diameter Weight loss of both the samples in the solar dryer and
the control samples (open sun) were measured during the
drying period at one-hour intervals with an electronic bal-
ance (BP 310S, Sartorius AG, Göttingen, Germany). The
positions of the collector and its reflector were adjusted
according to solar angle so that maximum solar radiation
could be captured by the solar collector as well as by the
reflector. In the afternoon, after 5 p.m., the samples
remained in the dryer and the collector was covered by
reflector and the control samples. The next morning, at
9 a.m. the cover of the dryer and also the cover from the
control samples were removed and subjected to drying by
solar radiation. A data logger (Almeno 5590, Ahlborn
FIG. 3. A schematic diagram of the air damper configuration. Mess-und Regelungstechnik GmbH, Germany) was used
1594 HOSSAIN ET AL.
to record the air temperatures and relative humidities at 10- & Co. Kg, Berlin, Germany) with oxalic acid as blank. The
min intervals. A solar meter (Solarwatt, GmbH, Dresden, ascorbic acid of tomato extract was determined from the
Germany) was used to measure the global solar radiation standard curve.
and total radiation (global þ reflected from reflector) dur-
ing the daytime drying period. Velocity of drying air was Lycopene
measured with an anemometer (TA-5, Airflow Develop- Lycopene was analyzed according to the method
ment Limited, Buckinghamshire, England). The moisture described by Opiyo and Ying.[21] For extracting lycopene,
content of the tomato sample was measured by drying 1 g of homogenized fresh or dried tomato sample was
the samples in an air ventilated oven at 105C for 24 h.[8] weighed and covered with aluminum foil to exclude light
and the lycopene from the sample. Approximately
Pretreatment 12–15 mL of distilled water was added to 1 g of dried tomato
Treatments were used before drying of tomato halves to powder. The whole tomato was ground in an enamel mor-
find out the effect on quality and efficacy to control tar for uniform consistency. Then a 39-mL mixture of
microbial growth during low-temperature (<45C) drying. hexane-acetone-ethanol (1:1:1, v : v : v) was added to the
Different treatments used before drying and their appli- sample, which was placed on the rotary mixer for 30 min.
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cation methods are given in Table 1. The treated and con- Agitation was continued for another 2 min after adding
trol samples (with no treatments) were dried up to the final 10 mL of distilled water. The solution was then left to sep-
moisture content. arate into distinct polar and non-polar layers and then the
hexane layer was collected in a 50-mL flask. The absor-
Quality Analysis bance of the hexane layers was measured at 503 nm on a
Ascorbic Acid spectrophotometer using hexane as a blank. The amount
Ascorbic acid was analyzed according to the method of lycopene in the tomato samples was determined using
described by Denniston and Wimmers[19] and Goula and the formula as: lycopene (mg=100 g) ¼ 312 Absorbance
Adamopoulos.[20] Ten grams of tomato sample were placed at 503 nm.[21]
in a mortar and 20 mL oxalic acid (0.25 M) solution and a
pinch of sand was added into it. Again, 20 mL oxalic acid Total Flavonoids
was added and macerated thoroughly for 3 min. The Total flavonoids was analyzed according to the method
macerated mixture was thoroughly filtered with Whatman reported by Zhishen et al.[22] and Toor and Savage.[23] Four
#1 filter paper. Filtrated extract was collected in a 100-mL grams of finely homogenized sample were extracted twice
volumetric flask. Then 1.0 mL DCIP (2,6-dichloroindophe- with 10 mL of hexane in the dark. The final extract was fil-
nol) solution and 0.1 mL metaphosphoric acid was added tered through a 0.5-mm filter paper. A known volume
and diluted with 3.0 mL of tomato extract. The absorbance (1 mL) of the extract or standard solution of rutin solutions
of the solution was measured at 520 nm on a UV-VIS spec- was added to a 10-mL volumetric flask. Distilled water was
trophotometer (Model: CADAS 200, Bruno Lange GmbH added to make a volume of 5 mL. At zero time, 0.3 mL of
TABLE 1
