Construction Equipments and Methods PDF

Construction Planning, Equipment,
and Methods Sixth Edition

CHAPTER
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND
METHODS
• A. J. Clark School of Engineering •Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
0 By
Dr. Ibrahim Assakkaf
ENCE 420 – Construction Equipment and Methods
Spring 2003
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Maryland, College Park
CHAPTER 0. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND METHODS Slide No. 1
Course Syllabus
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND
College Park Campus
Spring Semester 2003
ENCE 420 – Construction Equipment and Methods (3 credit)
MW 2:00 pm – 3:15 pm, CHM 0119
INSTRUCTOR:
Name: Dr. Ibrahim A. Assakkaf
Office Hours: MW 11:00 am - 12:00 pm and 1:00 pm - 2:00 pm
F 12:00 noon -1:00 pm, and by appointment
Room 0305, Engineering Classroom Building (EGR)
Center for Technology and Systems Management (CTSM)
Telephone: (W) 301-405-3279
Email: assakkaf@eng.umd.edu
URL: http://ctsm.umd.edu/assakkaf
1
Course Syllabus
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TA & GRADER:
Name: to be added and revised
Office Hours: M 2:00 pm – 3:15 pm
Room EGR 1107
Telephone: (123) 123-4567
Email: TA@domain.com
Course Syllabus
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TEXTBOOK: “Construction Planning, Equipment, and Methods,”

by Peurifoy, R., and Schexnayder, C., 2002.
REFERENCES:
1. “Construction Planning, Equipment, and Methods,” by Peurifoy,
R., Ledbetter, W., and Schexnayder, C., 1996.
2. “Modern Construction & Ground Engineering Equipment &
Methods,” by Harris, F., 1994. Also, Instructor’s Notes and
Handouts.
GRADING: HW (20%), Midterm Exam (25%), Final Exam (30%),

Project (20%), and
Quizzes ( 5% ).
2
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Course Syllabus
PREREQUISITES:
•ENCE 320, Permission of Department
•Senior Standing
COURSE WEBSITE:
https://www.ajconline.umd.edu/ ENCE 420: Construction Equipment and
Methods – Spring, 2003.
GENERAL COURSE DESCRIPTION (UM SCHEDULE OF CLASSES):

ENCE420 Construction Equipment and Methods; (3 credits) Grade Method:
REG/P-F/AUD. Prerequisite: ENCE 320 and permission of department. Senior
standing. Evaluation and selection of equipment and methods for construction of
projects, including earthmoving, paving, steel and concrete construction, formwork,
trenching, cofferdams, rock excavation, tunneling, site preparation and organization.
Design of formwork, trench supports, and cofferdams.
Course Syllabus
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COURSE OUTLINE & SCHEDULE:

Week Date Topic of Discussion Source
1 W, Jan. 29 Introduction to Course (General Overview) Chapter 1

2 M, Feb. 3 Introduction Chapter 1
W, Feb. 5 Equipment Cost Chapter 3
3 Chapter 3
M, Feb. 10 Equipment Cost (cont’d)
Chapter 4
W, Feb. 12 Geotechnical Materials
4 M, Feb. 17 Geotechnical Materials (cont’d) Chapter 4

W, Feb. 19 Compaction and Stabilization Chapter 4
5 M, Feb. 24 Compaction and Stabilization (cont’d) Chapter 4
W, Feb. 26 Machine Power Chapter 5
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Course Syllabus
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COURSE OUTLINE & SCHEDULE (cont’d):

6 M, Mar. 3 Dozers Chapter 6
W, Mar. 5 Scrapers Chapter 7
7 M, Mar. 10 Excavators Chapter 8

W, Mar. 12 Finishing Equipment Chapter 9
8 M, Mar. 17 Trucks and Hauling Equipment Chapter 10

W, Mar. 19 MIDTERM EXAM
Mar. 24-30 **** S P R N G B R E AK (NO CLASSES) ****
9 M, Mar. 31 Trucks and Hauling Equipment Chapter 10

W, Apr. 2 Compressed Air Chapter 11
Course Syllabus
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
10 Chapter 11
M, Apr. 7 Compressed Air
Chapter 12
W, Apr. 9 Drilling Rock and Earth
11 Chapter 12
M, Apr. 14 Drilling Rock and Earth
Chapter 13
W, Apr. 16 Blasting Rock
12 Chapter 14
M, Apr. 21 Aggregate Production
Chapter 17
W, Apr. 23 Cranes
13 Chapter 18
M, Apr. 28 Draglines and Clamshells
Chapter 19
W, Apr. 30 Piles and pile-Driving Equipment
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Course Syllabus
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

14 Chapter
M, May. 5 Equipment for Pumping Water 20
W, May 7 Belt-Conveyer Systems + Review Handout
15 M, May 12 Project Presentations (Groups 1, 2, 3, and 4)

W, May 14 Project Presentations (Groups 5, 6, and 7)
16
FINAL EXAM (Tuesday, 1:30 pm – 3:30 pm,
Tu, May 20
CHM (0119)
Course Syllabus
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENTS:
Professional presentation of homework assignments is required. Professional
presentation consists of neat and organized solution of problems on one side of
8.5"x11" papers. Any homework not complying with professional standards will
not be graded and will be assigned zero credit. The homework assignments are
due one week after they are assigned. Homework will be assigned as the
material is covered and will be collected every Monday at the beginning of the
lecture period. Assignments turned in late will be docked 10% for each day it is
late past the original due date. Solutions will be available from the TAs and on
the class website after the problems are returned. No assignment will be
accepted after the answers have been posted. Students are encouraged to discuss
and formulate solutions to the problems by working in teams. However,
assignments must be completed and submitted individually. Simply copying the
answers from another student or from a solutions manual is not acceptable and
will not be tolerated.
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Course Syllabus
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENTS (cont’d):

Guidelines for homework are given below:
1. Use good quality paper, such as engineering graph paper or college-ruled paper,
any color, with no spiral edges.
2. Write on only one side of the paper.
3. Either pen or pencil is acceptable.
4. Include your name, section, and page number (e.g. 1/3 means 1 of 3) on each
sheet.
5. Staple all pages together in the upper left corner.
6. Neatly box all answers, and include appropriate units for numerical answers.
7. Show all work (e.g. no work means no credit will be given).
Course Syllabus
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EXAMS:
All students must take all exams including the final exam. Only extenuating
circumstances will be accepted as excuse for missing an exam. Health related
excuses require medical reports and the signature of a physician that provided
treatment.
PROJECT (Term Paper): To be announced and discussed.
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Objectives
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
“Learn how to apply engineering

fundamentals and analyses to
the planning, selection, and
utilization of construction
equipment.”
Engineering Concepts
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
This course uses concepts from various

engineering disciplines :
• Engineering Economics
• Geotechnical Engineering (Soil Mechanics)
• Mechanical Engineering (Construction Equipment)
• Structural Engineering
• Environmental Engineering
•Others
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Underlying Concepts
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Construction of engineered
facilities requires the utilization
of construction equipment.
Purpose of the Course

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Learn to apply engineering fundamentals and analyses to the

planning, selection, and utilization of construction equipment.
Through understanding of:

(1) The total construction process, from inspection of the idea through
construction and start up, and
(2) How construction equipment should be selected and used to produce
the intended quality in the most cost-effective manner.
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Course Outline & Topics

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Introduction (Chapter 1)
• Construction Contracts
• Lump-sum contract
• Unit-price contract
• Cost-plus-fee contract
•Performance Guarantee
• Contractor is to furnish a performance bond for a project
•The Time Value of Money
• Money has a time value.
• One dollar today is worth more than $1 tomorrow.
• Failure to pay the bills results in additional charge.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
• Discounted Present Worth Analysis

• Rate of Return Analysis
• Equipment Planning and Estimating
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Equipment Cost (Chapter 3)

• Equipment cost rank second to labor. Machines and
equipment can be:
• Purchased
• Leased
• Rented (short time)
• The Cost of Construction Equipment
• Ownership Cost
• Depreciation
• Operating Cost (maintenance, repairs, fuel, etc..)
• Economic Life of Engineering Equipment

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The Planning Process for Equipment and

Methods
• Planning process for equipment and methods is necessary
both prior to and during the actual construction of a project
• The planning is required for:
• Production
• Achievement
• Cost Control
• Coordination of the project and the parties involved in the project
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• Formal Planning involves the following steps:

• Analysis of a Project (Time, Money, Location, etc..)
• Identification Project Activities
• Estimate of cost, time, resources to perform each activity
• Development of Plan Network
• Application of Realistic Limitations to activities

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Geotechnical Materials, Compaction, and

Stabilization (Chapter 4)
“Persons in a construction industry, including

constructors (contractors) and engineers, should
understand the affects of which the selection of
equipment and method have on the cost of handling
these materials”
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• Material Properties:
• The actual construction process of any project is really a
material-handling problem.
• On heavy construction projects the major portion of the work
consists of handling and processing bulk materials.
• Excavation
• Common Excavation
• Rock Excavation(drilling and blasting)
• Muck Excavation (soft organic material)
• Unclassified excavation (materials that cannot be defined as
soil or rock)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Soil mass weight and volume relationships
Weight
Volume air = 0
air AIR
Va
Volume
voids
Vv Weight Total
water = Ww weight W
Total Volume
volume water Water
V Vw
Weight
soil solids
Volume Ws
soil solids Soil
Vs
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Soil mass weight and volume relationships
Unit weight (γ) = total weight of soil/total soil volume = W/V

Dry unit weight (γd ) = weight of soil solids/total soil volume = Ws/V
Water content (ω) = weight of water in soil/weight of soil solids = WW/Ws
Void ratio (e) = volume of voids/volume of soil solids = Vv/Vs
Porosity (n) = volume of voids/total soil volume = Vv/V
Specific gravity (Gs) = weight of soil solids/volume of solids/unit weight of water= Ws/Vs/ γw
Total soil volume (V) = volume voids (Vv) + volume solids (Vs)
Weight of solids (Ws) = weight of soil (W)/(1+water content (ω))
or
γd = γ/(1+ ω)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Compaction and Soil Stabilization

• Soils are the principal component of many construction projects.
• Soils are used to support:
– structures - static load
– pavements for highways and airport runways - dynamic loads
– dams and levees, as impoundment - to resist the passage of water.
• Some soils may be suitable for use in their natural state, whereas
other, must be excavated, processed, and compacted in order to
serve their purposes.
• Knowledge of the properties, characteristics, and behavior of
different soil types is important to those persons who are associated
with the design or construction of projects involving the use of soils.
• R. R. Proctor initiated a scientific study to determine the density-
moisture relationship of soils.
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Machine Power (Chapter 5)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
• Rimpull
– The usable power at the point of contact
between the tire and the ground for a
wheel machine.
• Drawbar Pull
– The available usable power (pull) which
a crawler tractor can exert on a load that
is being towed. 33,000 × fwhp × E
Fw =
v
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ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Dozers and Tractors(Chapter 6)

• Tractors are self-contained units that are designed to provide
tractive power for drawbar work.
• Consistent with their purpose as a unit for drawbar work, they are
low center of gravity machines. This is a prerequisite of a good
machine.
• The larger the difference between the line-of-force transmission
from the machine and the line of resisting force the less effective the
utilization of developed power.
• Typical project applications are land clearing, bulldozing, ripping,
and towing other pieces of construction equipment.

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Scrapers (Chapter 7)
• Tractor-pulled scrapers are designed to load, haul, and dump
loose materials.
• The advantage of tractor-scraper combinations is their versatility.
• They can be used in a wide range of material types (including
shot rock) and are economical over a wide range of haul lengths
and haul conditions.

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Excavators (Chapter 8)
• Excavating equipment is used to excavate earth and rock in
construction operations.
• The equipment includes the following machines:
1. Draglines
2. Clamshells
3. Hydraulic excavators
a. Front shovels
b. Hoes
4. Loaders
a. Wheel
b. Track
5. Trenching machines

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Finishing Equipment (Chapter 9)
Rollers
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Trucks and Hauling Equipment (Chapter 10)

• Trucks may be classified according to a number of factors
including:
1. The size and type of engine-gasoline, diesel, butane, propane
2. The number of gears
3. The kind of drive-two-wheel, four-wheel, six-wheel, etc.
4. The number of wheels and axles and arrangement of driving
wheels
5. The method of dumping the load-rear-clump, side-dump
6. The class of material hauled-earth, rock, coal, ore, etc.
7. The capacity, in tons or cubic yards

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Compressed Air (Chapter 11)

• Compressed air is used extensively on construction projects for:
• Drilling rock
• Loosening earth
• Operating air motors
• Hand tools
• Pile drivers
• Pumps
• Mucking equipment
• Cleaning.
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Drilling Rock and Earth (Chapter 12)

• Drilling equipment and methods are used by the
construction and mining industries to drill holes in
both rock and earth.
• Purposes for which drilling are performed vary a great
deal from general to highly specialized applications.
• It is desirable to select the equipment and methods that
are best suited to the specific service:
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Blasting Rock (Chapter 13)

• Blasting" is performed to break rock so that it may be quarried
for processing in an aggregate production operation, or to
excavate a right-of-way.
• Blasting is accomplished by discharging an explosive that has
either been placed in an unconfined manner, such as mud capping
boulders, or is confined as in a borehole.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The Production of Crushed-Stones Aggregates

(Chapter 14)
• The production of crushed-stone aggregate involves:
• Drilling,
• Blasting,
• Loading,
• Transporting,
• Crushing,
• Screening, and
• Product handling and storage.
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Cranes (Chapter 17)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
• Cranes are a broad class of construction equipment used to hoist and

place loads.
• Each type of crane is designed and manufactured to work economically
in a specific site situation.
• The most common types are:
1. Crawler
2. Hydraulic truck
3. Lattice-boom truck
4. Rough-terrain
5. All-terrain
6. Heavy lift
7. Modified cranes for heavy lift
8. Tower
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Crawler Crane
Hydraulic Truck Crane

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Draglines and Clamshells (Chapter 18)

• Excavating equipment is used to excavate earth and rock in
• The equipment includes the following machines:
1. Draglines
2. Clamshells
3. Hydraulic excavators
a. Front shovels
b. Hoes
4. Loaders
a. Wheel
b. Track
5. Trenching machines
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ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Piles and Pile-Driving Equipment

(Chapter 19)
• Load-bearing piles, are used primarily to
transmit structural loads, through soil
formations with poor supporting properties,
into or onto soil strata that are capable of
supporting the loads.
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Equipment for Pumping Water (Chapter 20)

Pumps are used extensively on construction projects for:
1. Removing water from pits, tunnels. and other excavations.
2. Dewatering cofferdams.
3. Furnishing water for jetting and sluicing.
4. Furnishing water for many types of utility services.
5. Lowering the water table for excavations.
6. Foundation grouting.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Belt-Conveyor Systems (Handout)

• Belt-conveyor systems are used extensively in the field of
construction.
• Belt-conveyor systems frequently provide the most satisfactory and
economical method of handling and transporting materials, such as
earth, sand, gravel, crushed stone, mine ores, cement, concrete,
etc.
• Because of the continuous flow of materials at relatively high
speeds, belt conveyors have high capacities.
Note: During the construction of the Channel Tunnel (between

England and France) conveyors were used to move up to
2,400 tons of spoil per hour from the tunnel headings.
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Ruhrkohle,
Germany
Newman,
Western
Australia
25
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION
1 By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Slide No. 2

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The Construction Industry
• The construction industry in the U.S. is a

$400 billion industry.
• Over 1,145,000 contractors employing

over 5 million people and utilizing heavy
equipment.
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ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The Construction Industry
• The industry is unique in several respects:

• constructors (contractors) strive very hard to work themselves out
of a job. The faster and better they perform, the sooner they will be
looking for another project to build.
• The products of construction are usually one-of-a-kind facilities,

individually designed and built.
• Construction is inherently a dangerous occupation, involving large

and costly construction equipment.

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Construction Contract
• An understanding of construction
contracts is essential for the proper
management of a construction project.
• Engineer/Architect contributes an
important service in developing a
contract.
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Construction Contracts
Construction contracts must contain four

legal items to be valid:
1. agreement (offer and acceptance)
2. consideration
3. capacity
4. legality

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Agreement:
• There must be an agreement between the parties
involved
• Such an agreement involves offer and acceptance
The signed contract by the contractor constitute an OFFER
Notification by the owner of the winning proposal constitute ACCEPTANCE
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Consideration:
• In the case of a construction contract, if a
constructor promises to build an addition to a
home without compensation and then changes
his mind, he generally cannot be forced to build
the addition because there was no consideration
for his or her services.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Capacity:
This means that both parties must be of

sufficient age to enter into a contract and
mentally aware of what they are doing
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Legality:
For a contract to be valid, it must be

legal. Obviously, a contract between
two parties in which one agrees to
commit an illegal act cannot be enforced!

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General Types of Construction Contracts:

• Lump-Sum Contract (LSC)
• Unit-Price Contract (UPC)
• Cost-Plus-Fee Contract (CPFC)
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Lump-sum Contract (LSC)
• In LSC contract, the owner will pay to the constructor an agreed-upon

sum of money for the completion of a project conforming to a
well-defined scope of work.
• This is the preferred type of contract for many construction services

because the owner can obtain the benefits of competitive bidding and
knows what the project will cost before he enters into a contract with a
constructor.
• Effective lump-sum contracts can only be obtained if well-defined

scopes of work are prepared in advance, which requires very careful
and complete planning and scheduling.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Unit-price Contract (UPC)
• The owner will pay to the constructor an agreed-upon amount of

money for each unit of work completed in a project. The units of
work may be any items whose quantities can be determined (e.g.
cubic yard of earth, lineal feet of pipe, etc..).
• Example:
Quantity Unit Price ($) Sub-total
Piping 150 15 $2,250
Seeding 350 (sq. ft) 3 $1,050
Palm Trees 20 200 $4000

Total $7300.00
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Unit-price Contract (UPC)
• Payments are usually made by the owner to the constructor at

specified intervals with the amount of each payment depending on
work actually completed during the prior period of time.
• This type of contract also requires a complete scope of work and is

the preferred type of contract when the actual final quantities are not
known with certainty beforehand.
• Under the terms of this contract the constructor may earn a profit or
incur a loss, depending on the accuracy of his estimate per unit of
work.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Cost-plus-fee Contract (CPFC)

• The owner will reimburse the constructor for all costs specified to
construct the project, including all labor costs, material costs,
equipment usage costs, subcontractor costs, and job supervision
costs.
• The owner agrees to pay the constructor an additional fee, which is

essentially a management fee, and to reimburse the constructor for
the costs incurred at both his head and field offices resulting from the
execution of the project.
• Under this type of contract the constructor usually takes the least
risk, and therefore has the least incentive to keep costs down.
• It is used primarily in situations where the scope of work cannot be

well defined ahead of construction or when the state of the art for the
particular project is not well known.
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ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Cost-plus-fee Contract (CPFC)
• To exercise some control and to give some incentive to the

constructor to hold costs down, there are many variations
to this type of contract, including:
• cost-plus-a-percentage-of-cost,
• cost-plus-a-fixed-fee, and
• cost-plus-a-sliding-fee
all with guaranteed maximums or with incentives to hold down the
costs.
• CPFC contracts are complicated.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Performance Guarantees
• Constructors frequently are required to furnish a performance

bond for each project.
• The bond is a three-party instrument in which a bonding
company (termed surety) guarantees (or bonds) to the owner
that the project will be built by the constructor in accordance
with the contract.
• The cost of a performance bond depends on the size and risk
of the contract and the reputation and expertise of the
constructor.
• Good constructors who are constructing typical projects can
obtain performance bonds for something less than I % of the
project cost.
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Constructor Specialties
• Constructors or contractors tend to specialize somewhat in

various types of work.
• There are no clear-cut lines separating the fields of
construction, they may be divided into:
– Residential
– Building-commercial
– Industrial
– Highway-heavy
– Airport
– Specialty work

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Characteristics of Equipment-
Intensive Operations
• The constructor works under a unique set of production
conditions, which directly affect the selection of construction
equipment.
– A construction company carries its factory to each job
site. At each site the constructor erects a construction
plant specifically designed for that project.
– The constructor has little opportunity for “fine tuning” of

his construction process.
– Construction projects are completed too fast, and lessons

learned have limited applicability to future projects
because of the one-of-a-kind nature of each construction
project.
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Risk Factors in Equipment-

Intensive Work
• There are significant risks involved in utilizing construction
equipment on jobs requiring large equipment-resource
investment:
– Earth and rock dam construction and canal work
demand large concentrations of equipment. It is usually
bid on a unit-price basis and can be subject to large
variations between estimated and actual quantities.
– Highway work, often the least profitable of all heavy

construction projects, frequently requires an equipment
commitment that is greater than the gross contract value.
Highway work is usually spread over several miles,
making its control and management very difficult.

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Risk Factors in Equipment-

Intensive Work
– Airport construction requires a large equipment spread.
– Pipeline construction is the most volatile type of

equipment-intensive work. Speed of pipeline work
requires constructors to keep current on job costs and
overruns.
– All types of construction share a critical dependence on

the climate and the weather.
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More Risk Factors in Equipment-

Intensive Work
• Financing Mechanisms
• Government-initiated Construction
Activity Levels
• Labor Regulations, Agreements, and

Safety

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Financing Mechanisms
• Contract payment retention provisions allow

owners to retain substantial dollar amounts,
which constructors have already earned, for
long periods of time.
• Retainage shows as an asset on a constructor's

books, it cannot be utilized for operation and
growth and can cause serious cash flow
problems.
• Most contractors consider cash flow to be the

critical factor in any equipment decision.
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Construction Economics and the

Designer
• The cost of a project is determined by the requirements of the
contract documents:
– Prior to completing the final design, the engineer should give
careful consideration to the method and equipment, which
may be used to construct the project
– Requirements, which increase the cost without producing

equivalent benefits, should be eliminated
– The decisions of the engineer should be based on a sound

knowledge of the construction methods and equipment to be
employed

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Designer
• The budget for a project may be divided into six or
more items:
− Materials
− Labor
− Equipment
− Subcontracts
− Overhead, and
− Profit/risk.
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Designer
• Examples of engineering practices that increase
cost:
– Requiring materials that must be transported over long
distances
– Excessive testing
– Not allowing substitution of equal-quality materials
– Requiring many one-of-a-kind items which cannot be
mass-produced
– Using nonstandard materials or techniques when not
required
– Establishing standards of quality that are higher than
necessary.

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Designer
• Some ways to to reduce the costs of construction:
1. Design concrete structures with as many duplicate
members as practical.
2. Simplify the design of the structure where possible.
3. Design for the use of cost-saving equipment and
methods.
4. Eliminate unnecessary special construction
requirements.
5. Design to minimize labor-intensive activities.
6. Specify a quality of workmanship that is consistent with
required project quality.
7. Furnish adequate subsurface information where
possible.
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Designer
8. Refrain from requiring the constructor to assume the adequacy of
design or the responsibility for information that should be furnished
by the engineer or architect.
9. Use local materials when they are satisfactory.
10. Write simple, straightforward specifications, which clearly state what,
is expected. Define either the results expected or the methods of
accomplishing the desired results, but not both.
11. When possible, use standardized specifications, which are familiar to
the constructors.
12. Hold pre-bidding conferences with constructors in order to eliminate
uncertainties.
13. Use inspectors who have sufficient judgment and experience to
understand the project and to give them the authority to make
decisions.

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Contractor (Constructor)
• Most construction contractors work within a unique market
situation.
• The job plans and specifications, which are supplied by the
owner, will dictate the sales conditions and product, but not
the price.
• The vast majority of work in the construction industry is
awarded on a bid basis, through either open or selective
tender procedures.
• The constructor states his price after estimating the cost,
including his overhead, evaluating the risk, and adding a
desired profit.
• Usually winning constructor has been able to underbid his
competitors because of a more efficient work plan, lower
overhead costs, or a willingness to accept a lower profit, and
increased risk.
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ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The Time Value of Money

(TVM)
• Money has a time value

• One dollar today is worth more than
$1 tomorrow
• Failure to pay the bills results in
additional charge termed

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The Interest (i)

• Interest is usually expressed as a percentage of the amount owed.
• It is due and payable at the close of each period of time involved in the
agreed transaction (usually every month).
Example:
If $ 1,000.00 is borrowed at 14% interest, then interest on the principal
of $ 1,000.00 after one year is 0. 14 x 1, 000, or $140.00.
If the borrower pays back the total amount owed after one year, she will
pay $1,140.00.
If she does not pay back any of the amount owed after one year, then
normally the interest owed, but not paid, is considered now to be
additional principal, and thus the interest is compounded.
After two years she will owe $1,140.00+0.14 X 1,140.00,or 1,299.60.
15
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Equivalency
The banker normally does not care whether you pay him $1,140.00 after
one year or $1,299.60 after two years. To him, the three values ($1,000,
$1,140, and $1,299.60) are equivalent.
$ 1,000 today is equivalent to $1,140 one year from today,
$ 1,000 today is equivalent to $1,299.60 two years from today.
The three values are not equal but equivalent.

Note:
1.The concept of equivalence involves time and a specified rate
of interest. The three preceding values are only equivalent for an
interest rate of 14%, and then only at the specified times.
2. Equivalence means that one sum or series differs from another
only by the accumulated interest at rate i for n periods of time.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Symbols
• To generalize the concept of interest the following symbols
are used:
P = a present single amount of money

F = a future single amount of money, after n periods of
time
i = the rate of interest per interest period (usually one
year)
n = the number of periods of time (usually years)
16
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Financial analysis
• Single payment
• Uniform series of payments
• Discounted present worth analysis
• Rate of return analysis

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Single Payment Analysis
• To calculate the future value F of a single payment P after n periods at

an interest rate i, we make the following calculation:
At the end of the first period: F1 = P + Pi

At the end of the second period: F2 = P + Pi + (P + Pi)i = P(1 + i)2
At the end of the nth period: F = P(1 + i)n
The future single amount of a present single amount is
F = P(1 + i)n
17
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Note:
F is related to P by a factor which depends only on i and n.
This factor, termed the single payment compound amount
factor (SPCAF), makes F equivalent to P.
SPCAF may be expressed in a functional form:
F  F 
(1 + i ) n =  , i, n  or F = P , i, n 
P  P 
The present single amount of a future single amount is
F P 
P= or P = F  , i, n 
(1 + i ) n F 

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Note:
The factor 1/(1+i)n is called the present worth compound
amount factor (PWCAF)
1 P 
=  , i, n 
(1 + i ) n
F 
18
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 1: Single Payment

• A contractor wishes to set up a revolving line of credit at the bank to
handle her cash flow during the construction of a project.
She believes that she needs to borrow $12,000 with which to set up
the account, and that she can obtain the money at 1.45% per
month.
If she pays back the loan and accumulated interest after 8 months,
how much will she have to pay back?
F = 12,000(1 + 0.0145)8 = 12,000(1.122061)= 13,464.73 = $13,465
The amount of interest will be:
$13,465 - 12,000 = $1,465.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 2: Single Payment

• A construction company wants to set aside enough money today in
an interest-bearing account in order to have $ 100,000 five years
from now for the purchase of a replacement piece of equipment.
If the company can receive 8% interest on its investment, how much

should be set aside now to collect the $100,000 five years from
now?
P = 100,000/(I + 0.08)5 =100,000/(1.46933) = $68,058.32 = $68,060
To solve this problem you can also use the tables in Appendix A.
P =100,000 (P/F, 8,5) = 100,000(0.6805832) $68,058.32 = $68,060
19
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Uniform Series of Payments

Analysis
• Often payments or receipts occur at regular intervals, and such
uniform values can be handled by the use of additional functions.
Another symbol:
A = uniform end-of-period payments or receipts continuing for
a duration of n periods
• If a uniform amount A is invested at the end of each period for n
periods at a rate of interest i per period, then the total equivalent
amount F at the end of the n periods will be:
[
F = A (1 + i )
n −1
+ (1 + i )
n−2
]
+ .... + (1 + i ) + 1
By multiplying both sides of above equation by (1+i) and subtracting

from the original equation, the following expression is obtained:
Fi = A(1 + i ) − 1
n

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

Analysis
Which can be rearrange to give
 (1 + i )n − 1
F = A 
 i 
The relationship can also be expressed in a functional form as
F 
F = A , i, n 
A 
[(1+i)n - 1]/i is called the uniform series compound amount factor (USCAF)
It can also be shown that
 i 
A = F 
 (1 + i ) − 1
n
20
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

Analysis
Which can be expressed in a functional form as
A 
A = F  , i, n 
F 
The relationship i / [(1+i)n - 1]is termed as the uniform series sinking fund factor
(USSFF)
F = P (1 + i )
n
Recall that
Hence
 (1 + i )n − 1 P 
P = A n 
or P = A , i, n 
 i (1 + i )  A 

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

Analysis
The relationship  (1 + i ) − 1 is called the uniform series present worth factor
n
 i (1 + i ) 
n
(USPWF)
Also
 i (1 + i )n  A 
A = P  or A = P , i, n 
 (1 + i ) − 1
n
 P 
The relationship  i(1 + i )  is called the uniform series capital recovery factor
n
 (1 + i ) − 1
n
(USCRF)
21
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Cash Flow Diagram for Single

Payment
F
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 n-1
n
 1 
F = P(1 + i ) or P = F 
n
n
P  (1 + i ) 

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Cash Flow Diagram for Uniform

Series of Payments
F
A A A A A A A A
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 n-1
n
 (1 + i )n − 1  i 
F = A  or A = F  
 (1 + i ) − 1
n
 i 
22
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Cash flow diagram for uniform

series of payments
A A A A A A A A
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 n-1
n
 (1 + i )n − 1  i (1 + i )n 
P = A n 
or A = P  
 i (1 + i )   (1 + i ) − 1
n
P

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 3
• A piece of construction equipment costs $45,000 to purchase.

• Fuel, oil, grease, and minor maintenance are estimated to cost
$12.34 for each hour that the equipment is used.
• The tires cost $3,200 to replace (estimated to occur every 2,800
hours of use), and major repairs of $6,000 are expected after 4,200
hours of use.
• The piece of equipment is expected to last for 8,400 hours, after
which it will have an estimated salvage value of 10% of the
purchase price.
How much should the owner of the equipment charge, per hour of
use, if he expects to use the piece of equipment about 1,400 hours
per year? Assume an annual interest rate of 15%.
23
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 3 (continued)
3,200
Cash Flow Diagram
4,500
0
12.34 (1,400)
3,200 3,200 3,200
6,000
45,000

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
n = 8,400/1,400 = 6 years
A1 = - 45,000(A/P,15,6) = - 45,000 (0.26424) = -11,890.80
A2= - 12.34 (1,400) = -17,276.00
A3= - 3,200 (A/F,15,2) = - 3,200 (0.46512) = -1,488.38
A4= - 6,000 (P/F,15,3)(A/P,15,6)
= - 6,000 (0.65752)(0.26424) = -1,042.46
A5= +(4,500 + 3,200) (A/F,15,6) = + 879.65
AT= the total annual cost = -30,817.99
The hourly cost 30,817.99/1,400 = $22.01/hr
 i (1 + i )n  A   i 
A = P  or A = P , i, n  A = F 
 (1 + i ) − 1  (1 + i ) − 1
n n
P 
 (1 + i )n − 1 P 
P = A n 
or P = A , i, n 
 i (1 + i )  A 
24
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Discounted Present Worth Analysis
• Often in engineering economic studies, as well as in general

financial analyses, a discounted present worth analysis is made of
each alternative under consideration.
• It involves calculating the equivalent present worth or present value
of all the dollar amounts involved in the alternative to determine its
present worth.
Definition:
The present worth is discounted at a predetermined rate of interest
called the minimum attractive rate of return (MARR or i*).
The MARR is usually equal to the current rate of interest for
borrowed capital plus an additional rate for such factors as risk,
uncertainty, and contingencies.
MARR = i* = i + i(risk)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 4
• The Ace-in-the-Hole Construction Company is considering three

methods of acquiring company pickups for use by field engineers.
The alternatives are:
A. Purchase the pickups for $7,200 each and sell after 4 years for
an estimated $1,200 each.
B. Lease the pickups for 4 years for $2,250 per year paid in
advance at the beginning of each year. The contractor pays all
operating and maintenance costs on the pickups and the
leasing company retains ownership.
C. Purchase the pickups on special time payments with $750 down
now and $2,700 per year at the end of each year for 3 years.
Assume the pickups will be sold after 4 years for $1,200 each.
If the contractor's MARR is 15%, which alternative should he choose?

Note: All alternatives involve equal lives.
25
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
To solve, calculate the net present worth (NPW) of each alternative

at 15% and select the least costly alternative:
1,200
A 0 4 NPWA = -7,200 + 1,200(P/F),15,4) = -$6,514
7,200
0 4
B
NPWB = -2,250 - 2,250(P/A),15,3) = -$7,387
2,250 2,250 2,250 2,250 1,200
4
0
C NPWC = -750 - 2,700(P/A),15,4)+1,200(P/A),15,4) = -$7,772
750
2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700

The least costly alternative is A

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
What to do When Alternatives

Involve Different Lives
Approach 1:
Truncate (cut off) the longer-lived alternative(s) to equal the
shorter lived alternative and assume a salvage value for the
unused portion of the longer lived alternatives. Then make
the comparison on the basis of equal lives.
Approach 2:
Assume equal replacement conditions (costs and incomes)
for each alternative and compute the discounted present
worth on the basis of the least common multiple of lives for
all alternatives.
26
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 5
• A contractor is considering the purchase of either a new

track-type tractor for $73,570, which has a 6-year life with an
estimated net annual income of $26,000 and a salvage value
of $8,000, or a used track-type tractor for $24,680, with an
estimated life of 3 years and no salvage value and an
estimated net annual income of $12,000.
If the contractor's MARR is 20%, which tractor, if any, should

she choose?

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Approach 1. (comparison on the basis of equal lives)
8,000
26,000 26,000 26,000 26,000 26,000
New 26,000
tractor
0 6 Assumed Salvage
Value
73,750 30,000
12,000 12,000 12,000 26,000 26,000
Old New 26,000
tractor tractor
0 3 0 3
24,680 73,570
NPW new = -73,570 + 26,000(P/A,20,3) + 30,000(P/F,20,3) = -73,570 + 26,000(2.10648) + 30,000(0.5787) = -$1,443
NPW old = -24,680 + 12,000(P/A,20,3) = -24,680 + 12,000(2.10648) = + $597
Conclusion: Old tractor is a better Alternative
27
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Approach 2. (comparison on the basis of equal replacement conditions)
8,000
26,000 26,000 26,000 26,000 26,000
26,000
New
tractor 0
6
73,570
12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000

Old
tractor
0 6
24,680 24,680
NPW new = -73,570 + 26,000(P/A,20,6) + 8,000(P/F,20,6) = -73570 + 26,000(3.32551) + 8,000(0.33490) = -$15,570
NPW old = -24,680 + 12,000(P/A,20,6) - 24,680(P/F,20,3) = -24,680 + 12,000 (3.32551) - 24,680(0.57870) = +$944
Conclusion: New tractor is a better Alternative

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Rate of Return (ROR) Analysis

• Knowing the anticipated rate of return of an investment
permits decision maker to have more "perceived" confidence
in its decision!
Definition:
The rate of return of a proposed investment is that interest
rate which makes the discounted present worth of the
investment equal to zero.
• To calculate the rate of return, simply set up the equation to

be equal to zero and solve for i.
28
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 6
• A contractor is considering the purchase of either a new

track-type tractor for $73,570, which has a 6-year life with an
estimated net annual income of $26,000, or a used track-type
tractor for $24,680, with an estimated life of 3 years and no
salvage value and an estimated net annual income of
$12,000.
If the contractor's MARR is 20%, which tractor, if any, should

be chosen?

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Approach 1. (comparison on the basis of equal lives)
26,000 26,000 26,000 26,000 26,000

New 26,000
tractor
0 6
P 
NPWnew = −73,570 + 26,000 , i,6  = 0
A 
73,750
P  73,570 (1 + i ) − 1
6
12,000 12,000 12,000  , i ,6  = = 2.82962 =
i (1 + i )
6
Old A  26,000
tractor
inew = 26.9%
0 3
P 
24,680 NPWold = −24,680 + 12,000 , i,3  = 0
A 
P  24,680 (1 + i ) − 1
3
 , i,3  = = 2.05667 =
i (1 + i )
3
A  12,000
iold = 21.5%
29
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Iterative Solution
P 
NPWnew = −73,570 + 26,000 , i,6  = 0
 A 
P  73,570 (1 + i ) − 1 ⇒ i = (1 + i ) − 1
6 6
 , i,6  = = 2.82962 =
i(1 + i ) 2.82962(1 + i )
6 new 6
A  26,000
P 
NPWnew = −24,680 + 12,000 , i,3  = 0
 A 
P  24,680 (1 + i ) − 1 ⇒ i = (1 + i ) − 1
3 3
 , i,6  = = 2.05667 =
i (1 + i ) 2.05667(1 + i )
3 old 3
A  12,000

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Iterative Solution
i NPW new i NPWold
0.200 12893 0.150 2719
(1 + i )6 − 1 0.235 5877 0.167 1985
iold =
(1 + i )3 − 1
inew = 0.254 2498 0.180 1415
2.82962(1 + i ) 2.05667(1 + i )
6 3
0.262 1027 0.190 990
0.266 416 0.198 683
0.268 168 0.203 466
0.268 67 0.207 316
0.268 27 0.210 214
0.269 11 0.212 144
0.269 4 0.213 97
0.269 2 0.214 65
0.269 1 0.214 43
0.269 0 0.215 29
0.269 0 0.215 19
0.269 0 0.215 13
0.269 0 0.215 9
0.269 0 0.215 6
0.269 0 0.215 4
0.269 0 0.215 3
0.269 0 0.215 2
0.269 0 0.215 1
inew = 26.9%
0.269
0.269
0.269
0
0
0
0.215
0.215
0.215
1
1
0
inew = 21.5%
0.269 0 0.215 0
30
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
If MARR is 20%
Then, the new tractor is selected.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
• If we assume the salvage value for the new tractor to be

$30,000 after 3 years, the NPWnew will be:
NPWold = -24,680 + 12,000(P/A,i,3) = 0
iold = 21.5%
NPWnew = - 73,570 + 26,000(P/A,i,3) + 30,000(P/F,i,3) = 0
inew = 18.9%
Before the decision can be reached
YOU MUST KNOW YOUR MARR.
• If MARR = 20% and 3 year analysis period, we choose old tractor.
• If MARR = 30%, we choose neither tractor - do nothing alternative.
• If the MARR were 15%, which alternative should we select then?
31
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
• Both NPWold and NPWnew exceed the MARR = 15%.

• But since the old tractor yields a higher MARR, should it not be
selected?
• To answer this question, determine each alternative's net present
worth at 15%.
NPWold = -24,680 + 12,000(P/A,15,3) = $2,719
NPWnew = - 73,570 + 26,000(P/A,15,3) + 30,000(P/F,15,3) = $5,519
According to the above NPW analysis, the new tractor yields a

higher value for a MARR of 15%?
Shouldn't the alternative with the higher rate of return would yield
the higher NPW regardless of the assumed interest rate?
NO IT SHOULD NOT!
The initial investments in the tractor examples we used are not the
same.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Incremental Rate of Return (ROR)

Analysis
• When we examined the rate of return of each alternative, we have
ignored their respective differences in initial cash flows. Therefore,
we can obtain misleading results through such an analysis.
• To deal with the problem of unequal initial investments, an
incremental rate of return (IROR) analysis is required.
• "For alternatives that have a satisfactory rate of return (ROR), what

is the IROR of the difference in the cash flows of the alternatives?"
• To make this analysis, first arrange the alternatives in ascending

order of initial cash flow. Then compare alternatives, two by two,
alternatively rejecting the alternative with the lower IROR.
32
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

Analysis
NPWnew-old = - 48,890 + 14,000(P/A,i,6) + 24,680(P/F,i,3) + 8,000(P/F,i,6) = 0
i = 30.9%
24,680
8,000
14,000
0 6
48,890

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

Analysis
While the initial investment of $24,680 for the old tractor will yield a
ROR of 21.5%, the incremental increase in initial investment of
$48,890 (by purchasing the new tractor) will yield an IROR of
30.9%.
Now that all the rates of return are known, a decision can be
reached which is dependent on the MARR.
– For a MARR of 20% the ROR of the new tractor is too low, and
therefore the old tractor is chosen.
– For a MARR of 15% both alternatives exceed it and we have to examine
the IROR.
– In this case the IROR is higher than the MARR, so we should choose
the new tractor.
33
CHAPTER
EQUIPMENT COST
3a By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 3a. EQUIPMENT COST Slide No. 2

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EQUIPMENT COST
• Costs associated with owning and operating equipment
“How to determine what kind and size of equipment

seem to be the most suitable for a given project”
1
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EQUIPMENT PROCUREMENT
Objective
– Provide the right equipment at the right

time and place so the work can be
accomplished at the lowest cost.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EQUIPMENT PROCUREMENT
Specific Objectives
–Minimize ownership and
operating (O&O) cost.
–Increase availability.
–Increase utilization.
2
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EQUIPMENT
CLASSIFICATION
Equipment may be classified
according to the following:
– The type of work it performs.
– As standard - equipment which is commonly
manufactured and available to prospective
purchasers with readily accessible spare parts.
– As special - equipment which has to be
manufactured for a specific project or which does
not have readily accessible spare parts.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WORK AT THE LOWEST

COST
Not the same as machine at
lowest cost.
Machine utilization
Utilization drives purchase or

rent/lease decision.
3
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LIFE CYCLE COST
Predictingcosts of Ownership
and Usage.
DECISION
Using that information in

decision making.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INFORMATION SYSTEM
Machine identification
Utilization data
Purchase cost
Repair cost
Operating charges
FOG (fuel, oil, grease)
4
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
UTILIZATION DATA
9Load
9Speed
9Environment

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
UTILIZATION
Utilization is
working time
duration
not calendar
duration.
5
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
UTILIZATION DATA
Basis of costing
Hourly
Daily
Weekly
Miles
Fuel consumption

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EQUIPMENT COST
• Equipment costs rank second to labor cost
in terms of uncertainty.
• Equipment costs rank second to labor cost
on the outcome of the anticipated profit of a
particular project.
• Accurate estimation of equipment cost is of
primary importance to the successful
constructor.
6
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TOTAL EQUIPMENT COST
$ Depreciation 25%
$ Operating 23%
$ Repair 37%
$ Overhead 15%

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EQUIPMENT COST
Question No. 1
What is the largest
single equipment
cost?
7
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EQUIPMENT COST
Two questions in the mind of a

contractor or equipment owner:
1. How much does it cost to operate the

machine on a project?
2. What is the optimum economic life and the
optimum manor to secure a machine?

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EQUIPMENT COST
The first question is critical to bidding

and operation planning.
– Identify the expense associated with
productive machine
• Ownership and Operating (O&O) Cost
O&O is usually stated in hourly basis (e.g., $90/hr for a dozer)

If a dozer can push 300 cy yd (cubic yard) per hour, and it has
$90/hr O$O cost, then production cost (PC) will be
$90 / hr $0.30
PC = =
300 cy yd/ hr cy yd
8
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EQUIPMENT COST
The second question is important to

machine replacement
– Identify the optimum point in time to
replace a machine and the optimum way to
secure a machine.
• This is important in that it will reduce O&O cost

and thereby lower production expense.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EQUIPMENT COST
The money a company

spends for equipment is
an investment which must
be recovered as the
machine is utilized on
projects.
9
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COST OF CAPITAL
Many discussion of equipment

economics include interest as a cost of
capital.
Definition: #%
“The interest rate at issue in economical

literature is defined as the cost of capital.”

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
MEANS OF EQUIPMENT
EMPLOYMENT
• Means by which a piece of equipment may
be employed on the project:
– Purchase
• Lowest hourly use charge
• Challenge to keep equipment fleet busy
– Lease
• Higher use charge than owning a piece of equipment
• Lower risk involved than in owning
– Rent
• Highest use charge for relatively short periods of time.
10
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FEW TIPS
• There are many different possibilities
available to perform any given task.
• There is no best or standard piece of
equipment for any particular job.
• No constructor can afford to own all types
and sizes of equipment that might be used
for the kind of work he performs.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FEW TIPS
Different Types of Equipment
Grader
Roller
Water truck
11
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COST OF OPTIONS
The constructor will generally try to use

his own equipment first, whether or not
it is the "optimum" piece.
Purchasing will be considered along
with other options if:
– The constructor does not have the
equipment,
– The equipment is unavailable due to its
being committed elsewhere

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COST OF OPTIONS
Purchase normally will not be
selected if:
– The project is small,
– The equipment cannot be easily sold upon
completion of the work,
– The future needs for the equipment are
deemed remote.
12
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COST OF OPTIONS
Costs associated with leasing and

renting equipment are readily available
from firms in the business of providing
these services.
Regardless of the type of equipment,
estimated costs of owning and
operating equipment are calculated in
the same manner.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
THE COST OF CONSTRUCTION

EQUIPMENT
The cost of construction equipment
consists of two general type of cost:
– Ownership Cost
– Operating Cost
Equipment Cost = Ownership Cost + Operating Cost
13
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
THE COST OF
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
General Notes
1. Costs associated with major overhauls,
modifications, and additions to the equipment are
sometimes considered to be ownership costs;
other times they are considered to be operating
costs.
2. Historical records of ownership costs are of limited
value
3. Conditions of equipment use, equipment
technology, interest rates, and the like, change,
thus diminishing the value of historical records.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
THE COST OF
Objectives
– Equipment owners and contractors
must carefully calculate machine cost.
• Ability to calculate ownership cost.
• Ability to calculate operating cost.
• Understanding of the advantages and
disadvantages associated with direct
ownership, renting, and leasing machine.
14
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EQUIPMENT OWNERSHIP
COST
9 Depreciation (Purchase
expense)
9 Insurance
9 Taxes
9 Salvage value
9 Shop expenses

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EQUIPMENT OWNERSHIP
COST
The most significant cash flows
affecting ownership cost are
1. Purchase expense.
2. Salvage value.
3. Tax saving from depreciation.
4. Major repairs and overhauls.
5. Property taxes.
6. Insurance.
7. Storage and miscellaneous.
15
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OWNERSHIP COST
Question No. 2
Ownership costs are
accumulated
whether or not the
equipment is
actually being used.
True
False

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OWNERSHIP COST
Purchase price
- Salvage
+ Overhead
= Ownership
expense
16
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OWNERSHIP COST
Cost
Usage

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AVERAGE HOURS TO
REPLACEMENT
• Rollers 9,500
• Wheel loaders 12,300
• Crawler dozers 12,500
• Hydraulic excavators 12,500
• Graders 14,300
• Scrapers 16,100
• Off-highway trucks 18,300
17
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OWNERSHIP COST
> Include the cost of all

attachments and delivery
charges in initial machine
cost (delivered price).
>Deduct tire cost for wheel-
type machines.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OWNERSHIP COST
Question No. 3 Machine

owning cost includes which
of the expenses listed?
$ Insurance
$ Fuel
$ Taxes
$ Repairs
18
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OWNERSHIP COST
Methods for Estimating

Ownership Cost
1. Time Value Method
2. Average Annual Investment
Method

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Estimating Ownership Cost of

Equipment
Estimate probable salvage
Estimate purchase Estimate expected
value for the equipment if sold
price of the equipment useful life equipment
at the end of its useful life
Select appropriate
interest rate for the
money (MARR)
Estimate cost of:

Taxes
Insurance
The time-value-of-money
approach
Storage
Convert cost into equivalent

interest rate based on the value
of equipment at any given time
Add interest Estimate uniform annual cost of ownership

rates using time-value-of-money approach
19
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 1
A piece of equipment is estimated to
cost $67,000 new and to have a useful
life of 7 years with a salvage value of
$7,000. The company believes that a
realistic MARR would be 12%. Taxes,
insurance, and storage should amount
to an additional 8%, which results in an
overall cost of money of 12 + 8, or 20%.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 2 (cont’d)
What are the uniform annual equivalents of estimated
ownership costs? $7,000
i = 20%
Yr 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
$67,000
A  A 
A = −$67,000 ,20,7  + $7,000 ,20,7  = −$18,045
P  F 
 i (1 + i )n   i 
A = P  + F 
 (1 + i )n
− 1   (1 + i )n
− 1 
 0.2(1 + 0.2 )7   0.2 
A = −$67,000  + $7,000   = −$18,045
 (1 + 0.2) − 1   (1 + 0.2) − 1
7 7
20
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CHARGING OWNERSHIP
COSTS
To recover ownership costs, an appropriate amount must be charged for
equipment usage.
Charge per hour of use, based on an expected use rate per year.
Example: If the expected use rate is around 1,400 hours per year, then the
ownership charge per hour will be
$18,045/1,400 = $12.89 per hour of use
Daily, weekly, or monthly rate that it is available on the job, whether or not used.
Example: If historical records indicate that this type of equipment is assigned to

projects around 260 days per year, then the ownership charge per day
of availability will be
$18,045/260 = $69.40 per day of availability
21
CHAPTER
EQUIPMENT COST
3b By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 3b. EQUIPMENT COST Slide No. 42

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 2
A company having a cost of capital rate of 8%
purchases a $300,000 tractor. This machine
has an expected service life of 4 years and
will be used 2,500 hr per year. The tires on
this machine cost $45,000. The estimated
salvage value at the end of 4 years is
$50,000. Calculate the depreciation portion
of the ownership cost for this machine using
the time value method.
1
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Initial cost $300,000

Cost of Tires -45,000
Purchase Price less tires $255,000
The cash flow diagram:
$50,000
yr 1 2 3 4
$255,000

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
$50,000
yr 1 2 3 4
$255,000
 i(1 + i )n   0.08(1 + 0.08)4 
AP = P   = 255, 000   = $76,990 per year
 (1 + i )n
− 1   (1 + 0. 08 )4
− 1 
 i   0.08 
As = F   = 50,000  = $11,096 per year
 (1 + i ) − 1  (1 + 0.08) − 1
n 4
2
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Therefore, using the time value method

the depreciation portion of the
ownership cost is
$76,990 / yr − $11,096 / yr
Depreciation =
2,500 hr/yr
= $26.354 /hr

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AVERAGE ANNUAL
INVESTMENT METHOD
A second approach to calculate the
depreciation portion of ownership cost is
the average annual investment (AAI)
method
P(n + 1) + S (n − 1) (1)
AAI =
2n
P = purchase price less the cost of tires.
S = the estimated salvage value.
n = expected service life in years.
3
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AVERAGE ANNUAL
INVESTMENT METHOD
Notes on AAI
– The AAI is multiplied by the corporate cost
of capital rate to determine the ownership
cost of money portion.
– The straight-line depreciation of the cost of
the machine less the salvage value and
less the cost of tires, if a wheeled machine,
is then added to the cost of money part to
arrive at the depreciation portion of
ownership cost.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 3
A company having a cost of capital rate
of 8% purchases a $300,000 tractor.
This machine has an expected service
life of 4 years and will be used 2,500 hr
per year. The tires on this machine cost
$45,000. The estimated salvage value
at the end of 4 years is $50,000.
Calculate the depreciation portion of the
ownership cost for this machine using
the average annual investment method.
4
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Using Eq. 1 (Eq. 3.6 Textbook), we have
P(n + 1) + S (n − 1)
AAI =
2n
255,000(4 + 1) + 50,000(4 − 1)
= = $178,125 per year
2(4)
178,125 /yr (0.08)

Interest cost part = = $5.70 / hr
2,500 hr/yr

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Straight-line depreciation part:

Cost of Tires -45,000
Salvage value -50,000
$205,000
$205,000
= $20.500 / hr
4 yr(2,500hr / yr )
Depreciation = 5.700 + 20.500 = $26.2 per hr
5
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OWNERSHIP COST
Comparison: Examples 2 and 3

Time Value Method $26.35/hr
Average Annual
Investment Method $26.20/hr
Difference between the methods $0.15

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
METHODS FOR ESTIMATING

OWNERSHIP COST
Time Value Method versus AAI Method
– The choice of which method to use is
strictly a company preference.
– Either method is satisfactory, especially
considering the effect of unknowns such as
service life, operating hours per year,
estimating future salvage.
– There is no single solution to calculating
ownership cost.
6
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATING COST
Operating costs are those costs
associated with the operation of a piece
of equipment.
Operating costs usually occur when the
equipment is being used.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATING COST
Consumables - fuel, oil,

grease & filters (FOG)
Repair
Maintenance
Tires or tracks
High wear items - cutting
edges, teeth
7
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATING COST
Operator Wages
– Operator (e.g., driver) wages are
sometimes included under operating cost.
– But because of wage variance between
jobs, the general practice is to keep
operator wages as a separate cost
category.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATING COST
Operator Wages
– Such a procedure aids in estimation of a
machine cost for bidding purposes as the
differing project wage rates can readily be
added to the total machine O&O cost.
– In applying operator cost, all benefits paid
by the company must be included – direct
wages, fringe benefits, insurance, etc.
8
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATING COST
Question No. 4
Machine operating cost
includes which of the
expenses listed?
$ Tires
$ Shop expenses
$ Taxes
$ Repairs

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATING COST
HIGH WEAR ITEMS

Bucket teeth
Cutting edges
Truck body liners
Ripper tips
Ripper shank protectors
9
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATING COST
Cost
Usage

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATING COST
Fuel Consumption
– To consider operating cost of fuel and
lubricants we must know the amounts
consumed as a function of:
• The type of equipment,
• The conditions under which the
equipment is used, and
• The location where the equipment is
used.
10
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATING COST
Fuel Consumption and Cost

– To calculate fuel cost, a consumption
rate is found from tables and then
multiplied by the unit price of fuel.
– Fuel consumption formulas have
been published for both gasoline and
diesel engines.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATING COST
Fuel Consumption
– Values from these formulas must be
adjusted by
• Time Factor – Percentage of an hour that the
machine is actually working (e.g, 50/60, 40/60).
• Load Factor – Percentage of rated
horsepower.
11
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATING COST
Table 1. Average Fuel Consumption –

Wheel Loaders
Type of Utilization
Horsepower Low Medium High
(fwhp) (gal/hr) (gal/hr) (gal/hr)
90 1.5 2.4 3.3
140 2.5 4.0 5.3
220 5.0 6.8 9.4
300 6.5 8.8 11.8

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATING COST
Fuel Consumption Under Standard

Condition
Table 2
Consumes 0.06 gal of fuel per
Gasoline Engine flywheel horsepower hour
(fwhp-hr)
Diesel Engine Consumes 0.04 gal per fwhp-hr
12
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 4
A 220-fwhp wheel loader will be used at an
asphalt plant to move aggregate from stock
pile to the cold teed hoppers. This loader is
diesel powered. It is estimated that the work
will be steady at an efficiency equal to a 50-
min hour. The engine will work at full throttle
while the loading bucket (30% of the time)
and at three-quarter throttle to travel and
dump. Calculate the fuel consumption using

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
the engine consumption averages and

compare the result to a medium rating in
Table 1 (Table 3.2, Text). If diesel costs
$1.07 gal, what is the expected fuel expense?
Table 2
Fuel consumption diesel engine 0.04 gal per fwhp-hr.
Load Factor: Loading bucket 1.00 × 0.30 = 0.30
Travel and dump 0.75 × 0.70 = 0.53
0.83
13
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
50
Time factor 50 - min hr = = 0.83
60
Combined factor: 0.83 × 0.83 = 0.69
 0.04 gal  gal

Fuel consumption = 0.69 (220 fwhp ) = 6.1
 fwhp - hr  hr
Table 1 (Table 3.2, Text) medium rating 200 fwhp loader
= 6.8 gal/hr

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
There is considerable difference in the

calculated results and those found in Table 1
(Table 3.2, Text), which is why it is
recommended that a company establish
historical data.
Cost:
Using the formula 6.1 gal/hr × $1.07/gal = $6.53/hr
Table 1 6.8 gal/hr × $1.07/gal = $7.28/hr
14
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATING COST
Lubricants
– The quantity of lubricants used by an
engine will vary with the size of the engine,
the capacity of the crankcase, the condition
of the piston rings, and the number of
hours between lubricant changes.
– For extremely dusty operations it may be
desirable to change lubricants every 50
hours, but this is an unusual condition.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATING COST
Lubricants
– For extreme dusty conditions, it may be
desirable to change oil every 50 hr.
– However, It is common practice to change
lubricant every 100-200 hours.
– The quantity (q) of the lubricant consumed
by an engine per change will include the
amount added during the change plus the
make-up lubricant (c/t) between changes.
15
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATING COST
Lubricant Formula
hp × f × 0.006 lb/hp - hr c
qFC = + (2)
7.4 lb/gal t
qFC = quantity consumed, gph (gallons per hour)
hp = rated horsepower of the engine
c = operating factor
t = number of hours between changes

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 5
Calculate the oil required, on a per hour
basis, for the 220-fwhp wheel loader in
Example 4. The operating factor will be
0.69 as calculated in that example. The
crankcase capacity is 8 gal and the
company has a policy to change oil
every 150 hr.
16
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Using Eq. 2, we have

What the engine burns Oil changes
hp × f × 0.006 lb/hp - hr c
qFC = +
7.4 lb/gal t
220 × 0.69 × 0.006 8 gal

qFC = + = 0.18
7.4 150 hr

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATING COST
Tires
– Tire expenses include both tire repair and
tire replacement.
– Tire maintenance is commonly handled as
a percentage of straight-line tire
depreciation.
– Tire hourly cost can be derived simply by
dividing the cost of a set of tires by their
expected life.
17
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATING COST
Tires (cont’d)
– This how many companies prorate this
expense.
– A more sophisticated approach is to use a
time-value calculation.
– In this approach, it is recognized that tire
replacement expenses are single-point-in
time outlays that take place over the life of
a wheel-type machine.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 6
Calculate the hourly tire cost that should

be part of machine operating cost if a
set of tires can be expected to last
5,000 hr. Tires cost $38,580 per set of
four. Tire repair cost is estimated to
average 16% of the straight-line tire
depreciation. The machine has a
service life of 4 yr and operates 2,500 hr
per year. The company cost of capital
rate is 8%.
18
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Approach I:
– Not considering the time value of
money:
$38,580
Tire repair cost = (0.16) = $1.235 /hr
5,000 hr
$38,580
Tire use cost = = $7.716 /hr
5,000 hr
∴ The operating cost = 1.235 + 7.716 = $8.95 /hr

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Approach II:
– Considering the time value of money
Machine service life = 4 yr = 4 × 2,500 = 10,000 hr
Tire life = 5,000 hr
A second set of tires will be purchased at the end

of 10,000 / 5,000 = 2 years
The repair cost is the same = $1.235 / hr
19
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Approach II (cont’d):
yr 1 2 3 4
$38,580 $38,580
(First Set) (Second Set)
 i (1 + i )n   0.08(1 + 0.08)4 
A1st Set = P   = 38,580   = $11,648 per year
 (1 + i ) − 1  (1 + 0.08) − 1 
n 4
$11,648
First year cost per hr = = $4.659 /hr
2,500

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
yr 1 2 3 4
 i (1 + i )n  P=
F
A = P  (1 + i ) n $38,580 $38,580
 (1 + i ) − 1
n
(First Set) (Second Set)
 i (1 + i )n  F  i (1 + i ) 
n
A2 nd Set = P = n  
 (1 + i ) − 1 (1 + i )  (1 + i ) − 1
n n
38,580  0.08(1 + 0.08)4 

=   = $9.986 per year
(1 + 0.08) 2  (1 + 0 . 08 )4
− 1 
$9.986
First year cost per hr = = $3.995 /hr
2,500
20
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
– Therefore, considering the time value of
money, tire operation cost is calculated as
follows:
The operating cost = Repair + First Set + Second Set
= 1.235 + 4.659 + 3.995 = $9.89 /hr
Straight-Line Time Value

Compare
$7.72 /hr $9.89 /hr

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DEPRECIATION AND
DEPRECIATION ACCOUNTING
Depreciation
– is the loss in value of a piece of equipment
over time, generally caused by wear and
tear from use, deterioration, obsolescence,
or reduced need.
Depreciation accounting
– is the systematic allocation of the costs of a
capital investment over some specific
number of years
21
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Reasons for calculating the

depreciation accounting value (usually
termed book value) of a piece of
equipment:
1. To provide the construction owner and project manager
with an easily calculated estimate of the current market
value of the equipment.
2. To provide a systematic method for allocating the
depreciation portion of equipment ownership costs over a
period of time and to a specific productivity rate.
3. To allocate the depreciation portion of ownership costs in
such a manner that the greatest tax benefits will accrue.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Information needed for depreciation

accounting
1. The purchase price of the piece of
equipment, P.
2. The optimum period of time to keep the
equipment or the recovery period allowed
for income tax purposes, N.
3. The estimated resale value at the close
of the optimum period of time, F.
22
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DEPRECIATION
CALCULATION METHODS
Three methods are commonly
used:
Straight-line (SL) Method (widely
used)
Sum-of-the-years (SOY) Method
Declining-balance (DB) Method

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STRAIGHT-LINE (SL)
METHOD
The annual amount of depreciation Dm,,for
any year m, is a constant value, and thus the
book value BVm decreases at a uniform rate
over the useful life of the equipment.
1 (3a)
Depreciation rate, Rm =
N
P−F (3b)
Annual depreciation amount, Dm = Rm (P − F ) =
N
Book value at year m, BVm = P − mDm (3c)
Note:The value (P - F) is often referred to as the depreciable value of the investment.
23
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DEPRECIATION CURVES
12,000
SL - Straight-line depreciation method
SOY - Sum-of-the-Years depreciation method
DDB - Double-Declining-Balance depreciation method
10,000
Book value, $
8,000
SL
6,000 SOY
DDB
4,000
F = $2,000
2,000
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time, years

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 7
A piece of equipment is available for purchase for

$12,000, has an estimated useful life of 5 years, and
has an estimated salvage value of $2,000.
Determine the depreciation and the book value for
each of the 5 years using the SL method.
1 1
Rm = = = 0 .2
N 5
Dm = Rm (P − F ) = 0.2(12,000 − 2000 ) = $2,000 per yr
The following table can be constructed for depreciation:
24
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BV2 = 12,000 − 2(2,000) = $8,000

m BVm-1 Dm BVm
0 $0 $0 $12,000
1 12,000 2,000 10,000
2 10,000 2,000 8,000
3 8,000 2,000 6,000
4 6,000 2,000 4,000
5 4,000 2,000 2,000
If the equipment is expected to be used about 1,400 hours per year then its
estimated hourly depreciation portion of the ownership cost is
$2,000/1,400 = $1.428 = $1.43 per hour

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ECONOMIC LIFE OF
There are several different "lives" of
equipment:
1. The time it is actually owned (actual life),
2. The depreciable life used in depreciation
accounting,
3. The life used for tax purposes (taxable life),
and
4. The optimum time that the equipment should
be held from an overall income/cost
viewpoint (economic life).
25
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ECONOMIC LIFE
Economic life - the life in which the annual worth is
maximized.
Worth = f(cost, income)
If no income is generated, the economic life is the life

for which the annual costs are minimized
– Ideally, when a piece of equipment is purchased, the
estimated useful life will equal the actual economic life.
– Realistically, useful lives are estimated from historical
records and manufacturers' data.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ACTUAL VS. ESTIMATED

VALUE OF EQUIPMENT
Profitable equipment owners keep accurate
records of:
– Actual equipment use,
– Equipment charges,
– Ownership costs, and
– Operating costs
Periodically, actual values are compared with
estimated values. If actual values are
different, the equipment charges are
adjusted.
26
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ACTUAL VS. ESTIMATED

VALUE OF EQUIPMENT
The estimated useful life is also
checked with the actual economic life.
In order to determine the actual
economic life, net annual worth (or cost)
calculations are made for several trial
time periods using the market value of
the equipment, if sold, at the end of
these periods.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EQUIPMENT REPLACEMENT
CALCULATIONS
It is important to realize that as equipment ages
through time and use, its operating costs always
increase.
To maintain profitability, equipment owners should
periodically compare each piece of equipment's
worth with the estimated worth of such alternatives
as:
– Replacement with a new or used piece of equipment.
– Sale without replacement, then either leasing or renting as
needed.
27
CHAPTER
EQUIPMENT COST
3c By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 3c. EQUIPMENT COST Slide No. 95

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EQUIPMENT COST
The money a company

spends for equipment is
an investment which must
be recovered as the
machine is utilized on
projects.
1
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DEPRECIATION TAX SHIELD
Ownership Cost
– Ownership cost accrue whether or not
the equipment is used
• Capital cost (purchase price)
• Salvage value
• Depreciation tax shield
• Overhead expenses

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Under the tax system of U.S.,

an owner can reduce the
company’s tax burden and
thereby lessen net machine
cost by depreciating a
machine’s loss in value with
age.
2
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TAX TERMS
) Depreciation is used to recover

capital expenses for most tangible
business assets.
) Tangible property is property
that can be felt or touched. Its
physical features are what make it
useful to you - a machine.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TAX TERMS
) Basis is a way of
measuring your
investment in an
asset for tax
purposes.
3
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COST BASIS
Ownership cost or cost basis

includes amounts paid for:
–Purchase
– Sales tax on purchase
– Freight
– Installation and testing

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COST BASIS
Like-kind Exchange
iYou exchange a machine having
a book value of $50,000 for a new
machine having a fair market
value of $80,000.
iThe basis of the new machine is
$50,000.
iThis is the basis (value) for tax
depreciation purposes.
4
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COST BASIS
Property Plus Cash
iIf you trade a machine
and pay money, the basis
of the machine you receive
is the basis of the machine
you traded increased by
the money paid.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COST BASIS
Property Plus Cash
iIf you trade a machine and
pay money:
iBasis (new)
new machine =
basis old machine + money paid
+$
5
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COST BASIS
Sale and Purchase
iIf you sell a machine as
a separate transaction
you would pay tax on the
cash received which is
greater than the basis
(book value).

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COST BASIS
Sale and Purchase
iIf you sell a machine as
a separate transaction
and the amount received
is less than the basis
(book value), it is your
lost.
6
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COST BASIS
Sale and Purchase
iIf your sale of the old

machine and purchase of
the new are dependent on
each other, the
transactions are
considered an exchange.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COST BASIS
Repairs
iIf a repair increases the
value of your machine,
makes it more useful, or
lengthens its life, the repair
cost must be capitalized
and depreciated.
7
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COST BASIS
Repairs
iThe repair cost must be
capitalized and
depreciated.
iYou increase the basis of
the machine by the cost of
the repair.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The tax saving from depreciation is

influenced by
– the disposal method
– the value received for the old
machine
– the initial value of the new machine
– class life
– the tax depreciation method
8
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TAX SHIELD FORMULAS
For situation where there is no gain on

the exchange:
N
Total tax shield = ∑ tc Dn (4)
n =1
Where
N = individual yearly time periods within a life
assumption of N years
tc = corporate tax rate
Dn = annual depreciation amount in the nth time
period

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TAX SHIELD FORMULAS
For situation where a gain results from

exchange:
a. like-kind exchange, Eq. 4 is applicable.
b. Third-party sale:
N
Total tax shield = ∑ tc Dn − gain × tc (5)
n =1
Gain is the actual salvage amount received at the time of

disposal minus the book value.
9
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DEPRECIATION TAX METHOD
iThe Modified Accelerated

Cost Recovery System
(MACRS) is the US tax code
depreciation rule. It applies
to all tangible property
placed in service after 1986.
Property Classes
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
i Property classes &

Recovery periods
5 year property - automobiles
and trucks
7 year property - any property
that does not have a class life
10
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DEPRECIATION METHOD
200% declining balance or

straight line method for 3, 5, 7,
and 10 year property
150% declining balance
method or straight line method
for 15, and 20 year property

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DEPRECIATION RATES
Table 1 (Table 3.1 Text)

Tax code specified depreciation rates
Year of life 3-yr property 5-yr property
1 0.33 0.20
2 0.45 0.32
3 0.22 0.24
4 0.16
5 0.08
Cars and light-duty trucks are classified as 3-yr property.