Different treatments and their application method
Treatments Application procedure
Control No pretreatment was applied
UV radiation (750 Wm2) Put tomato halves under radiation with cut side up
for 5 min
UV radiation (1500 Wm2) Put tomato halves under radiation with cut side up
for 10 min
Acetic acid (4 mg L1) Placed the tomato halves in gas enclosure for 30 min
Acetic acid (6 mg L1) Placed the tomato halves in gas enclosure for 30 min
Citric acid (3 g L1) Sprayed on the tomato halves with cut side up
Citric acid (6 g L1) Sprayed on the tomato halves with cut side up
Ascorbic acid (3 g L1) Sprayed on the tomato halves with cut side up
Ascorbic acid (6 g L1) Sprayed on the tomato halves with cut side up
Sodium metabisulphite (2 g L1) Dipped the tomato halves for 3 min
Sodium metabisulphite (8 g L1) Dipped the tomato halves for 5 min
Sodium chloride (10 g L1) Dipped the tomato halves for 5 min
HYBRID SOLAR DRYER FOR QUALITY DRIED TOMATO 1595
5% w=v sodium nitrite was added to the flask. After 5 min, (c) Drying efficiency of the solar dryer:
0.6 mL of 10% w=v AlCl3 was added and, after 6 min, 2 mL
of 1 M NaOH was added to the mixture, followed by the (i) Solar dryer efficiency in daytime
addition of 2.1 mL distilled water. Absorbance was mea-
m w hL
sured at 510 nm on a spectrophotometer against the blank gdd ¼ ð4Þ
(water) and total flavonoids and determined from the stan- Ac It t þ Qf þ Qp
dard curve.
(ii) Solar dryer efficiency at nighttime
Rehydration Ratio Drying with hot water flow without using water heater
About 20 g of dried tomato halves was submerged into
distilled water with a product-to-water ratio of 1:8 at room m w hL
gnd ¼ ð5Þ
temperature (20 2C) for 24 h.[24] Then the samples were Qf þ Qp
drained of excess water for about 3 min and adhering water
Drying with hot water flow using water heater
was soaked into tissue paper and the sample was weighed
again. The rehydration ratio or index is the ratio of the weight m w hL
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Microorganisms Detection
During the drying period, microbial infestation in the
Statistical Analysis
sample was determined by manual enumeration method.
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) of color values,
When a microorganism-infected sample was observed,
ascorbic acid, lycopene, and total flavonoids of solar,
the sample was collected in a cleaned plastic Petri dish
sun-dried, and different pretreated samples were statisti-
and put in a refrigerator at 5C. This procedure was
cally analyzed using the software SPSS 9.0. The mean
continued until the completion of the drying experiments.
obtained from each set of variable was compared
After completion of the drying experiments, the infected
by Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) based on the
samples were observed on a microscope to diagnose the
complete randomized design (CRD).
severity of infestation and the type of microorganisms
were identified.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The solar collector as well as solar dryer were tested at
Efficiency Calculation four different operational modes. Mode 1: daytime solar
The thermal efficiency of the solar collector and drying drying using solar radiation but nighttime drying with
efficiency of the solar dryer were calculated using following ambient air (no auxiliary heating). Mode 2: daytime solar
formula: drying and storing heat in the heat storage tank and recir-
culating hot water from the storage tank during the night.
(a) Collector efficiency during daytime
Mode 3: daytime solar drying and storing heat in the heat
(i) Considering global solar radiation storage tank recirculating hot water from the storage tank
and also using external water heating during the night.
_ a Cpa ðTi To Þ
m Mode 4: in adverse weather, day and nighttime drying by
gcdg ¼ ð1Þ
A c Ig circulating hot water in the collector using water heater.
FIG. 5. Variations of ambient air temperature and temperatures in the FIG. 6. Variations of ambient air temperature and temperature in the
collector with solar radiation of drying mode 2 (14.07.06–18.07.06). collector with solar radiation of mode 3 (11.09.06–14.09.06).