Most other pieces of construction equipment are 5-yr.
11
Example 8
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
A 5-yr life class machine is purchased

for $125,000. It is sold in the third year
after purchase for $91,000. What are
the depreciation amounts and what is
the book value of the machine when it is
sold? Will there be income tax, if so in
what amount?
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Using tax rates of Table 1:

$125,000 × 0.20 = $25,000 depreciation at end of first year
$125,000 × 0.32 = $40,000 depreciation at end of second year
$65,000
Value when sold = $125,000 - $65,000 = $60,000
Amount of gain (There will tax) = $91,000 - $60,00 = $31,000
12
Example 9
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
A company having a cost of capital rate of 8%

purchases a $300,000 tractor. This machine
has an expected service life of 4 years and
will be used 2,500 hr per year. The tires on
this machine cost $45,000. The estimated
salvage value at the end of 4 years is
$50,000. Calculate the hourly tax saving
resulting from depreciation. Assume that the
machine is a 5-yr type property and that there
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
had been no gain on the exchange that

procured the machine. The company’s tax
rate is 37% under the tax code.
First calculate the annual depreciation

amounts for each of the years. In this case,
the tax code depreciation rate must be used
to calculate depreciation:
13
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Annual Depreciation amounts of all for

each of the years
5-yr property
Year BVn - 1 Dn BVn
rates
0 $ 0 $ 0 $300,000
1 0.20 3000,000 60,000 240,000
2 0.32 240,000 96,000 144,000
3 0.24 144,000 72,000 72,000
4 0.16 72,000 48,000 24,000
5 0.08 24,000 24,000 0
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Using Eq. 4, the tax shielding effect for

the machine’s service life would be
Year Dn Shielded amount*
1 $60,000 $22,200
2 96,000 35,520
3 72,000 26,640
48,000 17,760
Total $102,120
* Dn × 37%
$102,120
Tax saving from depreciation = = $10.21 / hr
4 yr(2,500 hr/yr )
14
PRACTICAL EXERCISE
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
This exercise illustrates how to

calculate the a machine cost
using the methods and
approaches discussed in this
chapter.
PRACTICAL EXERCISE
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Determine the probable cost

per hour of owning and
operating a scraper given the
following conditions:
– Engine 350HP diesel
– Overall cost of money 10%
15
PRACTICAL EXERCISE
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
– Useful life 5 years

– Hours used per year 2000
– Initial cost $470,000
– Cost of tires $30,000
– Estimated salvage value $60,000
PE-COST OF MONEY
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
(INTEREST RATE)
Sources of capital funds:
9 Borrow
9 Earnings
9 Equity
16
PE - Ownership Cost
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Time Value Method

Deduct tire cost from the
delivered price for large
machines.
Tires are considered a wear
item and are treated as an
operating cost.
PE - Ownership Cost
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Time Value Method

Cost of tires $30,000
$440,000
Need to calculate the uniform
series required to replace a
present value of $440,000
Uniform series capital recovery factor
17
PE - Ownership Cost
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Time Value Method

Overall cost of money 10%
Time 5 years
Uniform series capital
recovery factor
 i (1 + i ) n 
A= P 
 ( 1 + i ) n
− 1 
PE - Ownership Cost
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Time Value Method

Time 5 years
 0.10(1 + 0.10) 5 
A = $440,000  
 (1 + . 10 ) 5
− 1 
A = $116,071 per year
18
PE - Ownership Cost
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Time Value Method

Estimated salvage value
$60,000
Need to calculate the uniform
series required to replace a end
of period amount of $60,000
Uniform series sinking fund factor
PE - Ownership Cost
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Time Value Method

Time 5 years
Uniform series sinking fund
factor
 i 
A = F 
 (1 + i ) n
− 1 
19
PE - Ownership Cost
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Time Value Method

Time 5 years
 0.10 
A = $60,000  
 (1 + 0 . 10 ) 5
− 1 
A = $9,828 per year
PE - Ownership Cost
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Time Value Method
$116,071- $9,828
=
2,000 hr / yr
$53.12 / hour
20
PE - Ownership Cost
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AAI
P(n + 1) + S (n − 1)
AAI =
2n
AAI = average annual investment method
P = purchase price
S = salvage value
n = life in years
PE - Ownership Cost
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AAI
$440,000(5 + 1) + $60,000(5 − 1)
AAI =
2×5
P = $440,000
S = $60,000
n = 5 years
21
PE - Ownership Cost
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AAI
$440,000( 6) + $60,000( 4 )
=
10
AAI = $288,000/yr
PE - Ownership Cost
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AAI
Investment Cost
$288,000 / yr × 10%
=
2,000 hr / yr
$14.40 / hour
22
PE - Ownership Cost
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AAI
Depreciation
$470,000
- $30,000 tires
- $60,000 salvage
= $380,000
PE - Ownership Cost
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AAI
Hourly Depreciation
$380,000
=
5 yr × 2,000 hr / yr
$38.00 / hr
23
PE - Ownership Cost
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AAI
Hourly Depreciation
$14.40 + $38.00 =
$52.40/hr
PE - OWNERSHIP COST
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Comparison
Time Value Method $53.12/hr
Average Annual
Investment Method $52.40/hr
Difference between the methods $0.72
24
PE - OPERATING COST
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Annual cost of repairs

equals70% of straight Line
depreciation
Operating factor, 0.5
Cost of fuel $1.02 per gal.
PE - OPERATING COST
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Crankcase capacity, 14 gal

Time between oil changes,200 hr
Cost of lube oil $2.50 per gal
Cost of other oils and grease

$0.45 per hour
25
PE - OPERATING COST
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Repairs to tires 14% of

tire depreciation
Life of tires 4,000 hours
PE - OPERATING COST
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Repair
Hourly depreciation $38.00
$38.00 X 70% =
$26.60 per hour
26
OPERATING COST
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Fuel
Operating factor, 0.5
Cost of fuel $1.02 per gal
0.04 X 350hp X 0.5 = 7 gal/hr

7 gal X $1.02/gal = $7.14/hr
OPERATING COST
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Oil & Grease

hp × f × 0.006 lb/hp - hr c
qOC = +
7.4 lb/gal t
What the engine burns Oil changes
350hp × 0.5 × 0.006 14 gal
qOC = +
7.4 200 hr
qOC = 0.1418919 + 0.070 = 0.212 gal/hr
27
OPERATING COST
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Oil & Grease

Cost of lube oil $2.50 per gal
Cost other oils and grease $0.45/hr
0.212 gal/hr X $2.50/gal = $0.53/hr

Other oils and grease = $0.45/hr
Total cost O&G = $0.98/hr
OPERATING COST
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Tire Repair
Tire repairs 14% of tire depreciation
$30,000
= $7.50 per hour
4,000 hr
$7.50 X 14% = $1.05 per hour
28
OPERATING COST
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Tire Depreciation
How many tire replacements?

5 yr × 2,000 hr / yr
= 2.5 sets
4,000 hr
Therefore 3 sets
OPERATING COST
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Tire Depreciation
First set: (purchased at time 0)

Spread the cost over the live of the machine
-- Uniform series capital recovery factor
 0.10(1 + 0.10) 5 
$30,000 ×  
 (1 + 0.10) 5
− 1  = $? / hr
2,000 hr
29
OPERATING COST
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Tire Depreciation
First set: (purchased at time 0)
$30,000 × 0.2637975
= $3.96 / hr
2,000 hr
OPERATING COST
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Tire Depreciation
Second set: (purchased at time 2 yr)
must first calculate value at time zero.
$30,000
P=
(1 + i ) n
$30,000
P= = $24,793
(1 + 0.10 ) 2
30
OPERATING COST
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Tire Depreciation
Second set: (purchased at time 2 yr)

$24,793 × 0.2637975
= $3.27 / hr
2,000 hr
OPERATING COST
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Tire Depreciation
Third set: (purchased at time 4 yr)
must first calculate value at time zero.
$30,000
P=
(1 + i ) n
$30,000
P= = $20,490
(1 + 0.10 ) 4
31
OPERATING COST
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Tire Depreciation
Third set: (purchased at time 4 yr)
$20,490 × 0.2637975
= $2.70 / hr
2,000 hr
OPERATING COST
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Tire Depreciation
First set: $3.96/hr

Second set: $3.27/hr
Third set: $2.70/hr
Total Tire Dep. $9.93/hr
32
PE Operating Cost
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Repair $26.60/hr
Fuel 7.14
Lube Oils 0.98
Tire repair 1.05
Tire dep. 9.93
Total Oper $45.70/hr
PE – SCRAPER COST
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Total Scraper Cost
COST = Ownership Cost

+ Operating Cost
Scraper Cost = $53.12/hr + $45.70/hr = $98.82/hr
33
CHAPTER
GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS,
COMPACTION, AND STABILIZATION
4a By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION Slide No. 1

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HANDLING OF MATERIALS
The actual construction

process of any project is really
a material-handling problem.
On heavy construction
projects the major portion of
the work consists of handling
and processing bulk materials.
1
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Therefore need:
Knowledge about the
physical properties of the
material being handled and
of the material the machine
is operating upon.
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Materials are used only temporarily

in support of the construction
activities
9usable forms, scaffolding, shoring,
and some access roads.
Materials such as water for haul
roads and fuel will be consumed.
2
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Other materials will be permanently

incorporated into the structure:
9steel, timber, concrete, asphalt, rock,
and soils.
The contractor must select the
proper equipment to locate and/or
process materials economically.
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The decision process for

matching the best possible
machine to the project task
requires that the contractor takes
into account the following items:
1. Properties of the material to be handled.
2. Mechanical capabilities of the machine.
3
MAKING EQUIPMENT
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CHOICES
Two primary material

considerations:
9Total Quantity
9Size of Individual Pieces
MAKING EQUIPMENT
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CHOICES
The quantity of material to be
handled and the time constraints
resulting from the contract or
weather influence the selection of
equipment as to the
9type, size, and number of machines.
4
MAKING EQUIPMENT
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CHOICES
Larger units generally have lower
unit-production cost, but there is a
trade-off in higher mobilization and
fixed costs.
The size of the individual material
pieces will affect the choice of the
machine size.
MAKING EQUIPMENT
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CHOICES
Example:
A loader used in quarry to move
shot rock must be able to
handle the largest rock sizes
produced
5
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
A loader used in quarry to move shot rock must

be able to handle the largest rock sizes produced
EXCAVATION
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Common Excavation refers to ordinary

earth excavation.
Rock Excavation cannot be done by
ordinary earth handling equipment.
9Rock materials must be removed by
drilling and blasting or by some other
methods.
9This normally results in a considerably
greater expense than earth excavation.
6
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EXCAVATION
Muck Excavation includes materials

that will decay or produce subsidence
in embankments.
9 It is usually a soft organic material having
a high water content.
9Typically, it would include such things as
decaying stumps, roots, logs, and humus.
9These materials are hard to handle and
can present special construction problems
both at their point of excavation, and in
transportation and disposal.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EXCAVATION
Unclassified Excavation refers to

the materials that cannot be
defined as soil or rock.
9The removal of common excavation
will not require the use of explosives,
although tractors equipped with
rippers may be used to loosen
consolidated formations.
7
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The following glossary is

used to define important
terms that are used in
discussing geotechnical
materials, compaction, and
stabilization:
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Aggregate, course: Crushed rock

or gravel, generally greater than
1/4 in. in size.
Aggregate, fine: The sand or
fine-crushed stone used for
filling voids in coarse aggregate,
Generally it is less than 1/4 in,
and greater than a No. 200 sieve
in size.
8
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ASTM: American Society for

Testing and Materials.
Backfill: Material used in refilling
a cut or other excavation.
Bank measure: A measure of the
volume of earth in its natural
position before it is excavated.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Binder: Fine aggregate or other

materials that fill voids and hold
coarse aggregate together.
Borrow pit: A pit from which fill
material is mined.
Cohesion: The quality of some soil
particles to be attracted to like
particles, manifested in a tendency to
stick together, as in clay.
9
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Cohesive materials: A soil having

properties of cohesion.
Compacted volume: A measurement
of the volume of a soil after it has
been subjected to compaction.
Grain-size curve: A graph showing
the percentage by weight of soil
sizes contained in a sample.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Granular material: A soil, such as

sand, whose particle sizes and
shapes are such that they do not
stick together.
Impervious: A material that
resists the flow of water through
it is termed impervious.
10
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
In situ: Soil in its original or

undisturbed position.
Lift: A layer of soil placed on top of
previously placed embankment
material. The term can be used in
reference to material as spread or
as compacted.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Optimum moisture content: The

water content, for a given
compactive effort, at which the
greatest density of a soil can be
obtained.
Pass: A working passage (trip) of
an excavating, grading, or
compaction machine.
11
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Plasticity: The capability of being

molded.
Rock: The hard, mineral matter of
the earth's crust, occurring in
masses and often requiring blasting
to cause breakage before
excavation can be accomplished.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Shrinkage. A soil volume reduction

usually occurring in fine-grained soils
when they are subjected to moisture.
Soil. The loose surface material of the
earth's crust, created naturally from the
disintegration of rocks or decay of
vegetation, that can be excavated easily
using power equipment in the field.
12
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PROPERTIES OF
GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS
In analyzing problems involving earth
and rock handling techniques, it is
necessary to become familiar with
some of the physical properties of soils
and aggregates.
The properties affect materials
handling, equipment selections, and
equipment production rates.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF GEOTECHNICAL
MATERIALS
Homogeneous material such as
steel and concrete are easy to
predict their behavior.
Heterogeneous material such as
earths are hard to predict their
behavior and properties because
they are rarely uniform.
13
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
MATERIALS
In order to establish properties to
geotechnical materials, it is
necessary to classify these
materials.
Soils can be classified according to
the sizes of their particles, physical
properties, and their behavior.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
14
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
MATERIALS

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOILS
Soils are the principal component

of many construction projects.
Soils are used to support:
9structures - static load
9pavements for highways and airport
runways - dynamic loads.
9dams and levees, as impoundment - to
resist the passage of water.
15
SOILS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Some soils may be suitable for use

in their natural state, whereas
other, must be excavated,
processed, and compacted in order
to serve their purposes.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOILS
Knowledge of the properties,

characteristics, and behavior of
different soil types is important to
those persons who are associated
with the design or construction of
projects involving the use of soils.
16
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PROPERTIES OF SOILS
Soil properties have a

direct effect on
9the ease or difficulty of handling
the material.
9 the selection of equipment.
9 production rates.
TYPES OF SOILS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Soils may be classified

according to:
9The sizes of the particles of which
they are composed,
9By their physical properties, or
9By their behavior when file moisture
content varies.
17
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF SOILS
A constructor is concerned primarily

with five types of soils:
9Gravel,
9Sand,
9Silt,
9Clay,
9Organic matter,and
9Combinations of these types.
TYPES OF SOIL
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Rocks
Gravel
pass 3-in, retained on No. 10
No. 10 Sand
from lower limit gravel to No. 200
0.074mm Silt, noncohesive

smaller than 0.074 mm but
larger than 0.005 mm
Clay, cohesive
18
TYPES OF SOILS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The following size limits

represent those set forth by
the American Society for
Testing and Materials
(ASTM):
TYPES OF SOILS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Gravel: is rounded or
semiround particles of rock that
will pass a 3-in. and be retained
on a 2.0-mm No. 10 sieve.
Sizes larger than 10 in. are
usually called boulders.
19
TYPES OF SOILS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Sand: is disintegrated rock whose

particles vary in size from the lower
limit of gravel 2.0 mm down to
0.074 mm (No. 200 sieve). It may
be classified as coarse or line sand,
depending on the sizes of the
grains. Sand is a granular
noncohesive material.
TYPES OF SOILS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Silt: is a material finer than

sand and thus its particles are
smaller than 0.074 mm but
larger than 0.005 mm. It is a
noncohesive material that has
little or no strength. It compacts
very poorly.
20
TYPES OF SOILS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Clay: is a cohesive material whose

particles are less than 0.005 mm.
The cohesion between the particles
gives a clay high strength when air-
dried. Clay can be subject to
considerable changes in volume
with variations in moisture content.
They will exhibit plasticity within a
range of "water contents."
TYPES OF SOILS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Organic matter: is a partly

decomposed vegetable matter.
It has a spongy unstable
structure that will continue to
decompose and is chemically
reactive.
21
TYPES OF SOILS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Soils existing under natural

conditions may not contain the
relative amounts of desired types
to produce the properties required
for construction purposes.
It may be necessary to obtain soils
from several sources and then to
blend them to use in a fill.
TYPES OF SOILS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
If the material in a borrow pit

consists of layers of different types
of soils the specifications for the
project may require the use of
excavating equipment that will dig
vertically through the layers in
order to mix the soil.
22
TYPES OF SOILS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Rock can be formed by one of

the three different means:
9Igneous rocks solidifies from molten
masses
9Sedimentary rocks formed in layers
settling out of water solutions.
9Metamorphic rocks are transformed
from material of the first two by heat
and pressure.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Weight
air = 0
Volume
air AIR
Va
Volume
voids
Vv Total
Weight
water = Ww weight W
Total Volume
volume water Water
V Vw
Weight
soil solids
Ws
Volume
soil solids Soil
Vs
23
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Which material has the

greatest unit weight?
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RELATIONSHIPS
UNIT WEIGHT
Unit weight (γ) =

total weight of soil
total soil volume
24
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Total volume includes
Air
Water
Solids
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RELATIONSHIPS
Air, Water
and Solids.
That’s what
it looks like
under the
microscope.
25
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RELATIONSHIPS
γ drive off the water γd

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Water Content:
Water content =
Wet weight − Dry weight
Dry weight
26
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Same weight but different

volume.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Definitions:
total weight of soil W (1)
Unit Weight (γ ) = =
total soil volume V
weight of soil solids Ws

Dry Unit Weight (γ d ) = = (2)
total soil volume V
weight of water in soil Ww

Water Content (ω ) = = (3)
weight of soil solids Ws
27
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RELATIONSHIPS
volume of voids V
Void Ratio (e) = = v (4)
volume of soil solids Vs
volume of voids Vv (5)

Porosity (n) = =
total soil volume V
weight of soil solids  1  Ws 1

Specific Gravity (Gs ) =  = (6)
volume of solids  unit weight of water  Vs γ w
volume of water in voids Vw

Degree of Saturation ( S ) = = (7)
volume of voids Vv
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RELATIONSHIPS
Other useful relationships can be derived:
 Vv 
 
Vv Vv V n
Void Ratio (e) = = =   =
Vs V − Vv  V  1− n (8)
1−  v 
V 
e
Porosity (n) = (9)
1+ e
Total Volume (V ) = Vv + Vs = Va + Vw + Vs
(10)
28
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RELATIONSHIPS
 W 
Ws 1 + w 
W Ws + Ww Ws  Ws (1 + ω )
Moist Unit Weight (γ ) = = =  = (11)
V V V V
Ws
γd = (12)
V
From the above two equations :
γ
γd = (13)
1+ ω
W
Ws = (14)
1+ ω

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Weight
air = 0
Volume
air AIR
Va
Volume
voids
Vv Total
Weight
water = Ww weight W
Total Volume
volume water Water
V Vw
Weight
soil solids
Ws
Volume
soil solids Soil
Vs
29
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OTHER USEFUL
RELATIONSHIPS
Relationships Between Unit Weight, Void Ratio,
Moisture Content,and Specific Gravity
Ws + Ww Gsγ w + ωGsγ w Gsγ w (1 + ω )
γ= = = (15)
V 1+ e 1+ e
Ws Gsγ w
γd = = (16)
V 1+ e
ωG s (17)
S=
e
γ w (Gs + e ) (18)
γ at (saturated unit weigth of soil) =
1+ e

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OTHER USEFUL
RELATIONSHIPS
Relationships Between Unit Weight, Porosity,
and Moisture Content
Ws + Ww
γ= = Gsγ w (1 − n )(1 + ω ) (19)
V
Ws
γd = = Gsγ w (1 − n ) (20)
V
γ sat = [Gs (1 − n ) + n]γ w (21)
n
ω= (22)
(1 − n )Gs
30
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 1
In its natural state, a moist soil has a volume of 0.33 ft3

and weighs 39.93 lb. The oven dry weight of the soil is
34.54 lb. If Gs = 2.71, calculate the moisture content,
moist unit weight, dry unit weight, void ratio, porosity,and
degree of saturation.
Ww W − Ws 39.93 − 34.54
ω= = = = 0.156 = 15.6%
Ws Ws 34.54
W 39.93
γ= = = 121.0 lb/ft 3
V 0.33

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Ws 34.54
γd = = = 104.67 lb/ft 3
V 0.33
Gs γ w 2.71(62.4)
e= −1 = − 1 = 0.62
γd 104.67
e 0.62
n= = = 0.38
1 + e 1 + 0.62
ω Gs 0.156(2.71)
S= = = 0.682 = 68.2%
e 0.62
31
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 2
For a saturated soil, given ω = 40%, Gs = 2.71,

determine the saturated and dry unit weights.
ω Gs (0.4)(2.71)
e= = = 1.084
S 1
Note : S = 1(100% saturation )
γ sat =
(Gs + e)γ ws = (2.7 + 1.084)62.4 = 113.6 lb/ft 3
1+ e 1 + 1.084
Gsγ w (2.71)(62.4)
γd = = = 81.2 lb/ft 3
1+ e 1 + 1.084
SOIL CONSISTENCY LIMITS

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Certain limits of soil consistency

were developed to differentiate
between highly plastic, slightly
plastic, and nonplastic materials:
9Liquid Limit (LL)
9Plastic Limit (PL)
9Plasticity Index (PI)
32

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Liquid limit (LL): The water

content at which a soil passes from
the plastic to the liquid states. High
LL values are associated with soils
of high compressibility. Typically,
clays have high LL values; sandy
soils have low LL value.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Plastic limit (LL): The water

content at which a soil passes from
the plastic to the semisolid state.
The lowest water content at which
a soil can be rolled into 1/8-in. (3.2-
mm) diameter thread without
crumbling.
33

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Plasticity index (PI): The

numerical difference between a soil’s
liquid limit and its plastic limit is the
plasticity index. Soils with high PI
values are quite compressible and
have high cohesion.
PI = LL − PL (23)
VOLUMETRIC MEASURES
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
0.90 CUBIC YARDS

1.0 CUBIC YARDS 1.25 CUBIC AFTER
NATURAL YARDS COMPACTION
CONDITIONS AFTER DIGGING (COMPACTED
(IN-
(IN-PLACE) (LOOSE YARDS) YARDS)
34
VOLUMETRIC MEASURES
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
For bulk materials volumetric

measure varies with the material's
position in the construction
process.
The same weight of a material will
occupy different volumes as the
material is handled on the project.
VOLUMETRIC MEASURES
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Soil volume is measured in one of three states:
Bank Cubic Yard (bcy): 1 cu yd of material as it

lies in the natural state
Loose Cubic Yard (lcy): 1 cu yd of material after

it has been disturbed
by a loading process
Compacted Cubic Yard (ccy): 1 cu yd of material in

the compacted state,
also referred to as a
net in-
in-place cubic yard
35
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SHRINKAGE AND SWELL

FACTORS
Compacted Dry Unit Weight γ Cd
Shrinkage Factor =
Bank Dry Unit Weight
=
γ Bd
(24)
Compacted Unit Weight - Bank Unit Weight (25)

Shrinkage % = X 100
Compacted Unit Weight
Loose Dry Unit Weight γ Ld

Swell Factor = =
Bank Dry Unit Weight γ Bd
(26)
 Bank Unit Weight  (27)

Swell % =  − 1 X 100
 Loose Unit Weight 

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SWELL VALUES FOR DIFFERENT

CLASSES OF EARTH
Bank Loose
weight weight
Table 2 Percent Swell
Material lb/cu yd kg/m3 lb/cu yd kg/m3 swell factor
Clay,dry 2,700 1,600 2,000 1,185 35 0.74

Clay, wet 3,000 1,780 2,200 1,305 35 0.74
Earth, dry 2,800 1,660 2,240 1,325 25 0.80
Earth, wet 3,200 1,895 2,580 1,528 25 0.80
Earth and gravel 3,200 1,895 2,600 1,575 20 0.83
Gravel, dry 2,800 1,660 2,490 1,475 12 0.89
Gravel, wet 3,400 2,020 2,980 1,765 14 0.88
Limestone 4,400 2,610 2,750 1,630 60 0.63
Rock, well blasted 4,200 2,490 2,640 1,565 60 0.63
Sand, dry 2,600 1,542 2,260 1,340 15 0.87
Sand, wet 2,700 1,600 2,360 1,400 15 0.87
Shale 3,500 2,075 2,480 1,470 40 0.71
36
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 3
An earth fill, when completed, will occupy a net volume of

187,000 cu yd. The borrow material which will be used to
construct this fill is a stiff clay. In its "bank" condition, the
the
borrow material has a wet unit weight of 129 lb per cu ft (γ), a
moisture content (ω) of 16.5 %, and an in- in-place void ratio (e
(e)
of 0.620. The fill will be constructed in layers of 8- 8-in. depth,
loose measure, and compacted to a dry unit weight (γd) of
114 lb. per cu ft at a moisture content of 18.3%.
Compute the required volume of the borrow pit excavation.
excavation.
γ 129
Borrow : γd = = = 111 lb/ft 3
1+ ω 1 + 0.165
Fill (given) : γ d = 114 lb/ft 3

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Fill:
 27 ft 3 
(
Volume of Fill (VF ) = 187,000 yard3 
1 yard
)
 = 5,049,000 ft 3
3 
 
(
Weight of Fill (WF ) = 5,049,000 ft 3  3 
)
 114 lb 
= 575,586,000 lb
 1 ft 
Borrow:
 111 lb 
Weight of Borrow = VB  3 
 ft 
37
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Note: Weight of Fill = Weight of Borrow

Hence:
 111 lb 
575,586,000 lb = VB  3 
 ft 
575,586,000 lb 3
⇒ Volume of Borrow (VB ) = ft = 5,185,460 ft 3
111 lb
= 192,054 cu yd
Alternatively (Simpler Approach):
Compacted Dry Unit Weight 114

Shrinkage Factor = = = 1.03
Bank Dry Unit Weight 111
Volume of Borrow (VB ) = (Shrinkage Factor )(Volume of Fill) =

114
111
( )
187,000 yard3 = 192,054 cu yd
38
CHAPTER
4b By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 4b. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION Slide No. 75

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Same weight but different volume.
1
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 4
The soil borrow material to be used to

construct a highway embankment has a
mass unit weight 96.0 lb per cu ft (pcf)
and water content of 8%, and specific
gravity of soil solids is 2.66. The
specifications require that the soil be
compacted to dry unit weight of 112 pcf
and that the water content be held to
13%.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
a) How many cubic yards of borrow are

required to construct an embankment
having a 250,000-cu-yd net section
volume?
b) How many gallons of water must be
added per cubic yard of borrow material
assuming no loss by evaporation and one
gallon of water equals 8.34 lb?
c) If the compacted fill becomes saturated at
a constant volume, what will be the water
content and mass unit weight of the soil?
2
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Borrow:
lb
γ = 96.0 , ω = 8.0%, Gs = 2.66
ft 3
γ 96 lb
γd = = = 88.89 3
1+ ω 1 + 0.08 ft
Embankment:
lb
γ d = 112.0 , ω = 13.0%,
ft 3
lb
γ = γ d (1 + ω ) = 112(1 + 0.13) = 126.56
ft 3

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
(a):
Compacted Dry Unit Weight 112
Shrinkage Factor = = = 1.26
Bank Dry Unit Weight 88.89
Volume of Borrow Required = 1.26(250,000 cu yd) = 315,000 cu yd
(b):
Water needed in embankment :
lb
γ − γ d = 126.56 − 112 = 14.56 3
ft
( ) 27 
3
 lb  ft
Weight of Water needed = 14.56 3  250,000 yard3 3
 = 98,280,000 lb
 ft   yard 
3
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
(b) continued:
Water from borrow :
lb
γ − γ d = 96 − 88.89 = 7.11
ft 3
 27 ft 3 
 lb 
(
Weight of Water from Borrow =  7.11 3  315,000 yard3 )  = 60,470,550 lb
3 
 ft   yard 
Weight of Additional Water Required = 98,280,000 − 60,470,550 = 37,809,450 lb
37,809,450 lb lb
Gallons of Req' d Water = = 120
315,000 yard3 cu yd
lb 1 gal
= 120 = 14.39
cu yd 8.34 lb/gal cu yd borrow
4
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
(c): If the fill becomes saturated all voids between the solid soil
particles are filled with water. Therefore, the total weight
weight is
increased by the added weight of water:
Weight
Additional air = 0
Volume Water to
air AIR
replace Air
Va
Volume
voids
Vv Weight Total
water = Ww weight W
Total Volume
volume water Water
V Vw
Weight
soil solids
Volume Ws
soil solids Soil
Vs

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Total volume includes
Air
Water
Solids
5
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
(c): continued G = Ws ⇒ V = Ws = 112

= 0.675 ft 3
Vsγ w Gsγ w 2.66(62.4)
s s
Ww 14.56
Vw = = = 0.233 ft 3
γw 62.4
Vv = 1.000 − 0.675 − 0.233 = 0.092 ft 3
Weight of extra water: W = V γ = 0.092(62.4) = 5.74 lb

w w w
Ww (14.56 + 5.74)
ω= = = 0.181 = 18.1%
Ws 112
lb
γ = 14.56 + 5.74 + 112 = 132.3
ft 3

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION SPECIFICATION
AND CONTROL
6
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AND CONTROL
The engineering properties of
most soils can be improved
by compaction.
Compaction is the art of
mechanically densifying
materials.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL TYPES
SMALL GRAINED
< #200 MESH SIEVE
NON-COHESIVE COHESIVE
7
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL TYPES
ORGANIC
SOILS
Will usually
have to remove
before
building.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AND CONTROL
Before the specifications for a
project are prepared
representative soil samples are
usually collected and tested in
the laboratory to determine
material properties.
8
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AND CONTROL
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
(Atterburg Limits)
LL - Liquid limit
PL - Plastic limit
PI - Plasticity Index

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AND CONTROL
SOIL LIMITS
9
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
LL - Liquid limit
is the water
content of a soil
when it passes
from the plastic
to liquid state.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
LL - Liquid limit
Non-cohesive or sandy soils
have low LLs -- less than 20.
Clay soils have LLs ranging
from 20 to 100.
10
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
PL - Liquid limit
is the lowest
water content at
which a soil
remains plastic.
1/8 inch diameter thread

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
PI - Plastic Index
PI = LL - PL
The higher the PI the more
clay that is present in the soil.
11
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AND CONTROL
Normal testing would include
grain-size analysis because the
size of the grains and the
distribution of those sizes are
important properties, which
affect a soil's suitability.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION
Soil gradation is
the distribution,
in percent (%)
by weight, of
individual
particle sizes.
12
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AND CONTROL
Soil Gradation (Particle-size Distribution)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AND CONTROL
Maximum Dry Density/Optimum
Moisture
9Critical test is the construction of a
compaction curve.
9From compaction curves the
maximum dry unit weight (density)
and the percent water required to
achieve maximum density can be
determined.
13
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AND CONTROL

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AND CONTROL
Maximum Dry Density/Optimum

Moisture (cont’d)
9This percent of water, which
corresponds to the maximum dry
density (for a given compactive
effort), is known as the optimum
water content.
14
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS
The standard laboratory tests that are
used for evaluation of maximum dry
unit weights (γd’s) and optimum
moisture contents for various soils are:
1. The Standard Proctor Test (ASTM
D-698 and AASHTO T-99).
2. The Modified Proctor Test (ASTM,
D-1557 and AASHTO T-180)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS
Standard Proctor Test

9The soil is compacted in a mold that
has a volume of 1/30 ft3 (943.3 cm3).
9The diameter of the mold is 4 in. (101.6
mm)
9During the laboratory test, the mold is
attached to a base plate at the bottom
and to an extension at the top (see
Figure 1).
15
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS
Standard Proctor Test

9The soil is mixed with varying
amounts of water and then
compacted in three equal layers by
a hammer (Figure 2) that deliver 25
blows to each layer.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS
Figure 1. Standard Proctor Test Equipment: (a) mold; (b) hammer
16
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION
PROCTOR TEST
Standard Proctor
or
AASHTO T-99
Soil sample 1/30 cubic foot

3 layers

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS
Figure 2. Compaction
of Soil using Standard
Proctor Hammer
( courtesy of John
Hester, Carterville, IL)
17
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS
Standard Proctor Test (continued)

9The hammer weighs 5.5 lb (mass =
2.5 kg) and has a drop of 12 in.
(304.8 mm).
9 For each test, the moist unit weight
of compaction γ can be calculated as
W
γ= (28)
Vm

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS

Where
W = weight of compacted soil in mold
Vm = volume of mold (1/30 ft3)
9For each test, the moisture content w of
the compacted soil is determined in the
laboratory.
9With known moisture content, the dry unit
weight γd can be calculated as
18
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS
γ
γd = (29)
1+ ω

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS

Where w = moisture content
9The values of γd determined from the
above equation can be plotted
against the corresponding moisture
contents for the soil as shown the
following figure (Fig. 3), which is a
compaction for silty clay.
19
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS
Figure 3. Standard Proctor Compaction Test Results for a Silty Clay
Figure 3

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS

9For a given moisture content ω, the
theoretical maximum dry unit weight
is obtained when there is no air in
the void spaces, that is, when the
degree of saturation S equal 100%.
Thus, the maximum dry unit weight at
a given moisture content with zero air
voids can computed from
20
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS

Gγ (30)
γ zav = s w
1+ e
For 100% saturation, e = ωGs , so
Gγ
γ zav = s w (31)
1 + ωG s

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS
Modified Proctor Test

9The soil is compacted in a mold that
has a volume of 1/30 ft3 (943.3 cm3).
9The diameter of the mold is 4 in.
(101.6 mm)
9During the laboratory test, the mold is
attached to a base plate at the
bottom and to an extension at the top
(see Figure 4).
21
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS
Modified Proctor Test (cont’d)

9The soil is mixed with varying
amounts of water and then
compacted in five equal layers by a
hammer (Figure 2) that deliver 25
blows to each layer.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS
Figure 4. Modified Proctor Test Equipment: (a) mold; (b) hammer
22
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION
PROCTOR TEST
Modified Proctor
or
AASHTO T-180
Soil sample 1/30 cubic foot

5 layers

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS

9The hammer weighs 10 lb (mass =
4.54 kg) and has a drop of 18 in.
(457.2 mm).
9 For each test, the moist unit weight
of compaction g can be calculated as
W
γ= (32)
Vm
23
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS

W = weight of compacted soil in mold
Vm = volume of mold (1/30 ft3)
9For each test, the moisture content ω of
the compacted soil is determined in the
laboratory.
9With known moisture content, the dry
unit weight γd can be calculated (Eq.29)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS

9The values of γd determined from the
above equation can be plotted
against the corresponding moisture
contents for the soil as shown the
following figure (Fig. 5).
24
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION TESTS
Figure 5. Standard and Modified Compaction Curves

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Comparison between Standard

& Modified Proctor Tests
Figure 5 shows compaction
curves which illustrate the effect
of varying amounts of moisture
on the density of a soil subjected
to given compactive efforts.
The two energy levels depicted
are known as standard and
modified Proctor tests.
25
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

It should be noted that the
modified Proctor, which is a
higher energy level, gives a
higher density at a lower
moisture content than the
standard Proctor, as shown
in Figure 5.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

In this figure, the
optimum moisture for
the standard Proctor is
16%, versus 12% for the
modified Proctor.
26
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 5
The laboratory test data for a

standard Proctor test are given
as shown in Table 3. Find the
maximum dry unit weight and
the optimum moisture content.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Table 3. Test Data for Example 5

Weight of Wet Soil in the
Volume of Mold (ft3) Moisture Content ω (%)
Mold (lb)
1/30 3.88 12
1/30 4.09 14
1/30 4.23 16
1/30 4.28 18
1/30 4.24 20
1/30 4.19 22
27
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Volume, V (ft3) Weight, W (lb) γ (lb/ft3) ω (%) γ d (lb/ft3)

1/30 3.88 116.4 12 103.9
1/30 4.09 122.7 14 107.6
1/30 4.23 126.9 16 109.4
1/30 4.28 128.4 18 108.8
1/30 4.24 127.2 20 106.0
1/30 4.19 125.7 22 103.0
Sample Calculation :
Weight of Wet Soil = 4.09, ω = 12%, Hence
W 4.09 lb γ 122.7 lb
γ= = = 122.7 3 , γd = = = 107.6 3
V (1 / 30) ft 1+ ω 1 + 0.14 ft

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
9Plot the dry unit weight gd against the
moisture content w as shown in the
following figure(Figure 6). From the
figure find the maximum γd and
optimum ω.
Maximum dry unit weight = 109.5 lb/ft3
Optimum moisture content = 16.5%
28
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Figure 6. Compaction Curve for the Data of Example 5

110
(lb/ft^3)
109
108
107
Dry Unit W e ight,
106
105
104
103
102
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
M oisture Conte nt, ω (% )

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION
SPECIFICATIONS
Typically
specifications
give an
acceptable range
of water content,
OMC ± 2% for
example.
29
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPECIFICATIONS FOR FIELD

COMPACTION
In most specifications for earth work,
the contractor is required to achieve a
compacted field dry unit weight of 90%
to 95% of the maximum dry unit weight.
The maximum dry unit weight is the
maximum unit weight that is determined
by either the standard or modified
Proctor test.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION
SPECIFICATIONS
The specification 123.
also sets a 5
minimum
density, 90% or
95% of max. dry
density for a
specific test.
30
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
123. Must
SPECIFICATIONS
5 work in
the box.
COMPACTION

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION
SPECIFICATIONS
Lift. A layer of soil placed
on top of soil previously
placed in an embankment.
The term can be used in
reference to material as
spread or as compacted.
31
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPECIFICATIONS FOR
FIELD COMPACTION
The specification for field
compaction can be based
either on
(1) relative compaction RC or
(2) relative density Dr
32
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPECIFICATIONS FOR
FIELD COMPACTION
The relative compaction (RC), is therefore,
defined as the ratio of the dry unit weight
of the soil in the field to the maximum dry
unit weight of the same soil determined in
the laboratory
γ d (field)
RC (%) = × 100 (33)
γ d (max, lab)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPECIFICATIONS FOR FIELD

COMPACTION
The relative density Dr is given by
1  R0  (34)
Dr = 1 −
(1 − R0 )  RC  γ d (min)
R0 =
γ d (max)
where
γd(min) = dry unit weight in the loosest condition
(at a void ratio of emax)
γd(max) = dry unit weight in the densest condition
(at a void ratio of emin)
33
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPECIFICATIONS FOR
FIELD COMPACTION
ASTM Test Designation D-2049
provides a procedure for the
determination of the minimum and
maximum dry unit weights of
granular soils.
For sands, this done by using a
mold with a volume of 0.1 ft3 (2830
cm3).