HYBRID SOLAR DRYER FOR QUALITY DRIED TOMATO 1597
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Collector and Dryer Efficiency the solar radiations. Collector efficiency found to be higher
The relationship between total radiation (global þ reflected for total (global þ reflected) solar radiation than that of global
from reflector) and global radiation on the glass cover is solar radiation.
shown in Fig. 8. The following regression equation was Collector and dryer efficiencies for different drying
developed for total radiation in terms of global radiation. modes are given in Table 2. On sunny days, the daytime
collector efficiencies at different drying modes were almost
It ¼ 117:72 þ 1:1699Ig ðR2 ¼ 0:89Þ ð7Þ similar but in adverse weather (mode 4) it reduced to
24.36%. On sunny days, the contribution of the reflector
The thermal efficiency of the collector was calculated con- on the thermal efficiency of the collector was about 10%.
sidering both global solar radiation and total solar radiation In adverse weather, sometimes the reflector was used as a
in the collector. Variations of collector efficiency with global cover on top of the collector. Therefore, the reflected
solar radiation at different times of a typical day are shown energy from the reflector was small. At nighttime, with
in Fig. 9. Collector efficiency followed a similar pattern of hot water flow, collector efficiency increased from 0 to
10.53% and further increased 24.31% using the water hea-
ter. In the daytime, dryer efficiency varied from 17.73 to
29.35% depending on weather conditions. At nighttime,
dryer efficiency increased from 0 to 6.88% for hot water
flow and again increased by 18.75% using the water heater.
TABLE 2
Collector and drier efficiency at different drying modes
Collector efficiency (%)
Day Dryer efficiency (%)
Drying Using Without
modes reflector reflector Night Day Night
Mode 1 43.78 34.02 0.00 17.92 0.00
Mode 2 45.80 35.29 10.53 22.48 6.88
Mode 3 44.19 33.89 24.31 29.35 18.75
FIG. 8. Relationship between global solar radiation and total solar
(global þ reflected) radiation on the glass cover.
Mode 4 24.36 22.36 20.83 17.73 16.90
1598 HOSSAIN ET AL.
TABLE 3
Summary of drying performance of solar and sun drying at different drying conditions
Average drying
Average day Average night rate (kg kg1 Drying time (h)
temperature (C) temperature (C) (d.b.) h1) (day þ night)
Drying modes Drier Ambient Drier Ambient Solar Sun Solar Sun Time saving (%)
Mode 1 55 25 13 15 0.218 0.096 126 288 56.25
Mode 2 58 30 28 16 0.195 0.077 96 240 60.00
Mode 3 57 28 48 15 0.305 0.099 72 220 70.90
Mode 4 53 20 48 15 0.235 — 88 — —
sun-dried samples. Total flavonoids decreased with the were obtained from citric acid–, ascorbic acid–, sodium
reduction of moisture content of dried samples but there metabisulphite–, and sodium chloride–treated samples than
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was no significant difference in total flavonoids for 15 acetic acid, UV radiation, and control samples, but there
and 25% moisture contents. The lowest amount of total were no significant differences among them. Latapi and
flavonoids was obtained for commercially available sam- Barrett[30] found better color retention from sodium metabi-
ples. The highest and lowest rehydration ratio was found sulphite–, sulphur dioxide–, and sodium chloride–treated
for solar-dried samples, with 15% moisture content, and samples than non-treated (control) samples. The highest
commercial samples, with 37% moisture content. There amount of ascorbic acid was obtained for ascorbic acid–
was no significant difference of rehydration ratio for other pretreated samples and the lowest amount was found for
samples. It is clear from the results that rehydration ratio sodium chloride–treated samples. Statistically, the same
mainly depends on the moisture content and surface hard- amount of ascorbic acid was found for acetic acid–, citric
ness of the dried product. Similar results have been acid–, and sodium metabisulphite–pretreated samples.
reported by Latapi and Barrett.[30] It is evident from the There was no significant difference of ascorbic acid between
results that retention of surface color, ascorbic acid, lyco- UV radiation and control samples. The highest amounts of
pene, and total flavonoids of solar-dried samples is higher lycopene were obtained for 6 mg L1 acetic acid and 2 and
than in commercially available samples. Hence, the color 8 g L1 sodium metabisulphite–pretreated samples. The
and nutritional quality of solar-dried samples are better lycopene content of other pretreated samples was statisti-
than those of the commercially available samples in the cally the same but significantly higher than control samples.
European market. The highest amount of total flavonoids was found for
sodium metabisulphite–, ascorbic acid–, and citric acid–
Effect of Pretreatments pretreated samples than for other samples and these were
Effects of different pretreatments on quality and statistically alike. Sodium chloride pretreatment reduced
microbial infestation of solar-dried tomato are given in significantly the highest amount of total flavonoids followed
Table 5. The lower hue angles were found for all pretreated by control, UV radiation, and acetic acid–pretreated sam-
samples over control samples. Again, the lowest hue angles ples but there were no significant differences among them.
TABLE 4
Quality of fresh, solar-dried, sun-dried, and commercially available samples of tomato
Color Ascorbic acid Lycopene Total flavonoids Rehydration
Samples (hue angle, ) (mg=100 g) (mg=100 g) (mg=100 g) ratio
Fresh (95% MC) 39.09a 238.38a 62.59a 217.54a —
Solar dried (15% MC) 18.26b 172.54e 44.52b 122.51d 3.26a
Solar dried (25% MC) 15.53c 181.58c 45.98b 128.54d 2.83b
Solar dried (30% MC) 14.29c 184.24b 49.04b 195.61b 2.80b
Sun dried (30% MC) 25.02b 176.69d 44.13b 145.71c 2.78b
Commercial (37%MC) 19.50c 176.71d 44.06b 96.76e 2.16c
Significance level (p) 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
MC ¼ moisture content of sample in wet basis. Different letters in the same column are significantly different from each other by
DMRT.
1600 HOSSAIN ET AL.
TABLE 5
Effect of different pretreatment on quality of solar-dried tomato (drying air temperature during day was 50–55C and
night was 25–40C)
Color Ascorbic acid Lycopene Total flavonoids Microbial
Pretreatment (hue angle, ) (mg=100 g) (mg=100 g) (mg=100 g) infestation (%)
Control sample 24.19a 118.29c 34.52c 124.18b 100
UV radiation (750 Wm2) 22.75b 137.36c 43.98b 123.36b 50
UV radiation (1500 Wm2) 19.87b 149.42c 46.04b 124.51b 50
Acetic acid (4 m g L1) 20.49b 176.69b 47.13b 124.09b 50
Acetic acid (6 m g L1) 17.64c 176.71b 49.06a 125.39b 40
Citric acid (3 g L1) 20.56b 181.58b 46.64b 129.14a 20
Citric acid (6 g L1) 18.19c 184.24b 45.91b 128.57a 20
Ascorbic acid (3 g L1) 17.35c 230.56a 44.75b 133.91a 60
Ascorbic acid (6 g L1) 18.09c 249.71a 47.15b 134.87a 40
Sodium metabisulphite (2 g L1) 18.79c 180.36b 48.50a 132.79a
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10
Sodium metabisulphite (8 g L1) 16.65c 183.49b 49.57a 135.92a 0
Sodium chloride (10 g L1) 19.13c 90.41d 41.76b 119.52c 40
Untreated sample (temp. 45C) 22.83b 134.39c 42.08b 120.32b 0
Different letters in the same column are significantly different from each other by DMRT at p 0.05.
Sample was dried at the drying air tmperature of 45C. Other samples were died at th air temperature of <45C.