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPECIFICATIONS FOR
FIELD COMPACTION
For determination of the minimum
dry unit weight, sand is loosely
poured into the mold from a funnel
with a 1/2-in (12.7-mm) diameter
spout.
The average height of the fall of
sand into the mold is kept at about
1 in (25.4 mm)
34
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPECIFICATIONS FOR
FIELD COMPACTION
The value of γd(min)
(min) can then be
determined as
Ws
γ d (min) = (35)
Vm
where
Ws = weight of sand required to fill the mold
Vm = volume of the mold (0.1 ft3)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPECIFICATIONS FOR
FIELD COMPACTION
9The maximum dry unit weight is
determined by vibrating sand in the
mold for 8 min.
9A surcharge of 2 lb/in2 (13.8 kN/m2) is
added to the top of the sand in the
mold.
9The mold is placed on a table that
vibrates at a frequency of 3600
cycles/min and that has an amplitude
of vibration of 0.025 in (0.635 mm).
35
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPECIFICATIONS FOR
FIELD COMPACTION
The value of γd(max)
(max) can then be
determined at the end of the
vibrating period with the knowledge
of the weight and volume of sand.
An empirical formula has been
developed by Lee and Singh (1971)
to give a relationship between RC
and Dr.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPECIFICATIONS FOR
FIELD COMPACTION
For granular soils, the relationship

is given as
RC (%) = 80 +0.2 Dr (36)
According to Lee and Singh (1971), the correlation

between RC and Dr was based on the observation
of 47 soil samples.
36
CHAPTER
4c By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 4c. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION Slide No. 146
COMPACTION CONTROL
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The specifications for a project

may require a contractor to
compact the soil to to a 100%
relative density, based on
standard Proctor test or a
laboratory test at some other
energy level.
1
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION CONTROL
If the maximum laboratory

density of the soil is
determined to be 120 lb per cu
ft, the contractor must compact
the soil to a density of 120 lb
per cu ft.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION CONTROL
Field verification tests of

achieved compaction can be
conducted by any of several
accepted methods:
1) Sandcone
2) Balloon
3) Nuclear
2
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION CONTROL
The first two methods are
destructive tests. They involve
9excavating a hole in the compacted
fill and weighing the excavated
material.
9determining the water content of the
excavated material.
9measuring the volume of the resulting
hole.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION CONTROL
Disadvantages of using
sandcone and balloon methods:
1) time-consuming to conduct
sufficient tests for statistical
analysis.
2) problems with oversized
particles.
3) the determination of water
content takes time
3
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
NUCLEAR COMPACTION
TEST
Nuclear methods are used
extensively to determine the water
content and density of soils.
The instrument required for this test
can be easily transported to the fill,
placed at the desired test location,
and within a few minutes the results
can be read directly from the digital
display.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
NUCLEAR COMPACTION
TEST
Advantages of the nuclear
method when compared with
other methods include the
following:
1) Decreases the time required for a
test from as much as a day to a few
minutes, thereby eliminating
potentially excessive construction
delays.
4
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
NUCLEAR COMPACTION
TEST
2) It is nondestructive in that it does
not require the removal of soil
samples from the site of the tests.
3) Provides a means of performing
density tests on soils containing
large-sized aggregates and on
frozen materials.
4) Reduces or eliminates the effect of
the personal element, and possible
errors. Erratic results can be easily
and quickly rechecked.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
NUCLEAR COMPACTION
TEST
Disadvantages of the nuclear
method when compared with
other methods include the
following:
1) Nuclear test instruments, it not
used properly, present a potential
source of radiation that can be
harmful to humans
5
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
NUCLEAR COMPACTION
TEST
2) These instruments usually
require a skilful operator who
exercise care to ensure that no
harm can result from the use of
the instruments.
3) In the U.S., a license is required
to possess, own, or use nuclear-
type instruments

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GEOGAUGE
A Geogauge device is a
nondestructive devise that does not
require the removal of soil samples
from the site of the tests.
This device is very new to the field.
The Minnesota Department of
transportation tested the first
prototype models in 1994.
6
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GEOGAUGE
Production models are currently

available and each year more
agencies are conducting
independent field evaluation.
This portable device can provide a
simple, rapid, and precise means of
directly measuring lift stiffness and
soil modulus.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LABORATORY VERSUS
FIELD
Maximum dry density is only
a maximum for a specific
compaction effort (input
energy level) and the method
by which that effort is
applied.
7
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LABORATORY VERSUS
FIELD
If more energy is applied in the
field, a density greater than 100%
of the laboratory value can be
achieved.
Dissimilar materials have individual
curves and maximum values for the
same input energy as shown in the
following figure (Figure 7)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LABORATORY VERSUS
FIELD
Figure 7
Comparison Curves for Eight
Soils Compacted according to
AASHTO T99
(Highway Research Board)
8
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL PROCESSING
The optimum water content (ω)

9Fine-grained soils – from 12 to 25%
9Well-graded granular – from 7 to 12%
9Normal Practice to work at ±2% of
optimum or 95% of maximum dry unit
weight.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION
SPECIFICATIONS
Typically
specifications
give an
acceptable range
of water content,
OMC ± 2% for
example.
9
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION
SPECIFICATIONS
The specification 123.5

also sets a
minimum
density, 95% of
max. dry density
for a specific
test.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL PROCESSING
Adding Water to Soil
9Water must be added prior to
compaction if the water content
(ω) is below the optimum
moisture range.
9Water can be added to soil at the
borrow pit or in-place (at the
construction site).
10
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ADDING WATER TO SOIL

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ADDING WATER TO SOIL
11
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL PROCESSING
When it necessary to add water,

the following items are to be
considered:
9Amount of water required.
9Rate of water application.
9Method of application.
9Effects of the climate and weather.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL PROCESSING
Amount of Water Required

9It is important to determine the
amount of water required to achieve a
soil water content (ω) within the
acceptable range for compaction.
9The amount of water that must added
or removed is normally computed in
gallons per station (100 ft length).
12
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Earthwork
0+00
The horizontal
dimensions of
a project are ft
in stations. 1 00
One station
equals 100 ft.
1+00

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL PROCESSING
Amount of Water Required

9The following formula can used to
compute the amount of water
added or removed from soil:
Gallons = desired dry density (pcf)
×
(desired water content % ) − (water content borrow % )
100
×
compacted volume of soil (cf) (37a)
8.34 lb per gallon
13
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WATER REQUIREMENT
Gallons, water requirements =

γ d emb (pcf)
ω emb(%) − ω cut(%)
×
100 (37b)
Vol. emb(cf)
×
8.33

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL PROCESSING
Water Application Rate
9Once the total amount of water has
been calculated, the application rate
can be calculated. The following
formula can be used:
Gallons per square yard =
(38)
ω emb (% ) − ω cut (%)
γ d emb (pcf) ×
100
9 sf / sy
× lift thickness (ft) (compacted) ×
8.34 lb /gal
14
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 6
Job specifications require placement of
the embankment fill soil in 6-in.
(compacted) fills. The desired dry unit
weight of the embankment is 120 pcf.
The laboratory compaction curve
indicates that the optimum water
content (OMC) of the soil is 12%. Soil
tests indicated that the moisture content
of the borrow material is 5%. The

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
roadway lift to be placed is 40 ft wide.
Compute the amount of water in gallons
to add on a per station basis for each lift
material.
 12 − 5  (40 ft ×100 ft × 0.5 ft )
Gallons = 120 pcf ×  ×
 100  8.34 lb/gal
= 2,015 gallons per station
15
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 7
Using the data from Example 6,

determine the required application
rate in gallons per square yard.
Using Eq. 38, we have
 12 − 5  9 sf / sy
Gallons per square yard = 120 pcf ×   (0.5 ft ) ×
 100  8.34 lb /gal
= 4.5 gallons per sy

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION OF
Engineering properties of soils can
be improved by compaction.
Compaction can:
9Reduce or prevent settlements.
9Increase strength.
9Improve bearing capacity.
9Control volume changes.
9Lower permeability.
16
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION OF
Because there is a correlation
between compaction properties and
dry density, construction
documents usually call for
achieving a specified density.
There may be other methods
whereby the desired compaction
properties can be attained.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION OF
By far the most widely used method
of soil strengthening for use as a
subgrade under a pavement
structure or other foundation is
compaction of the soil at optimum
moisture.
17
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION OF
Typically, a uniform layer, or lift, of
soil from 4 to 12 in thickness is
compacted by means of several
passes of heavy mechanized
compaction equipment.
It should be noted that good
compaction can cost more money.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTION
SPECIFICATIONS
Specifications governing compaction
may be one of the following types:
a) Method only (often termed
"recipe").
b) End result only (often termed
"performance").
c) Method and end result.
18
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FIELD COMPACTION
Densification is accomplished
by:
9Static weight (pressure)
9Kneading (manipulation)
9Impact (sharp blow)
9Vibration (shaking)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FIELD COMPACTION
Ordinary compaction in the field is

accomplished by means of rollers
Several types of rollers are used:
9Smooth wheel rollers (drum rollers).
9 Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers.
9 Sheepsfoot rollers (Tamping rollers).
9 Vibratory rollers.
19
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SMOOTH-WHEEL
ROLLERS
9Smooth-wheel rollers are suitable for
proof-rolling subgrades and for
finishing operation of fills with sandy
and clayey soils.
9They provide 100% coverage under
the wheels with ground contact
pressures as high as 45 to 55 lb/in2.
9They are not suitable for producing
high unit weights of compaction
when used on relatively thick layers.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SMOOTH-WHEEL
ROLLERS
20
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COMPACTION
Roller Capabilities

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PNEUMATIC RUBBER-
TIRED ROLLERS
9Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers are better
in many than smooth-wheel rollers.
9They are heavily-loaded wagons with
several rows rows of tires.
9The tires are closely spaced, four to six
in a row.
9They provide 70% to 85% coverage
under the wheels with ground contact
pressures as high as 85 to 100 lb/in2.
21
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PNEUMATIC RUBBER-
TIRED ROLLERS

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PNEUMATIC
4 5
22
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PNEUMATIC
Front and rear
tire paths overlap.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PNEUMATIC
All-wheel oscillation.
23
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PNEUMATIC COMPACTOR
Pneumatic-tired (rubber-tired)
rollers are suitable for
compacting most granular soils.
They are not effective in
compacting fine-grained clays.
They compact by static-load and
kneading action.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SHEEPSFOOT ROLLERS
9Sheepsfoot rollers are drums with a

large number of projections.
9The area of each of these projections
may range from 4 to 13 in2.
9These rollers are most effective in
compacting clayey soils.
9The contact pressure under the
projections can range from 200 to
1000 lb/in2.
24
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SHEEPSFOOT ROLLERS
SHEEPS FOOT
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROLLER
25
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TAMPING FOOT COMPACTOR
Leveling blade

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PAD CONFIGURATION
Tamping foot Pad foot
26
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
It is suitable for compacting

all fined-grained soils, but is
generally not suitable for
use on cohesionless granular
soils.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
This roller compacts the soil

from the bottom of the lift
to the top.
Lift thickness is generally
limited to 8 inches
compacted depth.
27
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
This type roller does not

adequately compact the upper
2 or 3 inches of a lift.
Therefore, for the last lift it
should be followed with a
pneumatic or smooth-drum
roller.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Working in tandem
28
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
VIBRATORY ROLLERS
Vibratory rollers are very efficient in

compacting granular soils.
Vibrators can be attached to the
following rollers:
9smooth-wheel rollers.
9 pneumatic rubber-tired rollers.
9 sheepsfoot rollers.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
VIBRATORY ROLLERS
Principles of Vibratory Rollers
The vibration is
Produced by
rotating
off-center weights
29
VIBRATORY SOIL
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPACTOR
Smooth-drum

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SMOOTH DRUM VIBRATORY

SOIL COMPACTOR
This roller uses vibratory

action in conjunction with
ballast weight of the drum
to compact.
30
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SMOOTH DRUM VIBRATORY

SOIL COMPACTOR
One of the most effective means
of attaining density for
cohesionless materials.
It is a relatively light roller,
therefore maximum loose-lift
depth is 9 inches.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
VIBRATORY SOIL COMPACTOR
Padded drum
31
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DUAL-DRUM VIBRATORY
COMPACTOR

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DUAL-DRUM VIBRATORY
COMPACTOR
Use this roller to compact

cohesionless subgrade,
base courses, wearing
surfaces, and asphalt.
32
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DUAL-DRUM VIBRATORY
COMPACTOR
Because it compacts from
the top down, only
relatively shallow lifts (less
than 4 inches) can be
worked.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROLLERS PRODUCTION
ESTIMATING
The production formula for a
compactor is given as
W × S × L × 16.3 (39)
Compacted Volume (cu yd) per hour =
P
where
W = compacted width per roller pass, ft
S = average roller speed, mph
L = compacted lift (layer) thickness, in
P = number of passes required to achieve the
required density
Note:The computed production in above equation is in cubic yards. It is
necessary to apply shrinkage factor to convert it to bank cubic yard
33
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 8
A self-propelled tamping foot compactor
will be used to compact a fill being
constructed of clay material. Field tests
have shown that the required density
can be achieved with four passes of the
roller operating at an average speed of
1.5 mph. The compacted lift will have a
thickness of 5 in. The compacting width
of this machine is 7 ft. One bcy equals

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
0.83 compacted cubic yards. The
scraper production estimated for the
project is 510 bcy per hour. How many
rollers will be required to maintain this
production?
W × S × L ×16.3 7(1.5)(5)16.3)
Compacted Volume (cu yd) per hour = = = 214 cy yd /hr
P 4
214
Volume in bcy = = 258 bcy/hr
0.83
510
Number of rollers needed = = 1.98 ≈ 2 rollers
258
34
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DYNAMIC COMPACTION
Dynamic compaction is a
technique that has gained
popularity in the U.S. for the
densification of granular soil
deposits.
The method can produce
densification to depth greater
than 35 ft

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DYNAMIC COMPACTION
This process primarily consists of
dropping a heavy weight repeatedly
on the ground at regular intervals.
The weight of the hammer varies
over a range of 18 to 80 kips.
The height of the hammer drop
varies between 25 to 100 ft.
Conventional cranes are used to
drop the weights.
35
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DYNAMIC
COMPACTION
This is a
20 ton weight
from 42 feet

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DYNAMIC
COMPACTION
Usually only make
contact with about
50% of the actual
ground surface
being compacted.
36
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DYNAMIC COMPACTION
Can achieve densification

to a depths of about 30 ft
using 30 ton weights and
100 ft drop heights.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DYNAMIC COMPACTION
The degree of compaction

achieved at a given site depends
on the following factors:
9Weight of the hammer.
9Height of the hammer drop.
9Spacing of the locations at which the
hammer is dropped.
37
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DYNAMIC COMPACTION
The significance depth of influence for

compaction can be given approximately
by the following expression:
D = n WH (40a)
where
D = depth of improvement or significant depth (m)
n = an empirical coefficient (≈0.5)
W = dropping weight (metric ton)
H = height of drop (m)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DYNAMIC COMPACTION
The significance depth of influence for

compaction can also be given in English
units as
D = 0.61 WH (40b)
where
D = depth of improvement or significant depth (ft)
W = dropping weight (kip)
H = height of drop (ft)
38
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 9
For a dynamic compaction test we are
given: weight of hammer = 33,070 lb,
and the height of drop = 40 ft.
Determine the significant depth of
influence for compaction in feet?
33,070 lb = 33.07 kip
D = 0.61 WH = 0.61 33.07(40) = 22.2 ft

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
VIBRATORY PLATE
COMPACTOR
For
granular
soils and
asphalt.
39
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RAMMER
Also known as
a backfill
tamper. Self-
contained hand
operated for
use in confined
spaces.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRENCH ROLLER
40
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WHEEL
ATTACHMENT
COMPACTORS

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL STABILIZATION
Admixtures are used to stabilize

soils in the field.
Most common of these admixtures
are:
9lime
9Lime-fly ash
9cement
41
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SOIL STABILIZATION
The main purpose of soil

stabilization are to:
9modify the soil.
9expedite construction.
9improve the strength and
durability of the soil.
42
CHAPTER
MACHINE POWER
5 By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 5. MACHINE POWER Slide No. 1
INTRODUCTION
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The constructor must select the

proper equipment to relocate
and/or process materials
economically.
The decision process for matching
the best possible machine to the
project task requires consideration
of the mechanical capabilities of the
machine.
1
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
The power is the power needed

to propel the machine, and this
power is established by two
factors:
1. Rolling Resistance, and
2. Grade Resistance.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
Equipment manufacturers publish
performance charts for individual
machine models.
These charts enable the equipment
planner to analyze a machine’s
ability to perform under a set of job
and load conditions.
2
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
e
Cha orm anc
rt
Per f

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
On heavy construction projects the
major portion of the work consists
of handling and processing bulk
materials.
The constructor must select the
proper equipment to relocate
and/or process materials
economically.
3
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
The decision process for

matching the best possible
machine to the project task
requires that the contractor takes
into account the following items:
1. Properties of the material to be
handled (Chapter 4).
2. Mechanical capabilities of the
machine.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
When estimator considers a

construction material-handling
problem, there are two primary
material considerations:
1) Total quantity.
2) Size of individual pieces.
4
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PAYLOAD
The payload of hauling equipment

may be expressed either
gravimetrically or volumetrically.
Volumetric capacity can be stated
as struck measure or in terms of:
9loose cubic yard (lcy),
9bank cubic yard (bcy), or
9compacted cubic yard (ccy).
STRUCK CAPACITY
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Manufacturer's specification sheets

will list both struck and heaped
capacities.
STRUCK
- material measured straight
across the top of the body.
5
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HEAPED CAPACITY
2
1
HEAPED
- based on a 2:1 slope

above hauler bodies.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PAYLOAD
The payload capacity of a

hauling unit is often stated by
the manufacturer in terms of the
volume of loose material that the
unit can hold, assuming that the
material is heaped in some
specified angle of repose.
6
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PAYLOAD
A gravimetric capacity
would represent the safe
operational weight that the
axles and structural frame
of the machine were
designed to handle.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
MACHINE POWER
“Why does a machine only
travel at 10 mph when its top
speed is 30 mph?” This is a
critical question because:
• Speed affects cycle time
• Cycle time drives production
• Production determines cost
7
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
MACHINE PERFORMANCE
To answer the travel speed
question, it is necessary to
analyze machine power.
There are three power questions
that need to be analyzed:
1) Required power.
2) Available power.
3) Usable power.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWER REQUIRED
A machine must overcome

the forces of rolling and
grade resistance to propel
itself. These can be
expressed as:
9 lb/ton
9 % effective grade
8
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWER REQUIRED
Two factors establish the power

requirements:
9Rolling Resistance
9Grade Resistance
Therefore, power required is the
power necessary to overcome the
total resistance to machine
movement.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWER REQUIRED
Total Resistance
Total Resistance (TR) =
Rolling Resistance (RR) (1)

+
Grade Resistance (GR)
9
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWER REQUIRED
TR = RR + GR
10
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROLLING RESISTANCE
Rolling resistance is a
measure of the force
(lb/ton) that must be
overcome to rotate a
wheel over the surface on
which it makes contact.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROLLING RESISTANCE
Rolling resistance is caused by
• Tire penetrating the surface
• Internal
gear
friction
• Tire flexing
11
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROLLING RESISTANCE
General Notes
9Rolling resistance (wheel
resistance or track resistance) is
the resistance of a level surface to
constant-velocity motion across it.
9This resistance varies
considerably with the type and
condition of the surface over
which a vehicle moves.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROLLING RESISTANCE
General Notes (cont’d)

9For vehicles which move on rubber
tires the rolling resistance varies with
the size of, pressure on, and tread
design of the tires.
9For equipment which moves on crawler
tracks, such as tractors, the resistance
varies primarily with the type and
condition of the road surface.
12
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROLLING RESISTANCE

9A narrow-tread, high-pressure tire gives
lower rolling resistance than a broad-
tread, low-pressure tire on a hard-
surfaced road.
9If the road surface is soft and the tire
tends to sink into the earth, a broad-
tread, low-pressure tire will offer a
lower rolling resistance than a narrow-
tread, high-pressure tire.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROLLING RESISTANCE

9The maintenance of low-
rolling-resistance haul roads
is one of the best financial
investments that an earth-
moving contractor can make.
13
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROLLING RESISTANCE
Estimating Rolling
Resistance
9Formulas
9Tables (general)
9Tow Cable Method

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROLLING RESISTANCE
If tire penetration is known
Rolling resistance (lb) = (2)
(40 + [30 + TP])× GVW
• TP = tire penetration, inches (may
be different for haul and return)
• GVW = gross vehicle weight, tons
14
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROLLING RESISTANCE
If tire penetration is known
Rolling Resistance (lb/ton)

can be estimated from the
information in Table 1
(Text Table 5.1)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROLLING RESISTANCE
15
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROLLING RESISTANCE
Tow Cable Method
9Rolling resistance of a haul
road can be approximated by
towing a truck or other vehicle
whose gross weight is known
along a level section of the
haul road at a uniform
(constant) speed.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROLLING RESISTANCE
Tow Cable Method (cont’d)
9The tow cable should be equipped
with dynamometer or some other
device which will permit
determination of the average
tension in the cable.
9This tension is the total resistance
of the gross weight of the truck.
16
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROLLING RESISTANCE
Tow Cable Method
The rolling resistance in pounds
per gross ton is given by
P
R= (3)
W
Where
R = rolling resistance in pounds per ton
P = total tension in tow cable in pounds
W = gross weight of truck in tons
HAUL ROUTE
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Travel Distance
9Equipment selection is affected by
travel distance because of the time
factor it introduces into the production
cycle.
9All other factors being equal,
increased travel distances will favor
the use of high-speed large capacity
units.
17
HAUL ROUTE
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Bearing Capacity
9A haul route must have sufficient
bearing capacity to carry imposed
loads.
9On low-bearing-capacity material, this
may dictate the selection of track-type
instead of wheel-type running gear.
9The use of special low-ground-
pressure machines using wide tracks
or balloon tires may be necessary.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HAUL ROAD CONDITION
If haul roads are well maintained

rolling resistance is less and
production improves. Good haul
roads require graders and
water trucks,
so there is a
cost.
18
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GRADE RESISTANCE
We seldom find a haul road

which is level from point of
load to point of dump.
GRADE RESISTANCE
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Effect of Grade on
Required Tractive Effort
The force-opposing
movement of a vehicle up a
frictionless slope is known
as grade resistance.
19
GRADE RESISTANCE
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
9When a vehicle moves up a sloping

road, the total tractive effort required
to keep it moving increases
approximately in proportion to the
slope of the road.
If a vehicle moves down a sloping
road, the total tractive effort required
to keep it moving reduces
approximately in proportion to the
slope of the road.
GRADE RESISTANCE
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The most common method of

expressing a slope is by
gradient in percent.
A I% slope is one where the
surface rises or drops 1 ft
vertically in a horizontal distance
of 100 ft. (1/100)
20
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GRADE RESISTANCE
Grades are measured in %

slope: the ratio between vertical
rise (fall) and horizontal distance
in which the rise/fall occurs.
Rise
Horizontal
GRADE RESISTANCE
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Grade example: 5 ft fall in

100 ft horizontal travel.
5 ft
100 ft
5 ft
× 100 = 5%
100 ft
21
GRADE RESISTANCE
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
If the surface rises, the slope is

defined as plus, whereas if it drops,
the slope is defined as minus.
For slopes of less than 10% (less
than 10/100), the effect of grade is to
increase, for a plus slope, or
decrease, for a minus slope, the
required tractive effort by 20 lb per
gross ton of weight for each 1% of
grade.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FRICTIONLESS SLOPE-
FORCE RELATIONSHIPS
F = W sin α
N = W cos α
for α < 10 º, sin α ≈ tan α

F = W tan α
tan α = V/H = G%/100
G% = gradient F 90º
F = W (G%/100) V
α
if W = 2000 lb/ton α N
and G < 10 º H
F = 20 lb/ton (G%)
W
Rolling Resistance Expressed in lb/ton
20 lb/ton
= G%
(4) F
22
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EFFECT OF GRADE ON THE

TRACTIVE EFFORT OF VEHICLES
Table 2
Slope (%) lb/ton kg/m ton Slope (%) lb/ton kg/m ton
1 20.0 10.0 12 238.4 119.2

2 40.0 20.0 13 257.8 128.9
3 60.0 30.0 14 277.4 138.7
4 80.0 40.0 15 296.6 148.3
5 100.0 50.0 20 392.3 196.1
6 119.8 59.9 25 485.2 242.6
7 139.8 69.9 30 574.7 287.3
8 159.2 79.6 35 660.6 330.3
9 179.2 89.6 40 742.8 371.4
10 199.0 99.5 45 820.8 410.4
11 218.0 109.0 50 894.4 447.2

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GRADE RESISTANCE
You need to review the

derivation of equation 4.
What it tells us is that for
small angles (% grade) :
GR = 20 lb/tn × % grade (5)
23
GRADE RESISTANCE
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example: A truck with a 23 tn

GVW is moving up a 4% grade.
What is the force required to
overcome grade resistance?
GR = 20 lb/tn × 23 tn × 4% grade
GR = 1,840 lb

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GRADE ASISTANCE
Gravity assists the machine
when traveling down grade.
That force is referred to as

grade assistance.
24
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GRADE ASISTANCE
Example: Our truck has dumped its
load, the GVW is now 12 tn and on the
return it is moving down the 4% grade.
What is the force required to overcome
grade resistance?
GA = 20 lb/tn x 12 tn x -4% grade
GA = -960 lb

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TOTAL RESISTANCE
Total Resistance =
Rolling Resistance +
Grade Resistance
TR = RR + GR or
TR = RR- GA
25
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 1
The haul road from the borrow pit to the
fill has an adverse grade of 4%. Wheel-
type hauling units will be used on the
job and it is expected that the haul road
rolling resistance will be 100 lb/ton.
What will be the effective grade for
the haul cycle? Will the units
experience the same effective grade
for the return cycle?

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
100 lb/ton rolling resistance

Equivalent grade (RR) = = 5%
20 lb/ton
Effective grade (haul) = 5% RR + 4% GR = 9%
Effective grade (return)= 5% RR - 4% GR = 1%
RR = rolling resistance
GR = grade resistance
26
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
THE EFFECT OF GRADE ON

LOCATING HAUL ROUTES
During the life of a project the haul-
route grades (and, therefore, grade
resistance) may remain constant.
9Example: Hauling trucking
aggregate from a rail-yard off-load
point to the concrete batch plant.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

In most cases, the haul-route
grades change as the project
progresses.
9Example: On a linear highway project,
the top of the hills are cut and hauled to
the valleys. Early in the project, the
grades are steep and reflect the existing
natural ground. Over the life of the
project the grades begin to assume the
final highway profile.
27
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

When the haul-route grades change,
the estimator must first study the
project's mass diagram to determine the
direction that the material has to be
moved. Then the natural ground and
the final profiles depicted on the plans
must be checked to determine the
grades that the equipment will
encounter during haul and return cycles.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

The process of laying out haul
routes is critical to machine
productivity. If a route can be
found which results in less grade
resistance, machine travel speed
can be increased and production
will likewise increase.
28
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

In planning a project, a
constructor should always
check several haul-route
options before deciding on
a final construction plan.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AVAILABLE POWER
Engine horsepower and operating
gear are the primary factors that
determine the power available at
the drive wheels (drawbar) of a
machine.
29
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AVAILABLE POWER
Horsepower involves a rate of
doing work.
One hp = 33,000 ft-lb per minute
Therefore, must consider speed at
which the machine travels when
exerting a given amount of “pull.”