All pretreatments partially prevented the microbial than the commercially available samples in the European
growth but only 8 g L1 sodium metabisulphite prevented market. All pretreatments significantly improved the color
completely the microbial infestation when night tempera- of dried tomato compared to non-treated sample. No pre-
ture reduced to below 45C. Control samples were com- treatment could completely control the microbial infes-
pletely infested by microorganisms. Microorganisms were tation except sodium metabisulphite (8 g L1) at lower
identified as Zygomycetes, Aspergillus sp., Aspergillus temperature (<45C). Therefore, it is recommended that
niger, and Fusarium sp., which are tropical molds and if tomato is dried with continuous air temperature of
fungus. At the drying air temperature of 45C, control 45C or above then no pretreatment is required. If drying
samples (untreated) were not infected by any micro- air temperature is reduced below 45C, then tomato should
organisms. Temperature has a great impact on growth be pretreated with 8 g L1 sodium metabisulphite to
of microorganisms. These types of molds and fungus prevent microbial growth.
(Aspergillus sp., Fusarium sp.) grow well at temperatures
over 40C and can grow at a temperature range of 20–
50C.[31,32] Therefore, if drying temperature is maintained
at 45C, there is no need to apply any treatments before NOMENCLATURE
drying of tomato. It will reduce the cost of additives and be Ac Area of collector (m2)
more hygienic. Cpa Specific heat of air (kJ=kgK)
Cpw Specific heat of water (kJ=kgK)
hL Latent heat of water in the tomato (kJ=kg)
CONCLUSIONS Ig Global solar radiation (W=m2)
Average air temperature at the outlet of the collector It Total solar radiation (global þ reflected) (W=m2)
was found to be about 30C higher than the average ambi- m_a Mass flow rate of air (kg=s)
ent temperature during the normal sunny days. Collector m_w Mass flow rate of water (kg=s)
efficiency was increased by 10% using the solar reflector. mw Mass of evaporated moisture (kg)
The capacity of the solar dryer was 20 kg of half-cut fresh Qf Heat used by fan for air flowing (kW)
tomato to produce 2 kg of dried product per batch. The Qh Heat produced by water heater (kW)
average drying system efficiency of the solar dryer varied Qp Heat used by water pump (kW)
from 17 to 29% depending on different operating con- Ti Inside air temperature (C)
ditions. The drying process significantly reduced the color, To Outside air temperature (C)
ascorbic acid, lycopene, and total flavonoids of tomato but Tw Water temperature (C)
the losses of color and nutritional components were higher t Time (min)
HYBRID SOLAR DRYER FOR QUALITY DRIED TOMATO 1601
Greek Letters 15. Shi, J.X. Lycopene in tomatoes: chemical and physical properties
affected by food processing. Critical Reviews in Food Science and
gcdg Collector efficiency in the daytime considering Nutrition 2000, 40 (1), 1–42.
global solar radiation (ratio) 16. Lewicki, P.P. Some remarks on dehydration of dried foods. Journal of
gcdt Collector efficiency in the daytime considering Food Engineering 1998, 36, 81–87.
total solar radiation (ratio) 17. Yoon, Y.; Kendall, P.A.; Sofos, J.N. Inactivation of Salmonella
during Dehydration of Roma Tomatoes Treated with Organic Acids;
gcn Collector efficiency at nighttime (ratio)
Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Colorado State
gdd Dryer efficiency in the daytime (ratio) University: Fort Collins, CO. Retrieved from http://www.colostate.
gnd Dryer efficiency at nighttime (ratio) edu/depts/AnimSci/dp/beef/2002/pdf/yy02.pdf on 23 February, 2006.
18. Latapi, G.; Barrett, D.M. Influence of pre-drying treatments on
quality and safety of sun-dried tomatoes. Part I: Use of steam blanch-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ing, boiling brine blanching, and dips in salt or sodium metabisulfite.
This research was carried out under the postdoctoral Journal of Food Science 2006, 71 (1), 24–31.
research fellowship of Alexander von Humboldt Foun- 19. Denniston, K.; Wimmers, L.E. Vitamin C assay (Appendix III). In
dation, Germany. The authors are thankful to the Foun- Laboratory Manual for Biology 201: Cellular Biology and Genetics;
Department of Biological Sciences, Towson University: Towson.
dation for granting the fellowship to carry out this research.
Retrieved from http://www.towson.edu/~wimmers/Title.htm on 23
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February, 2006.
20. Goula, A.M.; Adamopoulos, K.G. Retension of ascorbic acid during
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