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWER TRANSMISSION
Most construction equipment is
powered by internal combustion
engines.
Diesel engines perform better under
heavy duty applications than gasoline
engines
Diesel-powered machines are the
workhorses of the construction industry.
30
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWER TRANSMISSION
The characteristics which control the
performance differences of gasoline and
diesel engines are:
9 Carburetor - Used on gasoline engines, is an
efficient method of regulating fuel.
9 Injector - Used on diesel engines, is a better
method of regulating fuel.
9 Ignition system
Gasoline engines use spark-ignition
Diesel engine meters fuel and air for compression-
ignition.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWER TRANSMISSION
Diesel engines have:

1) Longer service lives
2) Lower fuel consumption
3) Presents less of a fire
hazard.
31
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWER TRANSMISSION
The basic equation that governs the
mechanics of energy transmission is
expressed as
Tg = Fp × r (6)
Fp = piston force developed by engine

r = radius of crankshaft
Tg = crankshaft torque

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWER TRANSMISSION
The output of the engine at the flywheel at rated
revolutions per minute (rpm) can be expressed as a
flywheel horsepower (fwhp
(fwhp).
). This output can be
measured by either friction belt or brake, hence the
names belt horsepower or brake horsepower (bhp (bhp).
).
2πN g Fp r 2πN g Tg
fwhp = = (7)
33,000 33,000
Ng = speed, in rpm (revolutions per minute)
Fp = piston force, lb
r = crankshaft, radius in ft
Tg = crankshaft torque, lb-ft
32
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWER TRANSMISSION
Flywheel horsepower is a standard
rating used by equipment
manufacturers to describe a machine's
power. A manufacturer's flywheel
horsepower rating is developed based
on the engine turning at its rated rpm
and driving all accessories normal to the
machine's standard operational
configuration.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWER TRANSMISSION
The power output from the engine,
fwhp, becomes the power input to
the transmission system. This
system consists of the drive shaft, a
transmission, planetary gears, drive
axles, and drive wheels.
33
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWER TRANSMISSION
USABLE POWER
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Rimpull
The usable power at the
point of contact between the
tire and the ground for a
wheel machine.
34
USABLE POWER
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Drawbar Pull
The available usable power
(pull) which a crawler tractor
can exert on a load that is
being towed.
USABLE POWER
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The difference between rimpull and

drawbar is a matter of convention; both
rimpull and drawbar pull are measured in
the same units, pounds pull.
Both rimpull and drawbar pull are subject
to adequate traction being developed.
In the mechanical process of developing
rimpull or drawbar pull there are power
losses.
35
USABLE POWER
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
For any specified gear or speed-

torque position on a torque
converter
E (8)
Usable Horsepower = fwhp ×
100
where E (in %) is the efficiency of the power transmission.
USABLE POWER
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
There are two methods for arriving at a machine's

developed output force, Fw (force at the wheel):
1. If the whole-
whole-body velocity (v(v) of the machine when
operating at governed engine speed Ng is known
for a specific gear, the force at the wheel is given
by
33,000 × fwhp × E
Fw = (9)
v
where v is the velocity in feet per minute, fpm.
36
USABLE POWER
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
2. If the transmission gear ratio and the rolling radius

of the wheel are known, v can be computed and
then Fw is determined. This assumes that there is
no slippage in the gear train:
N (drive axle ) = N g × gear ratio (10)
where N for the drive axle is in rpm:
v = 2π × R (drive wheel )× N (drive axle) (11)

where R (drive wheel) is the radius of the drive wheel.
USABLE POWER
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Normally, the Fw and v are

measured and then usable
horsepower and, ultimately, E are
backfigured.
This mechanical efficiency, E, is
approximately 90 for direct drive
machines and approximately 80 for
torque-converter drives.
37
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COEFFICIENT OF
TRACTION
The total energy of an engine in any unit of
equipment designed primarily for pulling a
load can be converted into tractive effort
only if sufficient traction can be developed
between the driving wheels or tracks and
the haul surface.
If there is insufficient traction, the full
power of the engine cannot be used, for
the wheels or tracks will slip on the
surface.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COEFFICIENT OF
TRACTION
The coefficient of traction may be
defined as:
The factor by which the total load on a
driving tire or track is multiplied in order to
determine the maximum possible tractive
force between the tire or track and the
surface just before slippage occurs.
Usable force = (coefficient of traction) x (weight on powered running gear) (12)
38
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COEFFICIENT OF
TRACTION
FOR TRUCK TYPE FOR 4-WHEEL FOR 2-WHEEL
TRACTOR TRACTOR TRACTOR
The usual tractor weight Use weight on drivers Use weight on drivers
shown on spec sheet shown on spec sheet
or approximately or approximately 50%
40% of vehicle gross of vehicle gross weight
weight
Surface Rubber tires Crawler tracks
Dry, rough concrete 0.80-1.00 0.45

Dry, clay loam 0.50-0.70 0.90
Wet, clay loam 0.40-0.50 0.70
Wet sand and gravel 0.30-0.40 0.35
Loose, dry sand 0.20-0.30 0.30
Dry snow 0.20 0.15-0.35
Ice 0.10 0.10-0.25

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 2
Assume that the rubber-
rubber-tired tractor has a total
weight of 18,000 lb on the two driving tires. The
maximum rimpull in low gear is 9,000 lb. If the tractor
is operating in wet sand, with a coefficient of traction
of 0.30, the maximum possible rimpull prior to
slippage of the tires will be
0.30 X 18,000 lb = 5,400 lb < 9,000lb
Note: Regardless of the power of the engine, not

more than 5,400 lb of tractive effort can be used
because of the slippage of the wheels.
39
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
If the same tractor is operating on dry clay,
with a coefficient of traction of 0.60, the
maximum possible rimpull prior to slippage of
the tires will be
0.60 x 18,000 lb = 10,800 lb >9,000lb
Note: For this surface the engine will not be

able to cause the tires to slip. Thus, the full
power of the engine can be used.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 3
A wheel-tractor scraper is used on a
road project. When the project initially
begins, the scraper will experience high
rolling and grade resistance at one work
area. The rimpull required to maneuver
in this work area is 42,000 lb. In the
fully loaded condition 52% of the total
vehicle weight is on the drive wheels.
The fully loaded vehicle weight is
230,880 lb. What minimum value of the
40
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
of the coefficient of traction between the
scraper wheels and the traveling
surface is needed to maintain maximum
possible travel speed?
Weight on the drive wheels = 0.52 x 230,880 lb = 120,058 lb
Minimum required coefficient of traction = 42,000 lb/120,058 lb = 0.35

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ALTITUDE EFFECT ON
USABLE POWER
Always remember that flywheel
horsepower rating is based on tests
conducted at standard conditions:
Standard Conditions
At temperature of 600 (F)
Sea level barometric pressure of 29.92 in (Hg)
41
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ALTITUDE EFFECT ON
USABLE POWER
For naturally aspirated engines
operation at altitudes above sea
level will cause a significant
decrease in available engine
power. This power decrease is
caused by the decrease in air
density associated with increased
altitude.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ALTITUDE EFFECT ON
USABLE POWER
Naturally aspirated engines:
9Two-cycle diesel engine, reduce rated
rimpull by 1.5% per 1,000 ft between sea
level and 6,000 ft. Above 6,000 ft reduce
rimpull by 3% per 1,000 ft.
9Four-cycle gasoline and diesel engines-
reduce rated rimpull by 3% for every
1,000 ft above 1,000 ft.
42
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ALTITUDE EFFECT ON
USABLE POWER
Turbocharged engines:
9Two- and four-cycle diesel
engines -- usually very little or
no loss in rated power up to
10,000 ft.
Turbocharger: a mechanical component mounted on
the engine which forces air to the piston.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 4
Engines without turbocharger rely on the
suction of the piston to supply the air for
combustion. For a four-cycle engine with 100
fwhp at sea level, what is its usable power at
10,000 ft above sea level?
Sea - Level Power See Slide #84 = 100 hp

0.03 × 100 × (10,000 - 1000)
Loss due to Altitude = = −27 hp
10000
Usable Power = 73 hp
43
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ALTITUDE EFFECT ON
USABLE POWER
A general formula for estimating purposes which
expresses the effect of both temperature and
altitude on four-
four-cycle engines follows:
Pactual Tstd
Horsepower Available = rated hp × (13)
Pstd Tactual
Pactual = altitude at which the machine will be operated, in in. Hg
(inches of mercury), barometric pressure
Pstd = standard condition altitude, usually sea level, 29.92 in. Hg
Tactual = Rankine temperature at which the machine will be operated
Tstd = standard condition temperature, in Rankine units, usually
60ºF, which equals 520ºR

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ALTITUDE EFFECT ON
USABLE POWER
Average Barometric Pressures for
Various Altitudes
Table 1
Altitude above sea level (ft) 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000
Barometric pressure (in. Hg) 29.92 28.86 27.82 26.80 25.82 24.87
Altitude above sea level (ft) 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
Barometric pressure (in. Hg) 23.95 23.07 22.21 21.36 20.55
44
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 5
A tractor is powered by a four-
four-cycle diesel engine.
When tested under standard conditions, the engine
developed 130 fwhp.
fwhp. What is the probable
horsepower at altitude of 3,660 ft, where the average
daily temperature is 720 F ?
fwhp sts condition = 130 hp

Pstd = 29.92 in Hg
Pactual = 26.15 in Hg (form previous Table, by interpolation)
Tstd = 5200 R
Tactual = 460 + 72 = 5320 R
Pactual Tstd 26.15 520

fwhp = rated hp × = 130 = 112.7 hp
Pstd Tactual 29.92 532
RIMPULL
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Rimpull is a term which is used to

designate the tractive force between the
rubber tires of driving wheels and the
surface on which they travel.
9If the coefficient of traction is high
enough to eliminate tire slippage, the
maximum rimpull is a function of the power
of the engine and the gear ratios between
the engine and the driving wheels.
45
RIMPULL
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
9If the driving wheels slip on

the haul surface, the maximum
effective rimpull will be equal to
the total pressure between the
tires and the surface multiplied by
the coefficient of traction.
RIMPULL
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
If the rimpull of a vehicle is not

known, it may be determined from
the following equation:
377 × hp × E
Rimpull = (lb) (14)
speed (mph)
46
RIMPULL
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
In computing the pull which a

tractor can exert on a towed
load, it is necessary to deduct
from the rimpull of the tractor
the tractive force required to
overcome the rolling resistance
plus any grade resistance for the
tractor.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 6
• The efficiency of most tractors and trucks will range from 0.8 to
0.85. For a rubber' d tractor with a 140-hp engine and a maximum
speed of 3.25 mph in the first gear, tire the rimpull will be
Rimpull = [375 x 140 x 0.85]/3.25 = 13,730 lb
The maximum rimpull in all gear ranges for this tractor will be as
follows:
Speed Rimpull
Gear (mph) (lb)
First 3.25 13,730

Second 7.10 6,285
Third 12.48 3,576
Fourth 21.54 2,072
Fifth 33.86 1,319
47
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 7
If a tractor whose maximum rimpull

in the first gear is13,730 lb, weighs
12.4 tons, and is operated up a
haul road with a slope of 2% and a
rolling resistance of 100 lb per ton,
what is the available pull (lb) for
towing a load?

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Max rimpull = 13,730 lb

Pull required to overcome grade,
12.4 ton x 20 lb/ton x 2% = 496 lb
Pull required to overcome rolling resistance,
12.4 ton x 100 lb/ton = 1,240 lb
Total pull to be deducted, 496 lb + 1,240 lb = - 1,736 lb
Pull available for towing a load = 11,994 lb
48
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWER OUTPUT AND

TORQUE
Typical curves for brake horsepower (bhp) and

Break hp torque as an engine increases its crankshaft
Torque
speed to the governed rpm value.
Horsepower, hp
The important feature of this plot is the shape of
Torque, lb-ft
the torque curve. Maximum torque is not
Governed speed obtained at maximum rpm. This provides the
engine with a power reserve. When a machine is
subjected to a momentary overload and this power
is brought to bear, we "lug" the engine. The rpm
drops but the torque goes up, keeping the engine
from stalling under the overload.
Crankshaft speed

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWER OUTPUT AND

TORQUE
• Machines can be purchased with either a direct
drive (standard) or a torque converter drive.
With a direct-
direct-drive machine, the operator must
manually shift gears to match the engine
output to the resisting load. The difference in
power available when considering maximum
torque and torque at governed speed is the
machine's operating range for a given gear.
• A torque converter is a device which adjusts

power output to match the load.
49
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE CHARTS
Performance charts for individual
machine models are published by
equipment manufacturers.
These charts allow the equipment
estimator/planner to analyze a
machine's ability to perform under
a given set of job and load
conditions.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE CHARTS
The performance chart is a

graphical representation of the
power and corresponding speed
that the engine and transmission
can deliver.
The load condition is stated as
either rimpull or drawbar pull.
50
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE CHARTS
It should be noted that the rimpull-

speed relationship is inverse since
vehicle speed increases as rimpull
decreases.
If the gear ratios or rolling radius of
a machine is changed, the entire
performance curve will shift along
both the rimpull and speed axles.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
E
LABL
AVAI ER
POW
51
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE CHARTS
Engine: flywheel power 450
Transmission: semiautomatic power shift, eight speeds
Capacity of scraper: Struck - 21 cu yd

Heaped - 31 cu yd
Weight distribution: Empty Drive axle - 67%

Rear axle - 33%
Loaded Drive axle - 53%
Rear axle - 47%
Operating weight: Empty - 96,880 lb
Rated load: - 75,000 lb
Top Speed: Loaded - 33 mph

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Haul
Empty
Loaded
AVAIL ABLE
POWER
52
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Haul
AVAILABLE
POWER

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Haul
AVAILABLE
POWER
53
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Haul
AVAILABLE
POWE R
Speed ≈ 9 mph

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Return
AVAILABLE
POWE R
Speed ≈ 31 mph
54
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWER AVAILABLE
What if the total resistance
is negative?
See Text page 146
Retarding Performance chart
The effective grade numbers
are negative numbers.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE CHARTS
Example: Reading Performance

Chart
9The procedure for reading a
performance chart is illustrated
through an example.
9Assume that a scraper weighing
50,000 lb (gross weight) is operating
uphill with an adverse slope of +3%
and rolling resistance of 2%.
55
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE CHARTS
30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000 90000 100000
45000
40000
35000 6
30000 5
1
25000 4 Total
Rimpull (lb)
2 Resistance
(rr+gr)
20000 3 3
17,000
4
15000
10000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 19 20 25 30 35 40 45
Speed (mph)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE CHARTS
30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000 90000 100000
45000
40000
35000 6
30000 5
1
25000 4 Total
Rimpull (lb)
2 Resistance
(rr+gr)
20000 3 3
17,000
4
15000
10000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 19 20 25 30 35 40 45
Speed (mph)
56
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE CHARTS
Here we have: RR+GR = 2+3 =5%.
Referring to the chart, the intersection
point (big black dot on the chart) of the
weight vertical line with the total
resistance inclined line establishes the
condition.
If we construct a horizontal line from this
point and extend it to left, it will intersect
the vertical rimpull scale at 17,000 lb,
which is the rimpull for this scraper for
this condition.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE CHARTS
If we construct a horizontal line from
this point (the big black dot) to the
right, it will intersect the gear 4 curve.
This means that the machine will be
operating at this gear for the given
condition.
Finally, the speed of the scraper in this
case is determined easily as follows:
57
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE CHARTS
From the intersection point of the
gear 4 curve and the horizontal line
extended from the big black dot, go
vertically until the line intersects the
horizontal speed scale.
This should read a speed of 19 mph,
which is the speed of the machine
under the given condition.
58
CHAPTER
DOZERS
6 By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 6. DOZERS Slide No. 1

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DOZERS
1
DOZERS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DOZERS USES
Dozers (Tractors) are self-
contained units that are designed
to provide tractive power for
drawbar work.
Consistent with their purpose as a
unit for drawbar work, they are low
center of gravity machines. This is
a prerequisite of a good machine.
2
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DOZERS USES
The larger the difference

between the line-of-force
transmission from the machine
and the line of resisting force
the less effective the utilization
of developed power.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DOZERS USES
Typical project applications are:
9Land clearing
9Dozing (pushing materials)
9Ripping
9Towing other pieces of
construction equipment, and
9Assisting scrapers in loading.
3
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DOZING

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Pushing material
4
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Assisting scrapers

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF DOZERS
1) Crawler (track laying) Tractor

2) Wheel Type Tractor
a) Single-axle
b) Two-axle
single -axle drive
two-axle drive
5
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF DOZERS
Wheel-type tractor Crawler-type tractor

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRACTORS
The usable force available to
perform work is often limited by
traction. This limitation is
dependent on the coefficient of
traction of the surface being
traversed and on the weight carried
by the drive wheels.
6
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRACTORS
Traction or requirements can also
be met by proper tire selection.
Wider tires provide greater contact
area and increase flotation.
It should be noted, that rimpull
charts are based on standard
equipment including tires. Larger
tires will reduce developed rimpull.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CRAWLER DOZERS
Suitable for jobs that require

high tractive effort.
Rated by size and weight.
Weight is important:
9Tractive effort is a function of weight
and coefficient of traction.
Tractive Effort (Force) = Coefficien t of Traction × Weight
7
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CRAWLER DOZERS
Table 1. Coefficient of Traction for

Various Surfaces
Surface Rubber Tires Crawler Tracks
Dry, rough concrete 0.80 – 1.00 0.45
Dry, clay 0.50 – 0.70 0.90
Wet, clay 0.40 – 0.50 0.70
Wet sand and gravel 0.30 – 0.40 0.35
Loose, dry sand 0.30 – 0.30 0.30
Dry snow 0.20 0.15 – 0.35
Ice 0.10 0.10 – 0.25

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF CRAWLER
DOZERS
1. Crawler tractors with direct drive
Some manufacturers' specifications
list two sets of drawbar pulls (rated
and maximum). Rated pull should
be used for continuous operation,
while the maximum is the drawbar
pull that is exerted for a short time
period while the engine is lugged.
8
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF CRAWLER
DOZERS
2. Crawler dozers with torque converters
and power-shift transmission.
Torque-converter drives and power-shift
transmission eliminates shifting of gears.
They allow for automatic selection of
speed which is best suited for the load
pulled by the tractor.
Note:The available pull which a crawler dozer can exert on a
load that is being towed is called the drawbar pull of a
tractor.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE DATA -
CRAWLER
Specifications and Performance Data for Three Crawler Tractors Equipped with Direct Drive
Approximate
operating weight 18,300 32,000 47,000
(lb)
Flywweel (hp) 93 160 235
Drawbar (hp) 75 128 187
Ratio (lb/hp) 197 200 200
Performance Data
Speed Drawbar pull Speed Drawbar pull Speed Drawbar pull
mph fpm (lb) mph fpm (lb) mph fpm (lb)
Gear, forward
First 1.7 150 17,240 1.5 132 32,500 1.5 132 44,400
Second 2.7 238 10,470 2.2 193 22,700 1.9 132 34,500
Third 3.7 326 7,090 3.1 272 15,000 2.7 238 24,100
Fourth 5.2 458 4,670 4.6 405 9,390 3.5 307 17,750
Fifth 6.8 598 3,190 5.9 518 6,770 4.6 405 13,000
Six 6.3 555 8,450
Gear, reverse
First 2.1 185 13,670 1.8 158 28,470 1.5 132 43,700
Second 3.3 290 8,180 2.5 220 18,935 2.0 176 33,900
Third 4.6 405 5,440 3.7 325 12,390 2.7 238 23,700
Fourth 6.4 563 3,480 5.4 475 7,620 3.6 317 17,400
Fifth 4.6 405 12,700
Six 6.4 563 8,250
Note: Usable pull will depend on weight and traction of fully equipped tractor
9
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE DATA -
CRAWLER
Performance Chart for a 200HP 45,560 lb Track-Type Dozer with Power Shift
(Caterpillar, Inc)
Figure 1:

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WHEEL DOZERS
Most wheel dozers (tractors)

are equipped with torque
converters and power-shift
transmissions, some are direct
drive. For this reason their
performance is different.
10
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PERFORMANCE DATA -
WHEEL-TYPE DOZERS
Specifications for Single-Axle Tractors
Approximate
operating weight 32,2000 17,740
(lb)
Engine (hp) 275 180
Ratio (lb/hp) 117 198
Tire Sizes (in) 24 X 29 21 X 25
Performance Data
Speed Gear Speed Rimpull Speed Rimpull
mph Km/h (lb) mph Km/h (lb)
First 2.16 3.48 25,000 3.41 5.50 15,850

Second 4.18 6.73 17,100 7.25 11.70 7,450
Third 7.15 11.50 10,050 12.63 20.35 4,280
Fourth 12.18 19.60 5,880 22.28 35.90 2,420
Fifth 20.00 32.20 3,580 35.03 56.35 1,540
Reverse 2.79 4.49 25,000 4.35 7.00 12,440
Note: Rimpull limited by maximum traction resulting from weight on tires

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PERFORMANCE DATA -
WHEEL-TYPE DOZERS
Figure 2:
Performance Chart for a 216HP
45,370 lb Two-Axle Wheel-type
Tractor with Power Shift
(Caterpillar, Inc)
11
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COMPARISON OF
PERFORMANCE
Usable pull/rimpull will depend on
the weight and traction of fully
equipped dozer.
Even though, the engine can
develop a certain drawbar pull or
rimpull force, all of the pull may not
be available to do the work.
Usable force = (coefficient of traction) x (weight on powered running gear)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPARISON OF
PERFORMANCE Table 2
FOR TRUCK TYPE FOR 4-WHEEL FOR 2-WHEEL
TRACTOR TRACTOR TRACTOR
The usual tractor weight Use weight on drivers Use weight on drivers
shown on spec sheet shown on spec sheet
or approximately or approximately 50%
40% of vehicle gross of vehicle gross weight
weight
Surface Rubber tires Crawler tracks
Dry, rough concrete 0.80-1.00 0.45

Dry, clay loam 0.50-0.70 0.90
Wet, clay loam 0.40-0.50 0.70
Wet sand and gravel 0.30-0.40 0.35
Loose, dry sand 0.20-0.30 0.30
Dry snow 0.20 0.15-0.35
Ice 0.10 0.10-0.25
12
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Example 1
Consider a track-type and a wheel-
type dozers with power shift having
drawbar and rimpull of 45,560 lb
and 45,370 lb, respectively. If the
project working surface is dry clay
loam, what are the usable pull for
each tractor?

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Track-type Dozer:
Coefficient of Traction = 0.90 (see Table 2)
Usable Drawpull = 45,560 X 0.90 = 41,004 lb
Wheel-type Dozer:
Coefficient of Traction = 0.60 (see Table 2)
Usable Drawpull = 45,370 X 0.60 = 27,222 lb
13
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General Notes
9The two machines have
approximately the same operating
weight and flywheel power.
9However, because of the effect of
traction, the track-type dozer can
supply one and a half times the
usable power.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

9The coefficient of traction for wheels
is less than that of tracks for most soil
conditions.
9Therefore, a wheel-type dozer must
be considerably heavier than a
crawler dozer in order to develop the
same amount of usable force.
14
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PUSHING MATERIALS
General Information
9A dozer is a tractor unit which has
a blade attached to its front. The
blade is used to push, shear, cut.
and roll material ahead of the
tractor.
9The dozer is an effective and
versatile earthmover.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PUSHING MATERIALS
General Information
9Dozers are used as both support and
production machines on many
construction projects, where they
may be used from start to finish for
such operations us
Clearing land of timber and stumps.
Moving earth and rock for short haul
(push) distances, up to about 300 ft.
15
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PUSHING MATERIALS
General Information
Spreading earth and rock fills.
Back-filling trenches.
Helping to load tractor-pulled
scrapers.
Clearing the floors of borrow and
quarry pits.
Opening up pilot roads through
mountains and rock terrain.

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PUSHING MATERIALS
Blades
9Dozers are mounted with blades
that are perpendicular to the
direction of travel, whereas angle-
dozers are mounted with blades
set at an angle with the direction of
travel. The former push the earth
forward, whereas the latter push it
forward and to one side.
16
Dozer’s Blade
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Dozer’s Blade
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17
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BLADES
The blade attached to the tractor to
create a bulldozer must be matched to
the expected work task.
Basic earth-moving blades are curved in
the vertical plane in the shape of a "C.”
Along the bottom length of the blade
hard steel plates are bolted. These
plates make up the cutting edge of the
blade.
Blade Mounting
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C- frame
Blade
Mount -
outside
the
tracks
18
Blade Mounting
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C- frame
Blade
Mount -
inside
the
tracks

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BLADES
Blade-Dozer Performance
9A bulldozer's pushing potential is
measured by two standard ratios:
Horsepower per foot of cutting
edge.
Horsepower per loose cubic
yard of material retained in front
of the blade.
19
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BLADES
Horsepower per foot (hp/ft) provides an
indication of the ability of the blade to
penetrate and obtain a load.
The higher this ratio, the more aggressive
the blade.
Horsepower per loose cubic yard (hp/lcy)
measures the blade's ability to push a
load.
A higher ratio means that the bulldozer
can push a load at a greater speed.

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BLADE ADJUSTMENTS
Tilt : The vertical movement of a

blade end is known as tilt. This
movement is within the vertical
plane of the blade. Tilting permits
concentration of tractor driving
power on limited length of blade.
20
Blade Adjustments
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Tilting

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BLADE ADJUSTMENTS
Pitch: The control which allows the

operator to vary the angle of attack
of the blade cutting edge with the
ground is a pitch. It is the
movement of the top of the blade
toward or away from the tractor.
21
Blade Adjustments
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Pitch

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BLADE ADJUSTMENTS
Angling: Turning the blade so that
it is not perpendicular to the
direction of the tractor’s travel is
angling. This causes the pushed
material to roll off the trailing end of
the blade. Rolling material off one
end of the blade is called “side
casting”
22
Blade Adjustments
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Angle
Blade Adjustments
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Angle
23
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Dozer
Operation
GPS and
computer
graphics
Visibility
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24
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DOZER PRODUCTION
ESTIMATING
A bulldozer has no set volumetric
capacity.
There is no hopper or bowl to load.
The amount of material that the
dozer moves depends on the
quantity which will remain in front of
the blade during the push.

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DOZER PRODUCTION
ESTIMATING
The factors that control dozer
production rates are:
1. Blade type.
2. Type and condition of
material.
3. Cycle time.
25
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Material-type -
Clay
Material-type
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Sandy
26
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DOZER PRODUCTION
ESTIMATING
The load that a blade will carry
can be estimated by several
methods:
1. Manufacturer's blade rating
2. Previous experience (similar
material, equipment, and work
conditions)
3. Field measurements

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DOZER PRODUCTION
ESTIMATING
Manufacturers may provide a blade rating
based on SAE practice J1265.
Vs = 0.8 W H2
Vu = Vs + ZH(W - Z) tan xº
Where
Vs = capacity of straight or angle blade, in Icy
Vu = capacity of universal blade, in Icy
W = blade width, in yd, exclusive of end bits
H = effective blade height, in yd
Z = wing length measured parallel to the blade width, in yd
x = wing angle
27
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FIELD MEASUREMENT
A procedure for measuring blade
loads:
9Obtain a normal load:
The dozer pushes a normal blade load
onto a level area.
Stop the dozer's forward motion. While
raising the blade, move forward slightly
to create a symmetrical pile.
Reverse and move away from the pile.

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FIELD MEASUREMENT
9Measurement
Measure the height (H) of the pile at the
inside edge of each rack.
Measure the width (W) of the pile at the
inside edge of each rack.
Measure the greatest length (L) of the
pile. This will not necessarily be at the
middle.
28
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FIELD MEASUREMENT
9Computation:
Average both the two-height and the
two-width measurements. If the
measurements are in feet, the blade
load in loose cubic yards (lcy) is
calculated by the formula
Blade load (Icy) = 0.0139 H W L

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FIELD MEASUREMENT
29
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Example 2
The measurement from a blade-load test
were H1 = 4.9 ft, H2 = 5.2 ft, W1 = 6.9 ft, W2 =
7.0 ft,and L = 12.6 ft. What is the blade
capacity in loose cubic yards for the tested
material?
4.9 + 5.2 6. 9 + 7. 0
H= = 5.05 ft, W= = 6.95
2 2
Blade Load (lcy) = 0.0139 HWL = 0.0139(5.05)(6.95)(12.6) = 6.15 lcy

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CYCLE TIME
The sum of the time required
to push, backtrack, and
maneuver into position to
push represents the complete
dozer cycle.
Dozing is generally
performed at slow speed, 1.5
to 2 mph.
30
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CYCLE TIME
Return Speed is usually the

maximum that can be
attained in the distance
available
For distances less than 100
ft, the operator cannot get the
machine past the second
gear

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CYCLE TIME
The Formula to calculate dozer

production in loose cubic yards per
a 60-min hour is given by
60 min × Blade Load

Production (lcy/hour) =
Push Time + Return Time + Maneuver Time
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Example 3
Assume that the blade load calculated in Example 2
was for a track-type tractor equipped with a power
shift. The tractor will be used to push a silty sand
material. The average push distance is 90 ft. What
production can be expected in loose cubic yards?
Blade load = 6.15 lcy (Example 2)

Push Time : 2 mph (sandy material)
90 ft 1 min
Push Time = × × 60 = 0.51 min
ft mi hr
5280 2
mi hr

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Return Time : (see performance chart)
Maximum speed = 4 mph (second gear, less than 100 ft)
90 ft 1 min
Return Time = × × 60 = 0.26 min
ft mi hr
5280 4
mi hr
Adjusted Return Time = 0.26 + 0.05 = 0.31 min
60 min × 6.15 lcy lcy

Production = = 424
0.51 min + 0.31 min + 0.05 hr
32
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Performance Chart for a 200HP 45,560 lb Track-Type Dozer with Power Shift
(Caterpillar, Inc)

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Example 4
Assume a percent swell of 0.25 for the silty sand of the previous
example (Example 3) and that job efficiency will equal a 50-min
hour. What is the actual production that can be expected in
bank cubic yard? If the machine has an owning and operating
cost of $32.50 per hour and the operator cost $9.50 per hour,
what is the cost for pushing the silty sand?
 Loose unit weight 

Swell% =  − 1 ×100
 Bank unit weight 
Loose unit weight
⇒ Swell + 1 =
Bank unit weight
Hence
Loose unit weight
Bank unit weight =
Swell + 1
33
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50 min
Efficiency (E ) = = 0.833
60 min
424 lcy
Production = (E ) = 424 (0.833) = 283bcy/hr
1 + 0.25 1.25
32.50 + 9.50
Unit cost = = $0.150 per bcy
283

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PRODUCTION FORMULAS
Manufacturers have developed
production formulas for use in
estimating the amount of material
that bulldozers can push
The following production formula is
developed by International Harvest
(IH) and can be used as as a rule-of
thumb formula for a power-shift
crawler tractor:
34
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PRODUCTION FORMULAS
International Harvest (IH) Formula

net hp × 330
Production (lcy) =
D + 50
where
net hp = net horse power at the flywheel for a power - shift crawler tractor
D = one - way push distance, in ft

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 5
A power-shift track-type tractor with 200-HP will be used to push
material 90 ft. Use the IH formula to calculate the lcy production
which can be expected for this operation.
net hp × 330
Production (lcy) =
D + 50
200(330 )
= = 471 lcy
90 + 50
Note: Realistically, the production will be less than 471 lcy

because there are some other factors that can effect the
production such as: efficiency, operator, weather condition
(visibility), material, etc.
35
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PRODUCTION CURVES
Production curves for estimating
the amount of material that
Caterpillar bulldozers can push are
usually available by the
manufacturers.
These curves are published in the
Caterpillar Performance Handbook.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PRODUCTION CURVES
Production estimate obtained from

those curves are based on a set of
ideal conditions:
9100% efficiency (60-min hour).
9Power-shift machines with 0.05-min
fixed time.
9Soil density of 2,300 lb per lcy.
36
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PRODUCTION CURVES
Ideal conditions (cont’d)

9Coefficient of traction:
Track machines, 0.5 or better
Wheel machines, 0.4 or better
9Hydraulic-controlled blades

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PRODUCTION CURVES
Dozing production estimating curves for straight blade Caterpillar
D3, D4, D5, D7, 814, 824, and 834 tractors (Caterpillar Inc.)
Figure 1
37
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PRODUCTION CURVES
Dozing production estimating curves for universal blade Caterpillar
D7 through D11 tractors (Caterpillar Inc.)
Figure 2

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CORRECTION FACTORS
FOR DOZER PRODUCTION
Track-type Wheel-type
Tractor Tractor
Operator
Excellent 1.00 1.00
Average 0.75 0.75
Poor 0.60 0.50
Table 1 Material
Loose stockpile 1.20 1.20
Hard to cut; frozen
with tilt cylinder 0.80 0.75
without tilt cylinder 0.70 -
cable controlled blade 0.60 -
Hard to drift; (dry, non-cohesive material) or very 0.80 0.80
sticky material
Rock, ripped or blasted 0.60 to 0.80 -
Slot dozing 1.20 1.20
Side-by-side dozing 1.15 to 1.25 1.15 to 1.25
Visibility
Dust, rain, snow, fog or darkness 0.80 0.80
Job efficiency
50-min per hour 0.83 0.83
40-min per hour 0.67 0.67
Direct drive transmission (0.1-min fixed time) 0.80 -
Grades See following See following
graph graph
38
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GRADE CORRECTION
FACTOR
Figure 3

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CALCULATION OF
PRODUCTION RATE
In the calculation of production
rates, the curve values must be
adjusted by a total correction factor,
which reflect the job conditions.
Figures 1 and 2 present the
Caterpillar curves, and Tables 1
and Figure 3 give the correction
factors for different conditions.
39
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CALCULATION OF
PRODUCTION RATE
The following formula is used to
calculate the production rates from
Caterpillar curves
Production (lcy) = max production from curve × total correction factor
where
total factor = product of the correction factors

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 6
A D7G crawler tractor with a straight blade is to be used in a
slot-dozing operation. The material is dry, non-cohesive silty
sand and is to be moved a distance of 300 ft from the beginning
of the cut. Dozing is downhill on 10% grade. The operator will
have average skill, the tractor will have a power-shift
transmission, and both visibility and traction are assumed to be
satisfactory. The material weighs 108 pcf in the bank state and
is estimated to swell 12% in the loose state. Job efficiency is
assumed to be equivalent to a 50-min hour.
Calculate the direct cost of the proposed earth-moving operation
in dollars per bcy. Assume that the owning and operating
(O & O) cost for the tractor is $32.50 per hour and the operator’s
wage is $10.85 per hour.
Note: slot dozing is dozing method whereby the operator makes use of the side walls from
previous passes to hold material in front of dozer blade.
40
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SOLUTION
A D7G with straight blade and a distance of 300 ft:
Ideal production = 170 lcy/hr (from Figure 1)
From Table 1:
Operator (average) 0.75
Material (dry, non-cohesive) 0.80
Slot Dozing 1.20
Job Efficiency (50-min hour) 0.83
From Figure 3:
Grade (-100) 1.24
Material Weight Correction:
γΒ =108 pcf = 108 X27=2,916 lb/bcy
Swell = 12%, therefore, 2916/ 1.12 = 2604 lb/lcy
Standard Condition is 2,300 lb/lcy
hence,
Material Weight Correction = (2300 / 2604) 0.88

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Total Correction = 0.75 X 0.80 X 1.20 X 0.83 X 1.24 X 0.88 = 0.652
Production (lcy) = max production from curve × total correction factor

lcy lcy 111 bcy
Production = 170 × 0.652 = 111 = = 99
hr hr 1.12 hr
Cost:
Owning and operating cost = $32.50 per hour
Operator = $10.85 per hour
Total Cost =$43.35 per hour
43.35
Direct Pro duction Cost = = $0.44 per bcy
99
41
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LAND-CLEARING
OPERATIONS
Crawler tractors equipped with either
bulldozer blades or special clearing
blades are excellent machines for
land clearing.
Clearing operations are always
preferable and usually necessary
before undertaking earth-moving
operations.

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Clearing & Grubbing
42
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LAND-CLEARING
OPERATIONS
Trees brush and even grass and
weeds make earth handling very
difficult.
If these organic materials ale
allowed to become mixed into an
embankment, their decay over
time will cause settlement of the
fill.
Dozer with
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clearing blade
43
Clearing
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Clearing
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44
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LAND-CLEARING
OPERATIONS
Clearing land may be divided
into several operations
depending on the type of
vegetation the condition of the
sod and topography the amount
of clearing required and the
purpose for which the clearing-
is done:

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LAND-CLEARING
OPERATIONS
1. Removing all trees and stumps including- roots
2. Removing all vegetation above tile surface of the
ground only stumps and roots in the ground
3. Disposing of vegetation by stacking and burning
4. Knocking all vegetation down, then chopping or
crushing it to or into the surface of the round. or
burning it later
5. Killing or retarding the growth of brush by cutting
the roots below the surface of the ground
45
Rakes are used for

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
removing roots.
Rakes are used for

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removing roots.
46
Rakes
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LAND-CLEARING
PRODUCTION ESTIMATING
Land clearing of timber is
performed with crawler tractors
that have between 140 and 350
hp.
The best way to estimate land
clearing is by using historical
data from similar projects.
47
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LAND-CLEARING
Critical factors which must be
considered when estimating land
clearing are:
1. Nature of the vegetation.
2. Soil condition and bearing capacity.
3. Topography-level ground, hills,
swamps, and so on.
4. Climate and rainfall.
5. Job specifications.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LAND-CLEARING
Constant speed clearing
9When there is light vegetation, it is
possible to clear at a constant speed.
Production can be given by the
following expression:
width of cut (ft) × speed (mph) × 5280(ft/mi) × E
Production (acre/hr) =
43,560 (ft 3 / acre)
48
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LAND-CLEARING
9The American society of Agricultural
Engineers (ASAE) provide a formula for
estimating land-clearing at constant
speed, which is based on a 49.5-min
hour (E of 0.825). Then above formula
reduces to
width of cut (ft) × speed (mph)
Production (acre/hr) =
10

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Example 7
A 200-hp crawler tractor will be used to clear small
trees and brush from a 12-acre site. By operating in
the first gear, the tractor should be able to maintain a
continuous forward speed of 0.9 mph. An angle-
clearing blade will be used, and from past experience
the average resulting clear width will be 8 ft.
Assuming a normal efficiency, how long will take to
knock down the vegetation?
width of cut (ft) × speed (mph) 8 × 0.9 acre

Production (acre/hr) = = = 0.72
10 10 hr
12 acre
Time to knock down vegetation = = 16.7 hours
0.72 acre/hr
49
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RIPPING ROCK
Rippers are used to tear and

split hard ground, weak rock, or
old pavements and bases.
Heavy ripping is accomplished
with crawler tractors because of
the power and tractive force
available from such machines.

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Ripping
50
Ripping
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RIPPING ROCK
Rock that was considered to be
unrippable a few years ago is now
ripped with relative ease, and at cost
reductions-including ripping and
hauling with scrapers-amounting to
as much as 50% when compared
with the cost of drilling, blasting,
loading with loaders, and hauling
with trucks.
51
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RIPPING ROCK
The major developments responsible
for the increase in ripping rock include:
9Heavier and more powerful tractors.
9Improvements in the sizes and
performance of rippers, to include
development of impact rippers.
9Better instruments for determining the
rippability of rocks.
9Improved techniques in using
instruments and equipment.

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RIPPING ROCK
Figure 4
52
Rear mounted ripper

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2 shanks
Rear mounted ripper

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1 shank down 3 shanks down

2 up
53
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EFFECTIVENESS OF
RIPPER
The effectiveness of a ripper
depends on
1. Down pressure at the ripper tip.
2. The tractor's usable power to advance
the tip: function of power
available,tractor weight, and
coefficient of traction.
3. Properties of the material being
ripped: laminated, faulted, weathered,
and so on.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RIPPABILITY OF ROCK
Before selecting the method of

excavation, it important to
determine if the rock can be
ripped or it will be necessary to
drill and blast.
This involves the study of the
rock type and the determination
of the rock’s density.
54
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RIPPABILITY OF ROCK
Igneous rocks lack stratification

and cleavage, and hence, they
are hard and sometimes
impossible to rip.
Rippability depends on the
speed at which sound waves
travel through rock.

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RIPPABILITY OF ROCK
Seismographic methods are used

to determine with reasonable
accuracy whether the a rock can
be ripped.
9Rocks that propagate sound waves
at low velocities are rippable.
9Rocks that propagate sound waves
at high velocities are not rippable
55
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RIPPABILITY OF ROCK
Rippability data on various

rocks and soils are available
from the equipment
manufacturers.
Rippability data are usually
based on velocity ranges for
different types of soil and rocks.

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RIPPABILITY OF ROCK
Ripper Performance for Caterpillar 335 and 370 HP Crawler Tractors with Multi and
or Single-shank Rippers. Estimated by seismic wave velocities (Caterpillar Inc.)
Figure 5
56
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ECONOMY OF RIPPING
ROCK
Cost of excavating rock by ripping
and scraper loading is much less
expensive than using an alternate
method, such as drilling, blasting,
excavator loading, and truck
hauling.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ECONOMY OF RIPPING
ROCK
The cost of repairs of scrapers used for
rock ripping is approximately double
compared to repair cost for scrapers
used to move earth.
The life of scraper tires is reduced on
average from about 4,000 hours to
1.000 and 1,500 hours, depending on
where the scrapers were working.
57
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ECONOMY OF RIPPING
ROCK
It is usually necessary to limit
the scraper loads to
approximately 90% of their
normal struck capacities. Even
under these conditions scrapers
might have an average
availability factor of 91.5%.

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ESTIMATING RIPPING
PRODUCTION
Estimating ripping production is best
accomplished by working a test
section and carefully recording the
work time and the weight of ripper
material.
Since opportunity to conduct field
tests is often nonexistent the most
initial estimates are based on
equipment manufacturers'
production charts.
58
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ESTIMATING RIPPING
PRODUCTION
Ripper performance charts allow the
estimator to make an initial
determination of equipment which
may be able to perform based off
general rock-type classifications.
After the initial determination of
applicable machines is made,
production rates for those particular
machines are calculated front
production charts.

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ESTIMATING RIPPING
PRODUCTION
Ripping production charts are based
on the physical material properties.
The production rates obtained from
the charts must be adjusted to reflect
tile actual field conditions of the
project.
According to Caterpillar, O&O cost
should be increased by 30-40 %
59
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ESTIMATING RIPPING
PRODUCTION
Figure 6

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Example 8
A contractor encounter a shale formation at shallow depth in a
cut section of his project. He performs seismograph tests,
which indicates a seismic velocity of 7,000 fps for the shale. On
this basis, he proposes to rip the material.
(a) Select a tractor-ripper combination for which the material as
described is classified as “rippable”
(b) Estimate the production in bcy for full-time ripping, with
efficiency based on a 450min hour. Assume that the ripper
is equipped with single shank and that ripping conditions are
ideal.
(c) The normal owning & operating (O&O) cost excluding the
operator for the tractor-tripper combination which was
selected in part (a) is $86 per hour. Operator wages are
$9.50 per hour. What is the estimated ripping cost in dollars
per bcy?
60
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
(a) From Figure 5 (Ripper Performance)

335- Rippable in shale having a seismic velocity up to 7,500 fps
370- Rippable in shale having a seismic velocity up to 7,500 fps
Both tractors are applicable for this case according to the

charts, but both are limited by their capability. Therefore, the
contractor should consider the larger machine
(b) Using the 370-hp tractor-ripper production Chart (Figure 6) for

seismic velocity of 7,000 fps and ideal condition
Ideal production 370-hp tractor = 560 bcy/hr
Adjusted production = 560 X (45/60) = 420 bcy/hr

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Ripper Performance for Caterpillar 335 and 370 HP Crawler Tractors with Multi and
or Single-shank Rippers. Estimated by seismic wave velocities (Caterpillar Inc.)
Figure 5
61
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Figure 6

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
(C) Increase normal O&O cost because of the ripping application:
$86 X 1.35 =$116.10 per hour
Total Cost (including operator) = 116.10 + 9.50 =$125.60 per hour
$125.60 /hr
Production Cost = = $0.30 per bcy
420 bcy/hr
62
Slide No. 124
THE
CHAPTER 6. DOZERS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FUTURE
63
CHAPTER
SCRAPERS
7 By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 7. SCRAPERS Slide No. 1

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRACTORS-PULLED
SCRAPERS
Tractor-pulled scrapers are
designed to load, haul, and
dump loose materials.
The advantage of tractor-
scraper combinations is their
versatility.
1
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SCRAPERS

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
APPLICATIONS
Dozer: short haul, less than 300ft
Scraper: medium haul up to 3,000 ft
2
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TRACTORS-PULLED
SCRAPERS
They can be used in a wide range
of material types (including shot
rock) and are economical over a
wide range of haul lengths and haul
conditions.
To the extent that they can self-
load, they are not dependent on
other equipment.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRACTORS-PULLED
SCRAPERS
If one machine in the spread
experience a temporary breakdown
it will not shut down the job, as
would be the case for a machine
which is used exclusively for
loading. If the loader breaks down,
the entire job must stop until repairs
can be made.
3
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRACTORS-PULLED
SCRAPERS
Scrapers are available with loose-
heaped capacities up to about 44 cu yd,
although in the past a few machines as
large as 100 cu yd have been offered.
For off-highway situations having hauls
of less than a mile, scrapers ability both
to load and haul gives them an
advantage.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF SCRAPERS
There are several types of

scrapers, primarily classified
according to the number of
powered axles or by the method of
loading.
Scrapers are all wheel-tractor-
pulled machines.
4
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF SCRAPERS
Available types include:
9Push-loaded (conventional)
Single-powered axle
Tandem-powered axles
9Self-loading
Push-pull, tandem-powered axles
Elevating
Auger

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CONFIGURATIONS
Conventional (push-loaded)
Single engine
5
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF SCRAPERS
Many models can achieve speeds up to 30
mph when fully loaded. This extends the
economic haul distance of the units.
Push-loaded scrapers are at a
disadvantage when it comes to individually
providing the high tractive effort required
for economical loading. For the single-
powered axle scraper only a portion, on
the order of 50-55% of the total loaded
weight, bears on the drive wheels.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF SCRAPERS
Conventional (push-loaded)
single engine scrapers become
uneconomical when:
Haul grades > 5%
Return grades > 12%
6
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CONFIGURATIONS
Elevating

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CONFIGURATIONS
Elevating scrapers are
good for short hauls
and in favorable
material.
• Can work alone in the cut.

• Cost more initially & to operate
• Elevator adds weight & takes power.
7
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CONFIGURATIONS
Tandem powered
twin engine

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF SCRAPERS
Tandem powered (twin

engine) scrapers are good
for jobs having adverse
grades and poor footing.
Owning and operating cost
are about 25% higher.
8
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CONFIGURATIONS
Push-Pull

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF SCRAPERS
Push-Pull scrapers can work
as a team or can operate
individually with a pusher.
Tire wear will increase in rock
or abrasive materials because
of more slippage from the
four-wheel drive action.
9
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CONFIGURATIONS
Auger

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CONFIGURATIONS
Auger
10
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TYPES OF SCRAPERS
Auger scrapers can self-load in
difficult conditions, laminated
rock or granular materials.
The auger adds weight to the
scraper during travel and it is
more costly to own and operate
than a conventional scraper.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
VOLUME OF A SCRAPER
The volumetric load of a scraper
may be specified as either the
struck or heaped capacity of the
bowl expressed in cubic yards.
The struck capacity is the volume
that a scraper would hold if the top
of the material were struck off even
at the top of the bowl.
11
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BOWL
The load-carrying part of a scraper.
ejector

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
VOLUME OF A SCRAPER
In specifying the heaped capacity
of a scraper, manufacturers usually
specify the slope of the material
above the sides of the bowl with the
designation SAE. The Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE)
specifies a repose slope of 1:1 for
scrapers.
12
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
VOLUME OF A SCRAPER
The SAE standard for other haul units
and loader buckets is 2:1.
Actual repose slope will vary with the
type of material handled.
The capacity of a scraper, expressed in
cubic yards bank measure (bcy), can be
approximated by multiplying the loose
volume in the scraper by an appropriate
swell factor.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
VOLUME OF A SCRAPER
Because of the compacting effect

on the material in a push-loaded
scraper, resulting from the pressure
required to force additional material
into the bowl, the swell is usually
less than that for material dropped
into a truck by a hoe or loader.
13
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
VOLUME OF A SCRAPER
Tests indicate that the swell factors
specified in tables should be increased
by approximately 10% for material
push-loaded into a scraper.
When computing the bank measure
volume for an elevating scraper, no
correction is required for the factors
specified by the tables.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SWELL FACTORS FOR

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOIL
Table 1
Bank Loose
weight weight
Percent Swell
Clay,dry 2,700 1,600 2,000 1,185 35 0.74

Clay, wet 3,000 1,780 2,200 1,305 35 0.74
Earth, dry 2,800 1,660 2,240 1,325 25 0.80
Earth, wet 3,200 1,895 2,580 1,528 25 0.80
Earth and gravel 3,200 1,895 2,600 1,575 20 0.83
Gravel, dry 2,800 1,660 2,490 1,475 12 0.89
Gravel, wet 3,400 2,020 2,980 1,765 14 0.88
Limestone 4,400 2,610 2,750 1,630 60 0.63
Sand, dry 2,600 1,542 2,260 1,340 15 0.87
Sand, wet 2,700 1,600 2,360 1,400 15 0.87
Shale 3,500 2,075 2,480 1,470 40 0.71
14
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SWELL FACTORS FOR

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOIL
Example
If a push-loaded scraper hauls a
heaped load measuring 22.5 cu yd and
the swell factor from the previous table
(Table 1) is 0.8, the calculated bank
measure volume will be
22.5 cu yd x (0.8 x 1.1) = 19.8 bcy
Note: 10% increase in for swell factor

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SCRAPER OPERATION
A scraper is loaded by lowering the front
end of the bowl until the cutting edge, which
is attached to and extends across the width of
the bowl enters the ground. At the same
time, the front apron is raised to provide an
open slot through which the earth can flow
into the bowl. As the scraper moves forward,
a horizontal strip of material is forced into the
bowl. This is continued until the bowl is filled,
at which point the cutting edge is raised and
the apron is lowered to prevent spillage
during the haul.
15
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SCRAPER OPERATION
The dumping operation consists
of lowering the cutting edge to the
desired height above the fill, raising
the apron, and then forcing the
material out by means of a movable
ejector mounted at the rear of the
bowl.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CUTTING AND LOADING
For maximum production both single- and tandem-

engine scrapers need the assistance of a push tractor.
16
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CUTTING AND LOADING

Ejector
Dirt enters horizontally and rolls back to fill corners.

Curved ejector top keeps load “boiling” to heap high.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HAULING
Apron lowered to capture the material.

Keeping the bowl low enhances stability.
17
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPREADING THE LOAD
Dumping and spreading is one continuous operation.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SCRAPER SELECTION
Three main factors:

9Job size, volume of material to
move and maneuver room.
9Scraper configuration.
9Job conditions, grades, rolling
resistance and material type.
18
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SCRAPER SELECTION
COST:
Cost must consider all
hourly cost for the
entire pusher-scraper
fleet.
ECONOMIC ZONES OF
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
APPLICATION
SEVERITY OF
CONDITIONS
HAUL DISTANCE
19
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
T CE
AR AN
CH M
OR
RF
PE

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CYCLE TIME FOR A

SCRAPER
The cycle time for a scraper is the
time to load, haul, dump, turn,
return, and turn back into position
to pick up another load:
Ts = loadt + hault + dumpt + turnt + returnt + turnt (1)
20
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WORK CYCLE
LOAD
HAUL
RETURN DUMP

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CYCLE TIME FOR A

SCRAPER
Average load time for push-loader
scrapers in common earth is 0.85
min.
Both haul and return times
depend on the distance traveled
and the scraper speed.
21
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CYCLE TIME FOR A

SCRAPER
Dump times vary with scraper size
but project conditions will affect the
duration. Average values for dump
time are presented in tables.
The average turn time in the cut is
0.30 min and on the fill the average
time is 0.21 min.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CYCLE TIME FOR A

SCRAPER
Table 2. Scraper Dump Cycle Times (U.S. Department of Transportation, FHWA)
Scraper Type
Scraper Size Single Engine Tandem-powered
(cu yd) (min) (min)
<25 0.30 -
25 to 34 0.37 0.26
35 to 44 0.44 0.28
22
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 1
Calculate the total time required for a single-engine
31-cu-yd scraper to complete a 2,000-ft haul cycle.
Ts = loadt + hault + dumpt + turnt + returnt + turnt
Loadt 0.85 min
Hault 2,000 ft: accelerate @ 6 mph 300 ft 0.57 min

steady @ 12 mph 1,500 ft 1.42 min
decelerate @ 8 mph 200 ft 0.28 min
Dumpt 31 cu yd (Table 2) 0.37 min
Turnt @ fill 0.21 min
Returnt 2,000 ft: accelerate @ 6 mph 200 ft 0.28 min

steady @ 18 mph 1,600 ft 1.01 min
decelerate @ 10 mph 200 ft 0.23 min
Turnt @ cut 0.30 min
Total Cycle Time 5.52 min

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATING EFFICIENCY
AND PRODUCTION
If the scraper cycle time of 5.52
min (Example 1) could be
maintained for a period of 60
min, the unit would make
60/5.52 = 10.9 trips per hour
23
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AND PRODUCTION
The volume of material hauled would
equal the product of the number of trips
and the average volume per load.
Reality is different from this perfect
production. Delays occur on the job;
machines break down; men stop for
water, or machines cluster causing a
queue in the cut for the pusher.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EFFICIENCY FACTOR
• 50 min-hr
efficiency
24
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AND PRODUCTION
Studies of scraper operations suggest
that the average productive time is 69%
of a perfect 60-min hour (excluding
weather delays to the job).
The actual number of trips in the real
world would be
10.9 X 0.69 = 7.5 trips per work hour

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AND PRODUCTION
The estimator should always try to
visualize the work site before applying a
factor:
9If the pit will not be congested and if the
dump area is wide open, a 55-min hour
may be appropriate.
9If the cut involves a tight area, such as
a ditch, the estimator should consider a
45-min hour.
25
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PUSH TRACTORS
REQUIRED
If push-loaded tractor scrapers are
to attain their volumetric capacities,
they need the assistance of a push
tractor during the loading operation.
Push tractor assistance will reduce
the loading-time duration, and
thereby will reduce the total cycle
time.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PUSH TRACTORS
REQUIRED
When using push tractors, we
should match the number of
pushers with the number of
scrapers available at a given time.
If either the pusher or the scraper
must wait for the other, operating
efficiency is lowered and production
costs are increased.
26
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PUSHER CYCLE TIME
Caterpillar recommends calculating

backtrack push-tractor cycle time,
Tp, by the formula
Tp = 1.4Lt + 0.25 (2)
where Lt is the scraper load time (pusher contact time).

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PUSHER CYCLE TIME

The formula is based on the
concept that pusher cycle time is a
function of four components:
9Load time of the scraper
9Boost time, time assisting the scraper
out of the cut, 0.15 min.
9Maneuver time, 40% of load time.
9Positioning for contact time, 0.10 min.
27
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PUSHER CYCLE TIME
The number of scrapers that a

push tractor can serve is the
ratio of the scraper cycle time to
the pusher cycle time:
T
N= s (3)
Tp
where N is the number of scrapers per one pusher.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROLLING RESISTANCE AND

SCRAPER PRODUCTION
Rolling resistance varies with haul-
road conditions.
A well maintained haul road permits
faster travel speeds and reduces
the costs of maintenance and
repairs for the scrapers.
28
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

SCRAPER PRODUCTION
The following figure is from field
study of scraper haul times:
9Shaded area represents the range of
average travel times.
9 Good haul roads are indicated by the
lower boundary.
9 Poor haul roads are indicated by the
upper boundary.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

SCRAPER PRODUCTION
Figure 1. Average Travel Times Single-powered Axle Scrapers,
Capacity < 25 cy (U.S. Department of Transportation, FHWA)
29
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 2
Based on the the scraper specified in the following figures (Figures 4-8,
4-10, and 6-9 of the textbook), and for haul conditions as stated below, what
is the probable production of the scraper?
Given that the total length of haul when moving from the cut to the fill is
4,000 ft as follows:
1,200 +4% grade
1,400 ft +2% grade
1,400 ft -2% grade
Soil: Clay 3,100 lb per bcy

Rolling Resistance 80 lb per ton
Assumptions:
average load time = 0.85 min
→ load of 96% of the capacity (Figure 2, or Figure 7.10 Textbook)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Figure 2 (for Example 2)
30
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Figure 3 (for Example 2)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Figure 4
(for Example 2)
31
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Figure 5
(for Example 2)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Actual Load = 0.96 X 31 = 29.8 lcy
Swell Factor = 0.74, clay (Table 1, or Table 4-1 in Textbook)
Load Volume in Bank Measure = 29.8 X (0.74 X 1.1) = 24.3 bcy
Weight of Load = 24.3 (3,100) = 75,330 lb
Weight of Scraper (empty) = 96,880 lb (see Figure 3)
Gross Weight = 172,210 lb
Rolling Resistance in lb/ton 80

Rolling Resistance = = = 4%
20 lb/ton 20
32
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Table 3. Haul and Return Speeds
Total
Distance (ft) Grade (%) Resistance (%) Speed (mph) Travel Time (min)
R = rr + gr
Haul (172,210 lb):
300 acceleration 4 8 5 0.68
900 4 8 10 1.02
1,400 2 6 15 1.06
1,200 -2 2 30 0.45
200 deceleration -2 2 12 0.19
Total 3.40
Return (96,880 lb):
200 acceleration 2 6 10 0.23
1,200 2 6 21 0.65
1,400 -2 2 32 0.50
1,000 -4 0 32 0.36
200 deceleration -4 0 12 0.19
Total 1.93

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Calculate the total time required for a single-engine
31-cu-yd scraper to complete a 4,000-ft haul cycle.
Loadt = 0.85 min
Ts = loadt + hault + dumpt + turnt + returnt + turnt
Hault = 3.40 min
Dumpt = 0.37 31 cu yd (Table 2)
Turnt = 0.21 min @ fill
Returnt = 1.93 min
Turnt = 0.30 min @ cut
Hence, Total Cycle Time = Ts = 7.06 min
33
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
50
Number of trips per 50 - min hour = = 7.08 trips
7.06
bcy
Volume per scraper per 50 - min hour = 24.3(7.08) = 172
hr
Pusher time = T p = 1.4 Lt + 0.25 = 1.4(0.85) + 0.25 = 1.44 min
Ts 7.06
Number of Scrapers Required = = = 4.9 ≈ 5 scrapers
Tp 1.44
50
Pusher Contacts per a 50 - min hour = = 34.7 contacts
1.44
bcy
Production = 34.7 (24.3) = 843
hr

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Alternatively,
bcy
Production = 172 × 4.9 = 843
hr
If, mistakenly, the scraper had been thought to control, then
bcy
Production = 172 × 5 = 860 , this is wrong estimate.
hr
34
CHAPTER
EXCAVATORS
8 By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 8. EXCAVATORS Slide No. 1

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic power is
the key to the
utility of many
excavators.
1
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic front shovels are used
predominantly for hard digging
above track level and for loading
haul units.
Hydraulic hoe excavators are used
primarily to excavate below natural
surface of the ground on which the
machine rests.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
The loader is a versatile piece of

equipment designed to excavate at
or above wheel/track level.
Unlike a shovel or hoe, to position
the bucket to dump, a loader must
maneuver and travel with the load.
They come in various models.
2
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HYDRAULIC EXCAVATORS
HOE
WHEEL & TRACK

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LOADERS
3
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
The hydraulic control of machine

components provides
9Faster cycle times.
9Outstanding control of attachments.
9High overall efficiency.
9Smoothness and ease of operation.
9Positive control that offers greater
accuracy and precision.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
• Machines which make use of hydraulic pressure to
develop bucket penetration into materials are
classified by the digging motion of the bucket.
• The hydraulically controlled boom and stick, to

which the bucket is attached, may be mounted on
either a crawler or a wheel tractor base.
• A downward arc excavator is classified as a "hoe."

It develops excavation breakout force by pulling
the bucket toward the machine and curling the
bucket inward.
4
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
• An upward motion unit is known as a "front
shovel." A shovel develops breakout force by
crowding material away from the machine.
• The downward swing of a hoe dictates usage for

excavating below the running gear.
• The boom of a shovel swings upward to load;

therefore, the machine requires a material face
above the running gear to work against.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EXCAVATOR PRODUCTION
Steps for Estimating
Production:
1. Obtain the heaped bucket load
volume (in lcy) from the
manufacturers’ data sheet.
2. Apply a bucket fill factor based
on the type of machine and the
class material being excavated.
5
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Production (cont’d):
3. Estimate a peak cycle time. This
a function of machine type and
job conditions to angle of swing,
depth of height of cut, and in the
the case of loaders, travel
distance.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

Production (cont’d):
4. Apply an efficiency factor.
5. Conform the production units to
the desired volume or weight (lcy
to bcy or tons).
6. Calculate the production rate.
6
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Production Formula:
3,600 sec × Q × F × (AS : D )  E  1 
Production =   
t  60 − min hr  Vol. Correction 
(1)
Q = heaped bucket capacity (lcy)
F = bucket fill factor
AS:D = angle of swing and depth (height) of cut correction
t = cycle time in seconds
E = efficiency (min per hour)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Production formula (cont’d)

1
Volume correction for loose volume to bank volume,
1 + swell factor
loose unit weight, lb

For loose volume to tons,
2,000 lb/ton
7
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FRONT SHOVELS
Front shovels are used

predominately for hard digging
above track level, and loading
haul units.
The loading of shot rock would
be a typical application.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FRONT SHOVELS
Boom
Stick
Bucket
8
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FRONT SHOVELS
A shovel is capable of developing a

high breakout force.
The material being excavated
should be such that it will stand
with a fairly vertical face.
Crawler-mounted shovels have
very slow travel speeds, less than 3
mph.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SIZE OF A FRONT SHOVEL
The size of a dragline is indicated

by the size of the bucket,
expressed in cubic yards (cu yd).
Struck Capacity: Volume actually
enclosed by the bucket for no
allowance for bucket teeth.
9
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BUCKET SIZE
EXCAVATORS
can usually be
equipped with
several different
size and type
buckets.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Heaped Capacity: 1:1 angle of

repose for evaluating heaped
capacity. A 2:1 angles of repose is
used by the Committee on
European Construction Equipment
(CECE).
10
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

Fill Factor: Rated heaped capacities
represent a net section bucket volume;
therefore, they must be corrected to
average bucket load based on the material
being handled. Fill factors are
percentages which, when multiplied by
rated heaped capacity, adjust the volume
by accounting for how the specific material
will load into the bucket (see the following
table, Table 5, or Table 8.1 of Textbook).

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Table 1. Fill Factors for Front Shovel Buckets (Caterpillar Inc.)

Material Fill Factor* (%)
Bank clay; earth 100 to 110
Rock-earth mixture 105 to 115
Rock-poorly blasted 85 to 100
Rock-well blasted 100 to 110
Shale; sandstone-standing bank 85 to 100
* Percent of heaped bucket capacity
11
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SHOVEL PRODUCTION
Typical cycle element times under

average conditions, for 3 to 5-cu-yd
shovels, will be
9Load bucket 7-9 sec
9Swing with load 4-6 sec
9Dump load 2-4 sec
9Return swing 4-5 sec

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SHOVEL PRODUCTION
Actual production of a shovel is
affected by the following factors:
Class of material
Height of cut
Angle of swing
Size of hauling units
Operator skill
Physical condition of the shovel
Production efficiency ranges from 30 to 45 min per hour
12
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EFFECT OF THE HEIGHT OF CUT

AND SWING ANGLE ON SHOVEL
PRODUCTION
The Power Crane and Shovel
Association (PCSA) has published
findings on the optimum height of
cut based on data from studies of
cable operated shovels as shown in
Table 2 (Table 8.2 of Textbook)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

PRODUCTION
Table 2. Factors for Height of Cut and Angle of Swing Effect on Shovel
Production
Percent Angle of Swing (degrees)
Optimum
Depth (%) 45 60 75 90 120 150 180
40 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.80 0.72 0.65 0.59
60 1.10 1.03 0.96 0.91 0.81 0.73 0.66
80 1.22 1.12 1.04 0.98 0.86 0.77 0.69
100 1.26 1.16 1.07 1.00 0.88 0.79 0.71
120 1.20 1.11 1.03 0.97 0.86 0.77 0.70
140 1.12 1.04 0.97 0.91 0.81 0.73 0.66
160 1.03 0.96 0.90 0.85 0.75 0.67 0.62
13
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SWING ANGLE?
swing
angle of
30° 30-60º
60°
90°

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

PRODUCTION
The percent of optimum height of
cut, in the table, is obtained by
dividing the the actual height of cut
by the optimum height for the given
material and bucket, and then
multiplying the result by 100.
14
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

PRODUCTION
The optimum height of cut ranges
from 30 to 50% of the maximum
digging height
− 30% for easy to load materials (i.e.,
loam sand, gravel)
− 40% for common earth
− 50% for poorly blasted rock, or sticky
clay

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

PRODUCTION
The ideal production of a shovel is
based on operating at a 900 swing and
optimum height of cut.
The ideal production should be
multiplied by the proper correction factor
in order to correct the production for any
given height and swing angle.
Table 2, or Table 8.2) can be used for
this purpose.
15
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 1
A 5-cu-yd shovel having a maximum
digging height of 34 ft is being used to
load poorly blasted rock. The face
being worked is 12 ft high and the haul
units can be positioned so that the
swing angle is only 600. What is the
adjusted ideal production if the ideal
cycle time is 21 sec.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Optimum height = 0.50 X 34 = 17 ft

Fill factor from Table 5, 85 to 100%, use 90%
60 lcy lcy
Ideal Production = × 5 × 0.9 = 12.86 = 771
21 min hr
12
Percent Optimum Height = = 0.71
17
Height-swing Factor = 1.08 (from Table 2, by interpolation)
The Adjusted Ideal Production = 771 (1.08) = 833 lcy per hour
16
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 2
A 3-cu-yd shovel, having a maximum
digging height of 30 ft, will be used on a
highway project to excavate well-
blasted rock. The average face height
is expected to be 22 ft. Most of the cut
will require a 1400 swing of the shovel in
order to load the haul units. Determine
the estimated production in cubic yards
bank measure.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Optimum height = 0.50 X 30 = 15 ft

Fill Factor from Table 1, (100 to 110%), use 100%
Cycle Time = Load + Swing Loaded + Dump + Swing empty
= 9 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 21 sec = 0.35 min

60 lcy
Ideal Production = × 3 × 1.0 = 514
0.35 hr
22
Percent Optimum Height = = 1.47 = 147%
15
17
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Table 1. Fill Factors for Front Shovel Buckets (Caterpillar Inc.)

Bank clay; earth 100 to 110
Rock-earth mixture 105 to 115
Rock-poorly blasted 85 to 100
Rock-well blasted 100 to 110
Shale; sandstone-standing bank 85 to 100

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Height-swing Factor = 0.73 (from Table 2, by interpolation)
The Adjusted Ideal Production = 514 (0.73) = 375 lcy per hour
Percent swell, Table 4-3 (Textbook): Well-blasted Rock = 60%

375 bcy
Production (bcy) = = 234
1.6 hr
If an efficiency of 45 min per hour is used, then
Production =(45/60) X 234 = 175.5 bcy/hr
18
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Table 2. Factors for Height of Cut and Angle of Swing Effect on Shovel
Production
Percent Angle of Swing (degrees)
Optimum
Depth (%) 45 60 75 90 120 150 180
40 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.80 0.72 0.65 0.59
60 1.10 1.03 0.96 0.91 0.81 0.73 0.66
80 1.22 1.12 1.04 0.98 0.86 0.77 0.69
100 1.26 1.16 1.07 1.00 0.88 0.79 0.71
120 1.20 1.11 1.03 0.97 0.86 0.77 0.70
140 1.12 1.04 0.97 0.91 0.81 0.73 0.66
160 1.03 0.96 0.90 0.85 0.75 0.67 0.62

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Bank Loose
weight weight
Percent Swell
Clay,dry 2,700 1,600 2,000 1,185 35 0.74

Clay, wet 3,000 1,780 2,200 1,305 35 0.74
Earth, dry 2,800 1,660 2,240 1,325 25 0.80
Earth, wet 3,200 1,895 2,580 1,528 25 0.80
Earth and gravel 3,200 1,895 2,600 1,575 20 0.83
Gravel, dry 2,800 1,660 2,490 1,475 12 0.89
Gravel, wet 3,400 2,020 2,980 1,765 14 0.88
Limestone 4,400 2,610 2,750 1,630 60 0.63
Sand, dry 2,600 1,542 2,260 1,340 15 0.87
Sand, wet 2,700 1,600 2,360 1,400 15 0.87
Shale 3,500 2,075 2,480 1,470 40 0.71
19
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HOES
Hoes are used primarily to

excavate below the natural surface
of the ground on which the machine
rests.
A hoe is sometimes referred to by
other names, such as backhoe or
back shovel.
Slide No. 39
HYDRAULIC
CHAPTER 8. EXCAVATORS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EXCAVATORS
HOE
20
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HOES
Hoes are adapted to excavating
trenches and pits for basements,
and the smaller machines can
handle general grading work.
In storm drain and utility work the
hoe can perform the trench
excavation and handle the pipe,
eliminating a second machine.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HOES
Bucket cylinder Stick cylinder
Stick
Boom
Bucket
21
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HOE BUCKETS
There are special buckets for

everything from light sand
to hard rock digging.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HYDRAULIC HOES
Bucket penetration (break out
force) is developed by the
hydraulic cylinders of the boom
stick and bucket.
22
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HYDRAULIC HOES
The hoe can be track or
wheel mounted.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
MULIPURPOSE TOOL
A crane for carefully lifting

heavy loads into position.
23
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HYDRAULIC HOES
These machines offer

precision and efficiency.
The average (first owner)
life is about seven years.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 1: Bucket size (LCY)

Many different size buckets will fit
the same machine. Interested in
heaped capacity.
Heaped capacity ratings for hoe
buckets assume a 1:1 material
angle of repose.
24
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 2: Material type

STEP 3: Fill factor, Table 8.4
HEAPED CAPACITY is a net
section 1:1 slope volume. It must
be adjusted based on the
characteristics of the material
being handled.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Table 8.4 of Text
Table 3. Fill Factors for Hydraulic Hoe Buckets (Caterpillar Inc.)
Moist loam/sandy clay 100 to 110
Sand and gravel 95 to 110
Rock – poorly blasted 40 to 40
Rock – well blasted 60 to 75
Hard, tough clay 80 - 90
BUCKET VOL.(LCY) =
HEAPED CAPACITY
X Fill Factor
25
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 4: Cycle time, (load, swing

load, dump and swing empty).
Typical excavation cycle times base on
machine size are give in Table 8.5.
Swing is influenced by job conditions
such as obstructions and clearances.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The Table 8.5 cycle times
must be increased when
loads are dumped into haul
units.
26
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CYCLE TIME
Small machines
swing faster than
large ones.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SWING ANGLE?
Table 8.5 cycle times are based on a
swing
angle of
30° 30-60º
60°
90°
27
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 5: Check depth of cut
Typical cycle times are for depth of
cut between 40-60% of maximum
digging depth.
Check manufacturer's data.
Table 8.3 gives typical information
based on hoe size.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DEPTH OF CUT
STEP 5:
Manufacturer's
data.
C. Maximum
C
dig depth
D
D. Dig depth,
level bottom
28
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 6: Check
loading height
Does the selected
hoe have the E
reach capability
to load the haul
unit. Table 8.3

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 7: Efficiency factor
The three primary conditions that
control the efficiency of excavator
loading operations are:
) Bunching
) Operator efficiency
) Equipment availability
29
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 7: Efficiency Factor
Bunching: In actual operation
cycle times are never constant.
When loading haul units they will
sometimes bunch. The impact of
bunching is a function of the
number of haul units.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 7: Efficiency factor
Operator efficiency: How good
is the operator.
Equipment availability: Are
the haul units in good condition
and repair? They will be
available x% of the time.
30
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 8: CALCULATION
Step 7
Step 1 × Step 3 × = LCY / hr
Step 4
Bucket size
× Fill Factor
Efficiency
× = LCY / hr
cycle time

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 9: Convert Production
to BCY,
CCY or
TONS as required.
Table 4.3
31
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Production Formula:
3,600 sec × Q × F  E  1 
Production =    (2)
Q = heaped bucket capacity (lcy)

F = bucket fill factor
t = cycle time in seconds
E = efficiency (min per hour)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Production formula (cont’d)

1
Volume correction for loose volume to bank volume,
1 + swell factor
loose unit weight, lb

For loose volume to tons,
2,000 lb/ton
32
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Optimum depth of cut for a hoe
depends on the type of material
being excavated and bucket size.
As a rule, the optimum depth of
cut is usually in the range of 30
to 60% of the machine’s
maximum digging depth.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 3
A crawler hoe having a 3½-cy
bucket is being considered for use
on a project to excavate very hard
clay from a borrow pit. The clay will
be loaded into trucks having a
loading height of 9 ft 9 in. Soil-
boring information indicates that
33
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
below 8 ft, the material changes to
an unacceptable silt material. What
is the estimated production of the
hoe in cubic yards bank measure, if
the efficiency factor is equal to a
50-min hour?

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Step 1:
Size of bucket = 3½ cy
Step 2:
Bucket fill factor, Table 3 (Table 8.4
Text) gives 80 to 90%.
Use average: 80 + 90
= 85%
2
34
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Step 3:
9Typical cycle element times:
9Optimum depth of cut is 30 to 60% of
maximum digging depth (see slide 60)
9From Table 8.3 (Text), for 3½-cu hoe,
maximum digging depth is 23 to 27 ft.
8 8
× 100 = 34% ≥ 30% OK × 100 = 30% ≥ 30% OK
23 27

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
9The cycle times from Table 8.5

(Text), for 3½-cu hoe would be 22.
Step 4:
9Efficiency factor or 50-min hour
Step 5:
9Hard clay, swell factor = 35% from
the following table (Table 4.3 Text)
35
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Step 6:
9Probable Production: using Eq. 2,
3,600 sec × Q × F  E  1 
Production =   
3,600 × 3.5 × 0.85  50  1  bcy
Production =    = 300
t  60  1 + 0.35  hr
Check maximum loading height to ensure the hoe can service the trucks.
From Table 8.3 (Text), 21 to 22 ft:
9 ft 9 in = 9.75 ft < 21 OK

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Bank Loose
weight weight
Percent Swell
Clay,dry 2,700 1,600 2,000 1,185 35 0.74

Clay, wet 3,000 1,780 2,200 1,305 35 0.74
Earth, dry 2,800 1,660 2,240 1,325 25 0.80
Earth, wet 3,200 1,895 2,580 1,528 25 0.80
Earth and gravel 3,200 1,895 2,600 1,575 20 0.83
Gravel, dry 2,800 1,660 2,490 1,475 12 0.89
Gravel, wet 3,400 2,020 2,980 1,765 14 0.88
Limestone 4,400 2,610 2,750 1,630 60 0.63
Sand, dry 2,600 1,542 2,260 1,340 15 0.87
Sand, wet 2,700 1,600 2,360 1,400 15 0.87
Shale 3,500 2,075 2,480 1,470 40 0.71
36
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LOADERS
Loaders are used extensively in

construction work to handle and
transport bulk material, such as
earth and rock, to load trucks, to
excavate earth, and to charge
aggregate bins at asphalt and
concrete plants.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LOADERS
There are basically two types of

loaders:
9The crawler-tractor-mounted
type, and
9The wheel-tractor-mounted type.
37
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LOADERS
WHEEL & TRACK

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LOADERS
38
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LOADERS
PRODUCTION

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LOADER PRODUCTION
39
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LOADER PRODUCTION

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRENCHING MACHINES
The term "trenching machine" applies to
the wheel- and ladder type machines.
These machines are satisfactory for
digging utility trenches for water, gas,
and oil pipelines; shoulder drains on
highways; drainage ditches; and sewers
where the job and soil conditions are
such that they may be used.
40
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRENCHING MACHINES
They provide relatively fast digging,
with positive depths and widths of
trenches, reducing expensive
finishing.
These machines are capable of
digging any type of soil but are
generally not suitable for rock.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRENCHING MACHINES
They are available in various sizes

for digging trenches of varying
depths and widths.
They are usually crawler-mounted
to increase their stability and to
distribute the weight over a great
area.
41
CHAPTER
FINISHING EQUIPMENT
9 By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 9. FINISHING EQUIPMENT Slide No. 1

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
Terms Used:
9Finishing
9Finish grading
9Fine grading
1
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INTRODUCTION
These terms are used in

reference to the process
of shaping materials to
the required line and
grade.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
Finishing equipment
include, but not limited to:
9Graders
9Gradalls
9trimmers
2
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GRADERS
Graders are multipurpose

machines used for:
9Finishing
9Shaping bank
9Sloping
9ditching
GR
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AD
ER
S
3
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GRADERS

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GRADERS
A grader’s primary purpose is

cutting and moving material
with the moldboard.
Graders can work on slopes as
steep as 3:1.
4
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BLADE POSITIONS
1 4
GENERAL GRADE
HIGH BANK CUT

1 4

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GRADERS
5
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MOLDBOARD

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GRADERS
Comparison with Dozers

9A grader is restricted to
making shallow cuts in
medium-hard materials.
9They should not be used for
heavy excavations.
6
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GRADERS
Comparison with Dozers

9A grader can move small
amounts of material but
cannot perform dozer-type
work because of the structural
strength and location of its
moldboard.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GRADERS
Grader are capable of

progressively cutting ditches
to a depth of 3 ft.
It is more economical to use
other types of equipment t
cut ditches deeper than 3 ft.
7
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GRADERS
Important Components of
Grader
9The components of the grader that
actually do the work of finishing are:
Moldboard (Blade)
Scarifer
9Graders may also be equipped with
light rear-mounted rippers.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GRADERS
8
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SCARIFIER
Front mounted scarifier.
RIPPERS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Rear mount ripper
9
LASER BLADE
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CONTROLS

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GRADERS
Moldboard
9The moldboard is commonly
referred to as blade.
9It is the working member of the
grader.
9A rotating circle carries the
moldboard.
10
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GRADERS
9The moldboard is used to side cast the
material it encounters.
9The ends of the moldboard can be
raised or lowered together or
independently of one another.
9By convention, the toe of the
moldboard is the foremost end of the
moldboard in the direction of travel and
the heel is the discharged end.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GRADERS
Moldboard Angle
9The moldboard can be positioned
(angled) at almost any angle
To the line of travel
Parallel to the direction of travel
Shifted to either side, or
Raised into vertical position.
11
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
MOLDBOARD
ANGLE

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
MOLDBOARD
ANGLE
12
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GRADERS
Estimating Production
Estimate grading 4 miles of dirt
road using a CAT 120H.
Ditching 6 passes 1st gear
Reshaping 9 passes 2nd gear
Final grading 4 passes 3rd gear

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
N G
I
T ION
M A T
I
T DU C
S
E O
PR
13
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GRADERS
9The following formula is used to
estimate the total time
P× D
Total Time = (1)
S×E
P = number of passes required
D = distance traveled in each pass, in miles or feet
S = speed of grader (mph or fps)
E = grader efficiency factor
14
FORMULA FOR
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DISTANCES IN MILES
No. passes × distance
= Time
speed × efficiency
• Distance in miles
• Speed in miles per hour
• Time will be in hours

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 1. NUMBER OF
PASSES
Ditching 6 passes
Reshaping 9 passes
Final grading 4 passes
15
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STEP 2. DISTANCE
Grading 4 miles

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 3. SPEED
CAT 120H
1st gear
2nd gear
3rd gear
27 ed Cat Handbook p. 3-10
16
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 3. SPEED
CAT 120H
1st gear 2.3 mph
2nd gear 3.1 mph
3rd gear 4.5 mph
27 ed Cat Handbook p. 3-10

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 4. EFFICIENCY
FACTOR
For an average operator
during daylight hours would
expect a
50 min-hour efficiency
or an 0.83 efficiency factor
17
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 5. TIME TO DITCH

STEP 1 : Number of passes = 6
STEP 2 : Distance = 4 miles
STEP 3 : Speed = 2.3 mph
STEP 4 : Efficiency factor = 0.83
6×4 24
⇒ = 12.6 hr
2.3 × 0.83 1.91

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 5. TIME TO RESHAPE

9×4 36
⇒ = 14.0 hr
3.1 × 0.83 2.57
18
STEP 5. FINAL GRADING

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

4×4 16
⇒ = 4.3 hr
4.5 × 0.83 3.74
STEP 5. TOTAL TIME

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Time to ditch 12.6 hr

Time to reshape 14.0 hr
Final grading 4.3 hr
Total time 30.9 hr
19
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FORMULA FOR
DISTANCES IN FEET
No. passes × distance
= Time
88 × speed × efficiency
• Distance in feet
• Speed in miles per hour
• Time will be in minutes

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GRADALLS
The gradall is a utility machine
which combines the operating
features of the hoe, dragline, and
motor grader.
The full revolving superstructure
of the unit can be mounted on
either crawler tracks or wheels.
20
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GRADALLS

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GRADALLS
The unit is designed as a versatile
machine for both excavation and
finishing work.
Being designed as a multi-use
machine affects production
efficiency in respect to individual
applications, when compared to unit
designed specifically for a particular
application.
21
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GRADALLS
The gradall will have lower
production capability than those
single purpose units.
The bucket of a gradall can be
rotated (that is, the gradall's arm can
rotate) 90º or more, allowing it to be
effective in reaching restricted
working areas and where special
shaping of slopes is required.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GRADALLS
The three-part telescoping

boom an be hydraulically
extended or retracted to vary
digging or shaping reach. It
can exert breakout force both
above and below ground
level.
22
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRIMMERS
Trimmers are specialty
machines to fine finishing for
special jobs.
The result is better accuracy
and greater production
compared to the fine-grading
with a grader.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRIMMERS
23
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TRIMMERS
It has been shown that the

production from one dual-lane
trimmer is equal to that achievable
with four to six graders.
The automatic trimmers also
enable grade control to closer
tolerances.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRIMMERS
Production of a Trimmer
9A large full-width trimmer can
have speeds of about 30 fpm.
9A small, single-lane trimmer, can
be rated at 128 fpm.
9As operating speed is increased,
there is usually a decrease in
quality.
24
CHAPTER
TRUCKS AND HAULING
EQUIPMENT
10 By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 10. TRUCKS AND HAULING EQUIPMENT Slide No. 1

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
Trucks are hauling units .
Trucks have high travel speeds when
operating on suitable roads, provide
relatively low hauling costs.
Trucks provide a high degree of
flexibility permitting modifications in the
total hauling capacity of a fleet and
adjustments for changing haul
distances.
1
TRUCKS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
Most trucks may be

operated over any haul road
for which the surface is
sufficiently firm and smooth
and on which the grades are
not excessively steep.
2
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
Some trucks now in use are
designated as off-highway trucks
because their size and total load
are larger than that permitted on
public highways. These trucks are
used for hauling materials on large
project sites, where their size and
costs are justified.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCKS CLASSIFICATION
Trucks may be classified
according to a number of
factors including:
1. The size and type of engine-
gasoline, diesel, butane, propane
2. The number of gears.
3. The kind of drive-two-wheel, four-
wheel, six-wheel, etc.
3
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCKS CLASSIFICATION
4. The number of wheels and axles

and arrangement of driving wheels.
5. The method of dumping the load-
rear-clump, side-dump.
6. The class of material hauled-earth,
rock, coal, ore, etc.
7. The capacity, in tons or cubic
yards.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCKS
Distance is the
principal factor
in selecting haul
units.
Feet
4
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REAR-DUMP TRUCKS
Rear-dumps trucks are used when:
9The material to be hauled is free-
flowing or has bulky components.
9The hauling unit must dump into
restricted locations or over the edge
of a bank or fill.
9Maximum maneuverability in the
loading or dumping area is required.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Highway rear-dump
5
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BOTTOM-DUMP TRUCKS
Bottom-dumps trucks are

used when:
9The material to be hauled is free-
flowing.
9There are unrestricted loading and
dump sites.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BOTTOM-DUMP TRUCKS
6
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Tractor with
bottom dump trailer

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Bottom
dump
trailer
deposits
a wind
row of
material.
7
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Articulated
Trucks
Articulated Trucks
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Can operate over bad ground.
8
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HAULING EQUIPMENT
These are specialized

trucks for hauling a fleet of
equipment from one point
to another.
9General construction
9Military
9Services

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Trucks to move the fleet
9
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Special trailers
for heavy loads

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
10
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Service truck

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TIRES
Tires are about 35%

of a truck’s operating
cost. Overload a
truck and you abuse
the tires.
11
TIRES
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Tires are designed for a wide

range of applications.
Section 20 CAT Handbook

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The Terex Titan, CAT is

the world’s working on a
largest truck at 340-ton truck.
350-ton was
designed around
the tires.
12
They are
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

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Safety
13
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CAPACITY OF DUMP
TRUCKS
There are three methods of
expressing the capacities of
trucks and wagons:
1) by the load which it will carry,
expressed gravimetrically in
tons.
2) by its struck volume (cu yd).
3) by its heaped volume (cu yd).
TRUCK CAPACITY
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
14
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CAPACITY OF DUMP
TRUCKS
The struck capacity of a truck is
the volume of material which it will
haul when it is filled level to the top
of the sides of the body.
The heaped capacity is the
volume of material, which it will
haul when the load is heaped
above the sides.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCK CAPACITY
Manufacturer's specification
sheets will list both struck and
heaped capacities.
STRUCK
- material measured straight
across the top of the body.
15
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCK CAPACITY
2
1
HEAPED
- based on a 2:1 slope

above hauler bodies.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Articulated Trucks
Retainer plate
to increase
load capacity.
16
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CAPACITY OF DUMP
TRUCKS
The heaped capacity will vary with
the height and angle at which the
material may extend above the
sides.
Wet earth or sandy clay may be
hauled with a slope of about 1: 1
Dry sand or gravel may not permit a
slope greater than about 3:1.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE
CAPABILITIES OF TRUCKS
The productive capacity of a truck
or wagon depends on the size of its
load and the number of trips it can
make in an hour.
The size of the load can be
determined from the specifications
furnished by the manufacturer.
17
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE
CAPABILITIES OF TRUCKS
The number of trips per hour
will depend on the weight of
the vehicle, the horsepower
of the engine, the haul
distance, and the condition
of the haul road.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 1
Determine the maximum speed for the truck, whose specifications are
given below, when it is hauling a load of 22 tons up a 6% grade on a
haul road having a rolling resistance of 60 lb per ton:
Engine: 239 fwhp
Capacity:
Struck, 14.7 cu yd
Heaped, 2:1, 18.3 cu yd
Net Weight (empty) = 36,860 lb
Payload = 44,000 lb
Gross Vehicle Weight = 36,860 + 44,000 = 80,860 lb

60
Total Resistance = rr + gr =
+ 6 = 9%
20
Maximum Speed ≈ 6.5 mph (from Figure 1, or Fig.10 - 9 Text)
18
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Figure 1

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BALANCING THE CAPACITIES OF

HAULING UNITS WITH
EXCAVATOR SIZE
• When loading with hoes, shovels. draglines, or belt
loaders, it is desirable to use haul units whose
capacities balance the output of the excavator.
• Factors which will affect the production rate and
the cost of handling earth:
1. Advantages of using small trucks compared with large
trucks
2. Disadvantages of using small trucks compared with large
trucks
3. Advantages of using large trucks compared with small
trucks
4. Disadvantages of using large trucks compared with small
trucks
19
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
USING SMALL TRUCKS COMPARED

WITH LARGE TRUCKS
Advantages:
1) They are more flexible in
maneuvering, which may be an
advantage on short hauls.
2) They may have higher speeds.
3) There is less loss in production when
one truck in a fleet breaks down.
4) It is easier to balance the number of
trucks with the output of the
excavator, which will reduce the time
lost by the trucks or the excavator.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
USING SMALL TRUCKS COMPARED

WITH LARGE TRUCKS
Disadvantages:
1) A small truck is more difficult for the excavator to
load owing to the small target for depositing the
bucket load.
2) More total spotting time is lost in positioning the
trucks because of the larger number required.
3) More drivers are required to haul a given output of
material.
4) The greater number of trucks increases the danger of
units bunching at the pit, along the haul road, or at
the dump,
5) The greater number of trucks required may increase
the total investment in hauling equipment, with more
expensive maintenance and repairs, and more parts
to stock.
20
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
USING LARGE TRUCKS COMPARED

WITH SMALL TRUCKS
Advantages:
1) Fewer trucks are required, which may reduce the
total investment in hauling units and the cost of
maintenance and repairs.
2) Fewer drivers are required.
3) The smaller number of trucks facilitates
synchronizing the equipment and reduces the danger
of bunching by the trucks. This is especially true for
long hauls.
4) There are fewer trucks to maintain and repair and
fewer parts to stock.
5) The engines ordinarily use cheaper fuels, i.e.,
gasoline versus diesel. but this must be based on
fuel prices at the specific project location.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
USING LARGE TRUCKS COMPARED

WITH SMALL TRUCKS
Disadvantages:
1) The cost of truck time at loading is greater,
especially with small excavators.
2) The heavier loads may cause more damage
to the haul roads thus increasing the cost of
mechanical maintenance to the trucks and
requiring more support equipment for
maintenance of the haul road.
3) It is more difficult to balance the number of
trucks with the output of the excavator.
4) Repair parts may be more difficult to obtain.
5) The largest sizes may not be permitted to
haul on highways.
21
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCK
PRODUCTION
LOAD
RETURN HAUL
A
DUMP

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCK PRODUCTION
STEP 1: BUCKET LOADS
Number of bucket loads required to fill

the truck.
Truck capacity
Bucket loads =
Loader Bucket capacity
Bucket loads must be an integer
number.
22
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
MATCH THE LOADER

TO THE TRUCK

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BUCKET
CAPACITY
23
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WEIGHT LIMIT
Check load weight against
gravimetric capacity of the haul
unit.
Max. gross weight 150,000 lb
Operating weight (empty) 68,900 lb
Therefore the max load is 81,100 lb

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WEIGHT LIMIT
gravimetric capacity
Note the difference. Sideboards
24
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WEIGHT
LIMIT
Check load
weight against
gravimetric
capacity of the
haul unit.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCK PRODUCTION
STEP 2: LOAD TIME
LOAD TIME =
Excavator cycle time
× No. of bucket loads
25
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 2
LOAD TIME

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCK PRODUCTION
STEP 3: HAUL TIME
HAUL TIME
HAUL DISTANCE (FT)
=
88 × HAUL SPEED
26
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCK PRODUCTION
STEP 4: RETURN TIME
RETURN TIME
RETURN DISTANCE (FT)
=
88 × HAUL SPEED

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCK PRODUCTION
STEP 5: DUMP TIME
This will depend

on the type of
hauling unit.
27
STEP 5: DUMP TIME

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
This will depend on the type

of hauling unit.
• Rear dumps
must be spotted
before dumping.
Total dump time
can exceed
2 minutes.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 5: DUMP TIME

• Bottom dump units dump while moving.
28
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 5: DUMP TIME

PROJECT SPECIFIC FACTORS
• Is the dump area smooth
permitting safe maneuvering to
dump?

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 5: DUMP TIME

• Is the dump area crowded with
support equipment?
29
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 5: DUMP TIME

• Do loaded haul units have the
right-of-away.
Grader
Roller
Water truck

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 5 DUMP TIME

Turn and Dump times (min.)
Conditions Bottom End
Dump Dump
Favorable 0.3 0.7
Average 0.6 1.0
Unfavorable 1.5 1.5
See p. 295
30
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCK PRODUCTION
STEP 6: TRUCK CYCLE TIME
CYCLE TIME =
Load Time
+ Haul Time
+ Dump Time
+ Return Time

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCK
CYCLE TIME
LOAD
RETURN HAUL
A
DUMP
31
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCK PRODUCTION
STEP 7: NUMBER OF TRUCKS
REQUIRED
TRUCKS REQUIRED =
TRUCK CYCLE TIME
+1
LOADER CYCLE TIME

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 7 NUMBER OF
TRUCKS REQUIRED
350
Production
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Trucks
32
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 7 NUMBER OF
TRUCKS REQUIRED l
n tia
te
450
k po
Loader ruc
Production
400
T
350 potential
300
250
200
150 Match point
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5
Trucks

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 7 NUMBER OF
TRUCKS REQUIRED
The match point
typically does not
coincide with an even
number of trucks.
33
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCK PRODUCTION
STEP 8: EFFICIENCY
Three critical factors to consider:

• Bunching
• Operator
• Equipment availability

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCK PRODUCTION
Bunching:
9With a perfect loader - hauler
match the effect of bunching is a
10 to 20% loss.
9If there are extra haulers the
effect is reduced as there is
always a line of trucks waiting to
be loaded.
34
STEP 8 MISMATCH &

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BUNCHING EFFICIENCY
350
300
Production
250
200
150
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5
Trucks

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCK PRODUCTION
Operator
9Longer hauling distances usually
results in better operator
efficiency.
9Operator efficiency increases as
haul distance increases to about
8,000 ft. after which it remains
constant.
35
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCK PRODUCTION
Equipment Availability
When the loading tool
breaks down, the
production drops to zero.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCK PRODUCTION
STEP 9: PRODUCTION
PRODUCTION (LOADER) =
WORKING MIN / HR
× BUCKET VOL
LOADER CYC TIME(MIN)
The Loader will control production if at least one

extra truck is used.
36
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TRUCK PRODUCTION
STEP 9: PRODUCTION
PRODUCTION (TRUCK) =
WORKING MIN / HR
× TRK VOL × NO. TRKS
TRK CYC TIME(MIN)
Trucks control production if fewer trucks are used.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 2 – Practical Exercise

(Truck Production)
Ten 25 ton/18 cy rear dump
trucks with low pressure tires
are available to haul a rock
dirt/gravel mixture. The
wheel loader being used has a
4.25 cy bucket.
37
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The haul and return, over
poorly maintained earth, is 3
miles. It is a down hill grade of
1.25% going to the dump area.
Net truck weight is 36,860 lb.
Working hour efficiency is 55
minutes.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 1 BUCKET LOADS

NUMBER OF BUCKET LOADS
REQUIRED TO FILL THE TRUCK.
• Truck capacity = 18 cy
• Dirt/gravel mixture
Fill Factor wheel loader (Table 8.6) 100-
120%, use average 110%
Loader bucket capacity = 4.25 X 1.1
= 4.675 cy
38
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 1 BUCKET LOADS

NUMBER OF BUCKET LOADS
REQUIRED TO FILL THE TRUCK.
18
Bucket loads = ⇒ 3.85
4.675
Bucket loads must be an integer No.
Therefore use either
3 or 4 bucket loads.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 1 BUCKET LOADS

If 3 bucket loads:
Truck volume = 3 X 4.675
= 14 LCY
If 4 bucket loads:
Truck volume = 18 LCY
and the excess spills off.
39
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 1 BUCKET LOADS

gravimetric capacity of truck.
• Dirt/gravel mixture
Table 4.3
2,600 lb/LCY

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 1 CHECK LOAD

WEIGHT
3 bucket load:
2,600
14 LCY × = 18.2 tn 〈 25 tn ok
2,000
4 bucket load:
2,600
18 LCY × = 23.4 tn 〈 25 tn ok
2,000
40
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 2 LOAD TIME

LOAD TIME =
Bucket cycle time X
No. of bucket loads
• 4.25 cy bucket
Table 8.9
Bucket cycle time 30 - 33 sec
use average 31.5 sec
(0.524 min)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 2 LOAD TIME

3 bucket load:
3 X 0.525 = 1.58 min.
4 bucket load:
4 X 0.525 = 2.10 min.
41
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 3 HAUL TIME

3 miles × 5,280 ft / mile
HAUL TIME =
88 × HAUL SPEED
1.25% GRADE
DUMP
• Poorly maintained earth

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 3 HAUL TIME

• Poorly Maintained Earth Haul Road
Rolling resistance (Table 5.1)
70 - 100 lb/ton, use 85 lb/ton or 4.25%
Grade resistance load to dump: -1.25%
Total Resistance = 4.25 + (-1.25%)
= 3.0% or 60 lb/ton
42
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 3 HAUL TIME

Net truck weight 36,860 lb or 18.43 tons
3 bucket load 18.20 tons

Gross wt. =
18.43 + 18.20 =
36.63 tons

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 3 HAUL TIME

Net truck weight 36,860 lb or 18.43 tons
4 bucket load 23.40 tons

Gross wt. =
18.43 + 23.40 =
41.83 tons
43
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 3 HAUL TIME

3 bucket load Gross wt. 36.63 ton
Rimpull = 60 lb/ton X 36.63 ton
= 2,200 lb
4 bucket load Gross wt. 41.83 ton
= 2,510 lb

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Page 294 text
2510
2200
44
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 3 HAUL TIME

3 bucket load 35 mph
4 bucket load 22 mph
HAUL TIME =
88 × HAUL SPEED
3 bucket, 5.143 min
4 bucket, 8.183 min

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 4 RETURN TIME

RETURN DISTANCE (FT)
RETURN TIME =
88 × HAUL SPEED
Net truck weight 36,860 lb

or 18.43 tons
45
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 4 RETURN TIME

• Poorly Maintained Earth Haul Road
Rolling resistance, 4.25%
• Grade resistance load to dump 1.25%
Total Resistance = 4.25 + 1.25%
= 5.5% or 110 lb/ton
= 2,030 lb

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Page 294 text
2030
46
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 3 RETURN TIME

Return speed 35 mph
RETURN TIME =
88 × 35
= 5.143 min

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 5 DUMP TIME

Rear Dump Trucks must be
spotted before dumping,
• Total dump time averages
about 2 minutes.
Use 2.0 minutes
47
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 6 TRUCK CYCLE TIME

3 bucket loads
Load time 1.580 min
+ Haul time 5.143 min
+ Dump time 2.000 min
+ Return time 5.143 min
CYCLE TIME = 13.866 min

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 6 TRUCK CYCLE TIME

4 bucket loads
Load time 2.100 min
+ Haul time 8.183 min
+ Dump time 2.000 min
+ Return time 5.143 min
CYCLE TIME = 17.426 min
48
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 7 TRUCKS REQUIRED

3 bucket loads
13.866
Trucks required = +1
1.58
Trucks required = 9.8

Must be an integer number
therefore 10 trucks

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 7 TRUCKS REQUIRED

4 bucket loads
17.426
Trucks required = +1
2.10
Trucks required = 9.3

Must be an integer number
therefore 10 trucks
49
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 8 EFFICIENCY
• Working hour
efficiency
is 55 minutes.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 9 PRODUCTION
3 bucket loads
The loader will control production
if at least one extra truck is used.
55 min / hr
× 14.025 LCY = 488 LCY / hr
1.58 min
50
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 9 PRODUCTION
4 bucket loads
The loader will control production
if at least one extra truck is used.
55 min / hr
× 18 LCY = 471 LCY / hr
2.10 min

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 9 PRODUCTION
3 bucket loads 10 trucks
488 LCY/hr
4 bucket loads 10 trucks
471 LCY/hr
51
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 9 PRODUCTION
3 bucket loads
If only 8 trucks are AVAILABLE
the trucks control production.
55 min / hr
× 14.025 LCY × 8 = 445 LCY / hr
13.866 min

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 9 PRODUCTION
4 bucket loads
If only 8 trucks are AVAILABLE the
trucks control production.
55 min / hr
× 18 LCY × 8 = 454 LCY / hr
17.426 min
52
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 9 PRODUCTION
3 4
Buckets Buckets
10 Trks 488 LCY 471 LCY

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 9 PRODUCTION
While matching the fleet
to the required production
is important, doing it at a
minimum $/unit of
material moved is usually
the goal.
53
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HAPPY HAULING
54
CHAPTER
COMPRESSED AIR
11 By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 11. COMPRESSED AIR Slide No. 1

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPRESSED AIR
1
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
Compressed air is used for:

9Drilling rock
9Driving piles
9Operating hand tools
9Pumping
9Cleaning
PAVING
PUMP BREAKER

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
In many instances the energy supplied
by compressed air is the most
convenient method of operating
equipment and tools.
When air is compressed, it receives
energy from the compressor. This
energy is transmitted through a pipe or
hose to the operating equipment, where
a portion of the energy is converted into
mechanical work.
2
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
The operations of compressing,

transmitting, and using air will
always result in a loss of energy,
which will give an overall efficiency
less than 100%, sometimes
considerably less.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
Things to consider:
9Effect of altitude on capacity.
9Loss of air pressure in pipe
and hose systems.
9Capacity factors.
3
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OVERVIEW
Selecting the right air
compressor depends on
many factors.
¾ Compressor capacity and operating
pressure depend on the tools used.
¾ Engine and compressor lose power
and capacity as altitude increases
and temperature rises.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OVERVIEW
Compressors are rated

based on the cubic feet of
atmospheric air they take in
each minute with a specific
discharge pressure, usually
100 psi.
4
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GLOSSARY OF GAS-LAW
TERMS
Absolute Pressure: This is the total
pressure measured from absolute zero. It
is equal to the sum of the gauge and the
atmospheric pressure, corresponding to the
barometric reading. The absolute pressure
is used in dealing with the gas laws.
Absolute Temperature: This is the
temperature of a gas measured above
absolute zero. It equals degrees Fahrenheit
plus 459.6 or, as more commonly used,
460.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GLOSSARY OF GAS-LAW
TERMS
Atmospheric Pressure: The pressure
exerted by the earth's atmosphere at any
given position. Also referred to as
barometric pressure.
Celsius Temperature: This is the
temperature indicated by a thermometer
calibrated according to the Celsius scale.
For this thermometer pure water freezes at
OºC and boils at 100ºC, at a pressure of
14.7 psi.
5
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GLOSSARY OF GAS-LAW
TERMS
Fahrenheit Temperature: This is the
temperature indicated by a thermometer
calibrated according to the Fahrenheit
scale. For this thermometer pure water
freezes at 32ºF and boils at 212ºF, at a
pressure of 14.7 psi. Thus, the number of
degrees between the freezing and boiling
point of water is 180.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GLOSSARY OF GAS-LAW
TERMS
Relation between Fahrenheit and Celsius
temperatures: A difference of 180' on the
Fahrenheit scale equals 100º on the Celsius
scale; 1ºC equals 1.8ºF. A Fahrenheit
thermometer will read 32º when a Celsius
thermometer reads 0º. Let TF = Fahrenheit
temperature and TC = Celsius temperature.
For any given temperature the thermometer
readings are expressed by the following
equation:
TF = 32 + 1.8TC (1)
6
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GLOSSARY OF GAS-LAW
TERMS
Gauge Pressure: This is the pressure exerted
by the air in excess of atmospheric pressure.
It is usually expressed in psi or inches of
mercury and is measured by a pressure gauge
or a mercury manometer.
Temperature: Temperature is a measure of the
amount of heat contained by a unit quantity of
gas (or other material). It is measured with a
thermometer or some other suitable
temperature-indicating device.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GLOSSARY OF GAS-LAW
TERMS
Vacuum: This is a measure of the extent to which
pressure is less than atmospheric pressure. For
example, a vacuum of 5 psi is equivalent to an
absolute pressure of 14.7- 5 = 9.7 psi.
psi.
Standard Conditions: Because of the variations
in the volume of air with pressure and
temperature, it is necessary to express the
volume at standard conditions if it is to have a
definite meaning. Standard conditions are an
absolute pressure of 14.696 psi (14.7 psi is
commonly used in practice) and a temperature of
60ºF.
7
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GLOSSARY
Gas-law equations are
based on absolute
temperature.
R Absolute temperature is
Fahrenheit plus 460°.
R Capacity is the volume of air
delivered by a compressor.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TAMPER
GLOSSARY
R Diversity factor is
the ratio of the actual
quantity of air required
for all uses to the sum of
the individual quantities
for each use.
8
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF COMPRESSION
Isothermal Compression:
When a gas undergoes a
change in volume without
any change in temperature,
this is referred to as
isothermal expansion or
compression.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF COMPRESSION
Adiabatic Compression:
When a gas undergoes a
change in volume without
gaining or losing heat, this is
referred to as adiabatic
expansion or compression.
9
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BOYLE’S LAW
Boyle’s Law states that when a gas is

subjected to a change in volume due to a
change in pressure, at a constant
temperature, the product of the pressure
times the volume will remain constant
P1V1 = P2V2 = K (2)
P1 = initial absolute pressure
V1 = initial volume
P2 = final absolute pressure
V2 = final volume
K = a constant

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 1
Determine the final volume of 1,000 ft3 of air

when the gauge pressure is increased from 20
to 120 psi, with no change in temperature.
The barometer indicates an atmospheric
pressure of 14.7 psi.
P1 = 20 + 14.7 = 34.7 psi

P2 = 120 + 14.7 = 134.7 psi
P1V1 = P2V2 = K
V1 = 1,000 ft3
P1V1 34.7(1000)
V2 = = = 257.6 ft 3
P2 134.7
10
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BOYLE’S AND CHARLES’

LAWS
When a gas undergoes a change in volume or
pressure with a change in temperature, Boyle’s law
will not apply
Charles law states that the volume of a given
weight of gas at constant pressure varies in direct
proportion to its absolute temperature, that is
V1 V2
= =C (3)
T1 T2
V1 = initial volume
T1 = initial absolute temperature
V2 = final volume
T2 = final absolute temperature
C = a constant

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BOYLE’S AND CHARLES’

LAWS
The laws of Boyle and Charles may be
combined to give the following expression:
P1V1 P2V2
= = a constant (4)
T1 T2
V1 = initial volume
T1 = initial absolute temperature
P1 = initial absolute pressure
V2 = final volume
T2 = final absolute temperature
P2 = final absolute pressure
C = a constant
11
Example 2
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
One thousand cubic feet of air, at initial gage

pressure of 40 psi and temperature of 500F, is
compressed to a volume of 200 ft3 at a final
temperature of 1100F. Determine the final
gauge pressure.
P1V1 P2V2
= = a constant
P1 = 40 + 14.7 = 54.7 psi T1 T2
V1 = 1,000 ft3
PV T 54.7(1000) 570
P2 = 1 1 × 2 = × = 304.7 psi
T1 = 460 + 50 = 510 F
0 T1 V2 510 200
V2 = 200 ft3
T2 = 460 + 110 = 5700F Final Gauge = 304.7 - 14.7 = 291 psi

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ENERGY REQUIRED TO
COMPRESS AIR
Recall that for constant
temperature Boyle’s law gives
P1V1 = P2V2 = K (5)
For variable temperature,
P1V1n = P2V2n = K (6)
12
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ENERGY REQUIRED TO
COMPRESS AIR
n = 1.0 for isothermal compression
(constant temperature).
n = 1.4 for adiabatic compression
(no gaining or loosing of heat).
Energy is supplied to compress air
by means of compressor

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ENERGY REQUIRED TO
COMPRESS AIR
The work done may be obtained by
integrating the following equation:
dW = VdP (7)
But 1
 K n (8)
V = 
P
1
Hence Kn
(9)
dW =   dP
P
13
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ENERGY REQUIRED TO
COMPRESS AIR
Integrating yields
1 2
dP
W = Kn∫ 1
(10)
1
P n
For isothermal compression, n = 1, therefore

2
dP P  (11)
W = K∫ = − K ln 2  + C
1
P  P1 
It can be shown that the constant of integration

C is equal to zero. When P1 = P2, no work is
done and C = 0

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ENERGY REQUIRED TO
COMPRESS AIR
For isothermal compression of air the
equation may be written as
P  P 
W = K ln 2  = (2.3026) K log 2  (12)
 P1   P1 
Note that K = P1V1,

and P1 = 14.7 psi = 2,116.8 psf at standard
condition
14
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ENERGY REQUIRED TO
COMPRESS AIR
P  P 
W = ( 2.3026) K log 2  = ( 2.3026)(2116.8)V1 log 2 
 P1   P1 
or
P 
W = ( 4.873)V1 log 2  (13)
 P1 

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ENERGY REQUIRED TO
COMPRESS AIR
The value of W will be foot-
pounds per cycle when V1 is
expressed as cubic feet.
One horsepower is
equivalent to 33,000 ft-lb per
minute.
15
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ENERGY REQUIRED TO
COMPRESS AIR
If V1 is replaced by V, the volume of
free air per minute, the horsepower
required to compress V cu ft of air from
an absolute pressure of P1 to P2 will be
P 
(4.873)V1 log 2  (14)
hp =  P1  = (0.1477)V log P2
33,000 P1

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 3
Determine the theoretical horsepower required

to compress 100 ft3 of free air per minute,
measured at standard conditions, from
atmospheric pressure to 100 psi gauge
pressure.
P2 114.7
hp = (0.1477 )V log = 0.1477(100) log
P1 14.7
hp = 14.77 log 7.8
hp = 14.77(0.892) = 13.2
16
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ENERGY REQUIRED TO
COMPRESS AIR
If air is compressed under other than
isothermal conditions, the equation for
the required horsepower may be derived
in a similar manner
The following equation gives the
horsepower for for non-isothermal
conditions:  n −1

nV  P2  n
hp = (0.0642 )   − 1 (15)
n − 1  P1  
 

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 4
Determine the theoretical horsepower required to

compress 100 ft3 of free air per minute, measured
at standard conditions, from atmospheric pressure
to100 psi gauge pressure, under adiabatic
conditions. The value for n = 1.4 for air under
adiabatic compression.
 n −1

nV  P2  n
hp = (0.0642 )   − 1
n − 1  P1  
 
 1.4 −1

1.4(100)  114.7  1.4
hp = (0.0642 )   − 1 = 17.9 hp
1.4 − 1  14.7  
 
17
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EFFECT OF ALTITUDE
When a given volume of air, measured as
free air prior to its entering a compressor,
is compressed, the original pressure will
average 14.7 psi absolute pressure at sea
level.
If the same volume of free air is
compressed to the same gauge pressure
at a higher altitude, the volume of the air
after being compressed will be less than
the volume compressed at sea level.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EFFECT OF ALTITUDE
The reason for this difference is that the

density of a cubic foot of free air at
5,000 ft is less than at sea level.
Thus, while a compressor may
compress air to the same discharge
pressure at a higher altitude, the volume
supplied in a given time interval will be
less at the higher altitude.
18
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EFFECT OF ALTITUDE
Because a compressor of a
specified capacity actually supplies
a smaller volume of air at a given
discharge pressure at a higher
altitude, it requires less power to
operate a compressor at a higher
altitude.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EFFECT OF ALTITUDE
The following table (Table 1)

provides the theoretical
horsepower required to
compress 100 cu ft of free air
per minute at different
altitudes.
19
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EFFECT OF ALTITUDE
Table 1. Theoretical Horsepower Required to Compress 100 ft3 of Free Air per Minute
at Different Altitudes

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EFFECT OF ALTITUDE
The capacity of an air
compressor is rated at a
barometric pressure of
14.7 psi, (sea level).
At higher altitudes the capacity
of the compressor is reduced.
This is a result of Boyle’s law.
20
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BOYLE’S LAW
P1V1 = P2V2
P1 is the pressure of the free
air when we are considering
the use of a compressor.
Text p. 307

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BOYLE’S LAW
P1 (psi) changes with
altitude:
A lt. 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
P1 14.7 14.2 13.7 13.2 12.7 12.2
21
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EFFECT OF ALTITUDE
Consider 100 cu ft of free air
compressed to 100 psi gauge.
Applying Boyle’s law.
V1 = 100 cfm
P1V1 P1 = atmospheric
V2 = pressure
P2 P2 = atmospheric
pressure
+ 100

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EFFECT OF ALTITUDE
Change in V2 (cu ft) with
altitude, for V1 = 100 cf.
Alt. 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
P1 14.7 14.2 13.7 13.2 12.7 12.2
V2 12.8 12.4 12.0 11.6 11.3 10.9
22
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STATIONARY
COMPRESSORS
Stationary compressors are
generally used for installations
where there will be a requirement
for compressed air over a long
duration of time at fixed locations.
The compressors may be
reciprocating or rotary types,
single-stage or multistage.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STATIONARY
COMPRESSORS
One or more compressors may
supply the total quantity of air.
Stationary compressors may be
driven by steam, electric
motors, or internal combustion
engines.
23
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STATIONARY
COMPRESSORS
The installed cost of a single
compressor will usually be less than
that for several compressors having the
same capacity. However, several
compressors provide better flexibility for
varying load demands, and in the event
of a shutdown for repairs the entire
plant does not need to be stopped.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TANK MOUNTED
COMPRESSORS
24
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RECIPROCATING
COMPRESSORS
A reciprocating compressor
depends on a piston, which
moves back and forth in a
cylinder, for the compressing
action.
The piston may compress air
while moving in one or both
directions.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RECIPROCATING
COMPRESSORS
For the former it is defined
as single-acting, whereas for
the latter it is defined as
double-acting.
A compressor may have one
or more cylinders.
25
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RECIPROCATING
COMPRESSORS
ROTARY COMPRESSORS
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
These machines offer several

advantages compared with
reciprocating compressors, such as
compactness, light weight, uniform
flow, variable output, maintenance-
maintenance-
free operation, and long life.
26
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROTARY SCREW
COMPRESSORS
The working parts of a screw
compressor are two helical
rotors.
The male rotor has four lobes
and rotates 50% faster than the
female rotor, which has six
flutes, with which the male
motor meshes.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROTARY SCREW
COMPRESSORS
As air enters and flows through the
compressor, it is compressed in the
space between the lobes and the
flutes.
The inlet and outlet ports are
automatically covered and
uncovered by the shaped ends of
the rotors as they turn.
27
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROTARY SCREW
COMPRESSORS
Figure 1. The Operation of Helical Rotors of Screw Compressor

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ADVANTAGES OF ROTARY
SCREW COMPRESSORS
Quiet operation, with little or no loss
in output.
Few moving parts, with minimum
mechanical wear and few
maintenance requirements.
Little or no pulsation in the flow of
air, and hence reduced vibrations
28
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ADVANTAGES OF ROTARY
SCREW COMPRESSORS
Automatic controls actuated by
the output pressure, which
regulate the speed of the
driving unit and the compressor
to limit the output to only the
demand required.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PORTABLE COMPRESSORS
Portable compressors are more commonly used on

construction sites where it is necessary to meet
frequently changing job demands.
The compressors may be mounted on rubber tires steel
wheels, or skids. They are usually powered by
gasoline or diesel engines and are available in single-
single-
or two-
two-stage, reciprocating or rotary types.
29
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPRESSOR CAPACITY
Air compressors are rated by the piston

displacement in cubic feet per minute
(cfm).
However, the capacity of a compressor
will be less than than the piston
displacement because of valve and
piston leakage and the air left in the
end-clearance spaces of the cylinders.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPRESSOR CAPACITY
The capacity of a compressor is the

actual volume of free air drawn into
a compressor in a minute.
For a reciprocating compressor in
good mechanical condition, the
actual capacity ranges from 80% to
90% of the piston displacement.
30
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPRESSOR CAPACITY
The manufacturers usually give the

following information:
– No. of low-pressure cylinders, 4
– No. of high-pressure cylinders, 2
– Diameter of low-pressure cylinders, 7 in.
– Diameter of high-pressure cylinders, 5 3/4 in.
– Length of stroke, 5 in.
– rpm, 870

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 5
Consider a 315 - cfm two stage portable compressor

with the following specifications as given by the
manufacturer:
No. of low-pressure cylinders = 4
Diameter of low-pressure cylinders = 7 in
Length of stroke = 5 in
Revolution per minute (rpm) = 870
What is the efficiency of this compressor?

2
7
π 
2
Area of cylinder =   = 0.267 ft 2
(144)
5
Displacement per cylinder per stroke = 0.267  = 0.111 ft 3
 12 
31
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ft 3
Displacement per minute = 4 × 0.111× 870 = 386.3
min
315
Efficiency = × 100 = 81.5%
386.3

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON
CAPACITY OF COMPRESSORS
The capacity of an air

compressor is normally rated
on the basis of its
performance at sea level,
where the normal absolute
barometric pressure is about
14.7 psi.
32
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
If a compressor is operated at a
higher altitude, such as 5,000 ft
above sea level, the absolute
barometric pressure will be about
12.2 psi.
At the higher altitude, the density is
less and the weight of air in ft3 of
free volume is less than at sea
level.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Table 2. The Effect of Altitude on the Capacity of Single-stage Air Compressors
33
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 6
A 100-cu-ft of free air at sea level is

compressed to 100-psi gauge with no change
in temperature. What is the volume at an
altitude of 5,000 above sea level?
P1 = 12.2 psi
P2 = 100 + 12.2 = 112.2 psi
V1 = 100 ft3
PV 12.2(100)
V2 = 1 1 = = 10.87 ft 3
P2 112.2

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 7
A single-stage compressor having a sea-level

capacity of 600 cfm will be operating at a
pressure of 90 psi gauge. What will be the
actual capacity at altitudes of 7,000 ft and
12,000 ft above sea level?
From Table 2 (Table 12-

12-3 Textbook)
For 7,000 ft, the actual capacity will be:
Capacity = 600 X 0.902 = 541.2 cfm
For 12,000 ft, the actual capacity will be:

Capacity = 600 X 0.818 = 490.8 cfm
34
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTERCOOLERS
Intercoolers are installed between
the stages of a compressor to
reduce the temperature of the air
and to remove moisture from air.
The reduction in temperature prior
to additional compression can
reduce the power required by as
much as 10 to 15%.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTERCOOLERS
An intercooler requires a
continuous supply of circulating
water to remove the heat from the
air. It will require 1.0 to 1.5 gal of
water per minute for each 100 cfm
of air compressed.
35
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AFTERCOOLERS
Aftercoolers are installed at the
discharged side of a compressor to
cool the air to the desired temperature
and to remove moisture from the air.
Excess moisture in the air tends to
freeze during expansion in air tools, and
washes the lubricating oil out of tools,
thereby reducing the lubricating
efficiency.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RECEIVERS
An air receiver should be

installed on the discharge side
of a compressor to equalize the
compressor pulsations and to
serve as a condensing chamber
for the removal of water and oil
vapors.
36
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RECEIVERS
A receiver should have a

drain cock at its bottom to
permit the removal of the
condensate.
Its volume should be 1/10 to
1/6 the capacity of the
compressor.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LOSS OF AIR PRESSURE IN

PIPE DUE TO FRICTION
As air flows in a pipe or a hose,
its pressure reduces due to
friction.
The loss of pressure due to
friction is a factor that must be
considered in selecting the size
of a pipe or a hose.
37
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LOSS OF AIR PRESSURE

The loss of pressure due to
friction as air flows
through a pipe or hose
must be considered in
selecting the size of pipe or
hose to use on a job.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PRACTICAL EXERCISE
What will be the pressure at the
end of a compressed air pipeline
used to transmit 3,000 cfm of
free air?
Hose
Pipe
38
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

Failure to use a sufficiently large
line may cause the air pressure to
drop so low that it will not
satisfactorily operate the tool to
which it is providing power.
When the cost of lost efficiency
exceeds the cost of providing a
larger line, it is cost-effective to use
larger line.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

determine the loss of pressure in a
pipe due to friction:
CL Q 2 (16)
f = × 5
r d
39
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

Friction Formula: CL Q 2
f = ×
r d5
Where
f = pressure drop, psi
L = length of pipe, ft
Q = volume of free air, ft3, per second
r = ratio of compression, based on absolute press.
d = actual ID of pipe, in
C = experimental coefficient

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

For ordinary steel pipe, the value of C is
found to be 0.1025/d0.31, hence
0.1025 L Q 2
f = × 5.31 (17)
r d
A chart for determining the loss in
pressure in a pipe is given in Figure 2
(Fig 11-5, Text).
40
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Figure 2
Compressed-Air Flow Chart

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 8
Determine the pressure loss per 100 ft of pipe

resulting from transmitting 1,000 cfm of free
air, at 100 psi gauge pressure, through a 4-in.
standard-weight steel pipe?
Using the equation:
100 + 14.7
r= = 7.803
14.7
2
 1000 
 
0.1025 L Q 2 0.1025(100)  60 
f = × 5.31 = × = 0.232 psi
r d 7.803 (4)5.31
41
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Using the chart (Figure 2, Fig 12-5, Text):
Enter the chart at the top at 100 psi
Then proceed vertically downward to a point
opposite 1,000 cfm
Then proceed parallel to the sloping guide lines
to a point opposite the 4-in pipe
and then proceed vertically downward to the
bottom of the chart
The pressure drop is approximately 0.23 psi

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

THROUGH FITTINGS AND HOSE
To provide for the loss of
pressure resulting from the flow
of air through screw-pipe fitting,
it is common practice to convert
a fitting to its equivalent length
of pipe having the same
nominal diameter.
42
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

This equivalent length should

be added to the actual length of
the pipe in determining
pressure loss.
Table 3 (Table 11-5 Text)gives
the equivalent length of
standard-weight pipe.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

Table 3. Equivalent Length (ft) of Standard-weight Pipe Having the Same
Pressure Losses as Screwed Fittings
43
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 9
A -4 in ordinary steel pipe with screwed fittings is

used to transmit 1200 cfm of free air at an initial
pressure of 90 psi gauge pressure. Determine
the total loss of pressure in the pipline if the
pipline includes the following items:
1450 ft of pipe, 6 standard on-run tees
4 gate valves, 3 angle Valves
Size of pipe = 4 in.
Length of pipe = 1450 ft
Q = 1200 cfm
P1 = 90 psi gauge

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The equivalent length of the pipe will be:

Pipe = 1450 ft
Gate valves: 4 X 2.4 (Table 3) = 9.6 ft
on-
on-run tees: 6 X 7.7 (Table 3) = 46.2 ft
angle valves: 3 X 56.0 (Table 3) = 168 ft
Total 1673.8 ft
90 + 14.7
r= = 7.122
14.7
2
 1200 
 
0.1025L Q 2 0.1025(1673.8)  60 
f = × 5.31 = × = 7.86 psi
r d 7.122 (4)5.31
44
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 10
If the air from the end of the pipeline of the

previous example is delivered through 50 ft of
3/4- in hose to a rock drill that requires 130 cmf of
air, determine the pressure at the drill.
From Example 9, the pressure at the end of the pipe:

90 - 7.86 = 82.14 psi
Thus for the drill:
P1 = 82.14 psi
Q = 130 cfm
Length of hose = 50 ft
Size of hose = 3/4 in

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Table 4
(Table 11-7, Text).
Loss of Pressure (psi)
in 50 Feet of
Hose
45
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
From Table 4 (Table

(Table 11-
11-7)and for 3/4-
3/4-in hose:
Gauge Pressure (psi
(psi)) Loss of Pressure at 130 cfm (psi)
psi)
80 10.6
82.14 Pdrop
90 9.0
82.14 − 80 Pdrop − 10.6 (9.0 − 10.6)(82.14 − 80)

= ⇒ Pdrop = + 10.6
90 − 80 9.0 − 10.6 90 − 80
∴ Pdrop = 10.26 psi

The pressure at the drill = 82.14 - 10.26 = 71.88 psi

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DIVERSITY OR CAPACITY
FACTOR
While it is necessary to provide
as much compressed air as will
be required to supply the needs
for all operating equipment,
providing more air capacity than
is actually needed is
extravagant.
46
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CAPACITY FACTORS
All tools will not be operating at
the same time.
Therefore
Capacity
(Diversity)
factors are
used in
planning
systems.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FACTOR
In most cases, all the equipment
nominally used on a project will not
be operating at any given time.
An analysis of the job should be
made to determine the probable
maximum actual prior to designing
the compressed-air system.
47
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FACTOR
For example, if 10 jackhammers
are nominally drilling, normally no
more 5 or 6 will be consuming air at
any given time.
The others will be out of use
temporarily for changes in bits or
drill steel or moving to new
locations.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FACTOR
The actual amount of air demand
should be based on 5 or 6 drills instead
of 10.
The same condition applies to other
pneumatic tools.
The diversity or capacity factor is the
ratio of the actual load to the maximum
mathematical load that will exist if all
tools are operating at the same time.
48
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FACTOR
For example, if a jackhammer required
90 cfm of air, 10 hammers would
require a total of 90 X 10 = 900 cfm of
air if they all operated at the same time.
However, with only 5 hammers
operating at the same time, the demand
for air would be 450 cfm.
The diversity factor would be 450/900 =
0.5.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AIR REQUIRED BY PNEUMATIC

EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS
The approximate quantities of

compressed air required by
pneumatic equipment and tools are
given in Table 5 (Table 11-8, Text).
The quantities are based on
continuous operation at a pressure
of 90 psi gauge.
49
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AIR REQUIRED BY PNEUMATIC

EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS
Table 5a. Quantities of Compressed air Required by Pneumatic Equipment

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Table 5b. (Table 11.8 Text)

Quantities of Compressed
air Required by Pneumatic
Equipment
50
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EFFECTS OF ALTITUDE ON THE

CONSUMPTION OF AIR BY ROCK DRILLS
The capacity of air compressor is the

volume of free air that enters the
compressor during a stated time,
usually expressed in cfm.
Because of the lower atmospheric
pressure at higher altitude due to
decrease of air density, the quantity of
air supplied by a compressor at a given
gauge pressure will be less than at sea
level.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

Therefore, it necessary to provide more

compressor capacity at higher altitudes
to assure adequate supply of air at the
specified pressure to rock drills.
The following table (Table 6 or Table
11-9 Text) provides representative
factors to be applied to specific
compressor capacities to determine the
required capacities at different altitude.
51
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

Table 6. Factors to be Used in Determining the Capacities of Compressed air
Required by Rock Drills at Different Altitudes

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 11
A single drill requires a capacity of 600 cfm of

air at sea level. What would be the required
capacities at altitudes of 5,000 ft and 15,000 ft?
Using Table 6 (Table

(Table 11-
11-9, Text):
Text):
For an altitude of 5,000 ft:
Required Capacity = 600 X 1.2 = 720 cfm
52
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
THE COST OF
COMPRESSED AIR
The Department of Energy (DOE) has
determined that air compressors are one
of the largest users of electricity in
industry. Although at one time the DOE
considered electric motors as the largest
user of electricity, savings through
improved electric motor efficiency are
dwarfed by those available through
improving the compressed air system
design and operation

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
THE COST OF
COMPRESSED AIR
Energy savings through improved
design and operation of the air
system can range from 20-50%.
Most facilities consider compressed
air a utility on par with electricity,
gas, and water. Unlike other
utilities, few people know their cost
per CFM.
53
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
THE COST OF
COMPRESSED AIR
The cost of compressed air may
be determined at the
compressor or at the point of
use
The former will include the cost
of compressing plus
transmitting, including line
losses.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
THE COST OF
COMPRESSED AIR
The cost of compressing should
include the total cost of the
compressor (both ownership
and operation costs).
The cost is usually based on
1,000 cu ft of free air
54
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
THE COST OF
COMPRESSED AIR
What are your costs per CFM?
Assumptions:
Motor Service Factor = 110%
Power Factor = 0.9
A typical compressor produces 4 CFM per 1 HP
1 HP = 110% x 0.746 KW/0.9= 0.912 KW
Therefore,1 CFM = 0.228 kW
At 0.06 $/kW/hr : 1 CFM = $0.0137/hr
Therefore, 10 CFM over 8000 hr will cost: 10 x 8000 x .0137
= $1096.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 12
Determine the cost of compressing 1,000 ft3 of

free air to a gauge pressure of 100 psi by using a
600- cfm, two- stage portable compressor driven
by a 180 - hp diesel engine. Assume that the
following information will apply:
Annual ownership cost = $19,686
Based on a 5- year life at 1,400 hr per year
Fuel consumption per hr, 0.04 X 180 = 7.2 gal
Lubricating oil consumed per hr, 0.125 gal
55
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Hourly Costs:
Fixed cost: 19,686 ÷ 1,400 = $14.06
Fuel: 7.2 X 1.00 = 7.2
Lubricating oil: 0.125 X 3.20 = 0.4
Operator: = 8.0
Total cost per hour = $29.66
Volume of compressed per 50 - m in hr:

= 50X600 = 30,000 ft3
30,000
Cost per 1,000 ft 3 = $29.66 ÷ = $0.99
1,000

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
THE COST OF AIR LEAKS

The loss of air through leakage in a
transmission line can be large and
costly
Leakage results from:
9poor pipe connections
9loose valve stems
9deteriorating hose
9loose hose connections
56
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
If the cost of such leaks were more

fully known, most of them would be
eliminated.
The rate of leakage through an
opening of known size can be
determined by the formula for the
flow of air through an orifice.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
• In a typical plant, air leaks account for 20% of the total air usage!
8000 hr per year operation

Electrical costs = 0.06 $/kwhr
Line pressure = 100 psi
Plant Demand (cfm) » 400 cfm
Air leaks (cfm) » 20% » 80 cfm
Total Compressor Demand » 480 cfm
57
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
400 cfm x 8000 hrs X .0137/hr = $43,840
80 cfm x 8000 hrs X .0137/hr = $ 8,768
TOTAL = $52,608

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPRESSOR
SELECTION
1. Tools or equipment to be
used.
2. Air (cfm) requirement of
each.
3. Pressure (gpsi) requirement
of each
4. Piping and hose lengths
58
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPRESSOR
SELECTION
5. Capacity factor.
6. Theoretical compressor size.
7. Economical compressor
available, that exceeds
theoretical requirement
and provides flexibility.
59
CHAPTER
DRILLING ROCK AND EARTH

12a By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 12a. DRILLING ROCK AND EARTH Slide No. 1
DRILLING
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROCK &
EARTH
1
DRILLING
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROCK

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
C TI ON
S T R U
CON LING
DRIL
0 Blast holes
for removal of
rock, in a
construction
excavation or
for quarrying
2
N
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TIO
C
TRU
N S NG
CO ILLI
DR
M Rock
anchor/bolts in
excavations
and tunnels

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CONSTRUCTION
DRILLING
Foundations
3
CONSTRUCTION
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DRILLING
3 Foundation
grouting
DRILLING EQUIPMENT
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Drilling equipment and methods

are used by the construction and
mining industries to drill holes in
both rock and earth.
Same or similar equipment may in
some instances be used for drilling
both materials.
4
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DRILLING EQUIPMENT
Purposes for which drilling are

performed vary a great deal from
general to highly specialized
applications.
It is desirable to select the
equipment and methods that are
best suited to the specific service:

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DRILLING EQUIPMENT
9A contractor engaged in highway

construction must usually drill rock
under varying conditions; therefore,
equipment that is suitable for various
services would be selected.
9If equipment is needed to drill rock in
a quarry where the material and
conditions will not vary, specialized
equipment should be considered.
5
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DRILLING EQUIPMENT
9In some instances

custom-made equipment
designed for use on a
single project may be
justified.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Bit: This is the portion of a drill which

contacts the rock and disintegrates
it.
Carbide-insert bit: The carbide-
insert bit is a detachable bit whose
cutting edges consist of tungsten
carbide embedded in a softer steel
base.
6
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Detachable bit: This is a bit which

may be attached to or removed
from the drill steel or drill stem.
Diamond bit: The diamond bit is a
detachable bit whose cutting
elements consist of diamonds
embedded in a metal matrix.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Forged bit: This is a bit which is

forged on the drill steel.
Burden: This is the horizontal
distance from a rock face to the
first row of drill holes or the
distance between rows of drill
holes.
7
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Coupling: A short, hollow steel pipe
having interior threads. The coupling is
used to hold pieces of drill steel
together or to the shank. The
percussion energy is transferred
through the steel, not the coupling;
therefore, the coupling must allow the
drill steel to butt together.
8
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Cuttings: These are the

disintegrated rock particles that are
removed from a hole.
Depth per bit: This is the depth of
hole that can be drilled by a bit
before it is replaced.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Drifter: A drifter is an air-

operated percussion-type
drill,similar to a jackhammer; it
is so large, however, that it
requires mechanical mounting.
9
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Types of Drills:
9Abrasion: This drill grinds rock into small
particles through the abrasive effect of a
bit that rotates in the hole.
9Blast-hole: This is a rotary drill consisting
of a steel-pipe drill stem on the bottom of
which is a roller bit that disintegrates the
rock as it rotates over the rock. The
cuttings are removed by a stream of
compressed air.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
9Churn: The chum drill is a percussion-

type drill consisting of a long steel bit that
is mechanically lifted and dropped to
disintegrate the rock. It is used to drill
deep holes, usually 6 in. in diameter or
larger.
9Core: This drilling equipment is designed
for obtaining samples of rock from a hole,
usually for exploratory purposes. Diamond
and shot drills are used for core drilling.
10
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
9Diamond: The diamond drill is a
rotary abrasive-type drill whose bit
consists of a metal matrix in which a
large number of diamonds are
embedded. As the drill rotates, the
diamonds disintegrate the rock.
9Dry: This is a drill which uses
compressed air to remove the
cuttings from a hole.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
9Percussion: This is a drill which

breaks rock into small particles by
impact from repeated blows. It can
be powered by compressed air or
hydraulic fluids.
9 Shot: This is a rotary abrasive-type
drill whose bit consists of a section of
steel pipe with a roughened surface
at the bottom.
11
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
9Wagon: This is a drifter

mounted on a mast supported
by two or more wheels.
9Wet: A wet drill is one that
uses water to remove the
cuttings from a hole.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Drilling pattern: This is the spacing
of the drill holes.
Drilling rate: This is the number of
feet of hole drilled per hour per drill.
Drill steel, or rods: These are rods
which transmit the blow energy and
drill rotation from the shank to the
bit.
12
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Face: This is the approximately

vertical surface extending upward
from the floor of a pit to the level at
which drilling is accomplished.
Jackhammer,or sinker: This device
is an air-operated percussion-type
drill that is small enough to be
handled by one worker.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
13
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Stoper: A stoper is an air-operated
percussion-type drill, similar to a drifter,
that is used for overhead drilling, as in a
tunnel.
Striker bar, or shank: A short piece of
steel which attaches to the percussion
drill piston for receiving the blow and
transferring the energy to the drill steel.

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BITS
Removable Tapered-Socket-Type Rock Bit
14
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BIT TYPE
INSERT BIT
BUTTON BIT
Text p. 337, FIG 12-3 & 4.

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BITS
The bit is the essential part of a

drill, as it is the part which must
engage and disintegrate the rock.
The success of a drilling operation
depends on the ability of the bit to
remain sharp under the impact of
the drill.
15
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BITS
Many types and sizes of bits

are available.
Most bits are units which screw
mount to the drill steel.
Bits are easily replaced and
some can be re-sharpened 2 to
6 times.

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BITS
Bits are available in various

sizes, shapes, and hardnesses.
The depth of the hole that can
be drilled with steel bit vary
from a few inches to 40 ft or
more.
16
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BITS
Carbide-insert bits:
– Some types of rock are so abrasive that
steel bits must be replaced after they
have drilled only a few inches of the hole
– It is more economical sometimes to use
carbide-insert bits because the cost of
the steel bits and lost time to production
in changing bits can be so great
– These bits are illustrated in the following
figures.

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BITS
17
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BITS
Carbide-insert bits(cont’d):
– As shown in the figures, the actual
drilling points consist of a very hard
metal, tungsten carbide, which is
embedded in steel.
– Although these bits are considerably
more expensive than steel bits, the
increased drilling rate and depth of hole
obtained per bit is economically justified,
especially for drilling hard rock.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CARBIDE INSERT BITS

Four grades are usually available.
Increasing Hardness
Grade Abrasion
resistance
Shock Fair
Intermediate Good
Wear Excellent
Extra Wear Outstanding
18
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BITS
Carbide-insert bits(cont’d):
“A contractor on a highway project in
Pennsylvania found that when drilling dibase
rock, the depth per steel bit was 0.5 to 2 in.
When he changed to carbide bits, he obtained
an average depth of 1,992 ft”

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BITS
Tapered Socket Bits:

– The figure illustrates removable tapered
socket bits, which are available in gauge
sizes varying in 1/8-
1/8-in (3.2-
(3.2-mm) steps
from 1 in (25 mm) to 4 in (102 mm)
19
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BITS
Bottom-drive Bits:
– The figure illustrates the removable
bottom-
bottom-drive bits, which are available in
gauge sizes varying from 1.5 in (38 mm)
to 6 in (152 mm)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
JACKHAMMERS
Jackhammers are hand-held air-
operated percussion-type drills
which are used primarily for drilling
holes in a downward direction.
They are classified according to
their weight, such as 45 or 55 lb.
A complete drilling unit consists of
a hammer, drill steel, and bit.
20
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JACKHAMMERS
As the compressed air flows through a
hammer, it causes a piston to
reciprocate at a speed up to 2,200
blows per minute, which produces the
hammer effect.
The energy of this piston is transmitted
to a bit through the drill steel. Air flows
through a hole in the drill steel and the
bit to remove the cuttings from the hole
and to cool the bit.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DRIFTERS
Drifter drills are similar to

jackhammers in operation, but they
are larger and used as mounted
tools for drilling down, horizontal, or
up holes. They vary in weight from
75 to 260 lb and are capable of
drilling holes up to 4 in. in diameter.
21
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DRIFTERS
Drifters are used extensively in rock
excavation, mining, and tunneling. Either
air or water may be used to remove the
cuttings.
The drifter's weight is usually sufficient to
supply the necessary feed pressure for
down drilling. But when used for
horizontal or up drilling, the feed pressure
is supplied by a hand-operated screw or a
pneumatic or hydraulic piston.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WAGON DRILLS
Wagon drills consist of drifters

mounted on masts, which are
mounted on wheels to provide
portability.
Wagon drills are used extensively
to drill holes up to 4.5 in. in
diameter and up to 30 ft or more in
depth.
22
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WAGON DRILLS
They give better performance than

jackhammers when used on terrain
where it is possible for them to
operate.
Wagon drills may be used to drill at
any angle from down to slightly
above horizontal.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WAGON DRILLS
The length of drill steel is

usually 6, 10, or 15 ft, but
longer lengths are available.
The length selected will depend
on the feed reach of the
particular wagon drill.
23
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TRACK-MOUNTED DRILLS
The track-mounted drills have
substantially replaced the wagon drill on
construction projects.
Track-mounted drills production rate
may be 3 or more times that of a wagon
drill because of their ability to move
quickly to a new location and the use of
the hydraulically operated boom for
positioning the drill.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
24
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Air-track Drill and Air Compressor

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Holes can be drilled at any angle

from under 15° back from vertical to
above the horizontal, ahead, or on
either side of the unit.
All operation, including tramming
(travel), can be powered by
compressed air.
25
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WHEEL-MOUNTED DRILLS
Wheel-
Wheel-mounted
drills are similar in
sizes and capacities
to the track-
track-
mounted drills.
Wheel-
Wheel-mounted
drills require a more
nearly level ground
surface to operate.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PISTON DRILLS
These are percussion-type drills
with the hollow drill tube attached
to the piston.
The stroke and rotation of the
piston are adjustable to give the
best performance for the
particular type of rock being
drilled.
26
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PISTON DRILLS
They are available with

carbide-insert bits, which are
up to 6 in in diameter.
These drills have a practical
depth limit of approximately
70 ft.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROTARY PERCUSSION
DRILLS
Rotary percussion drills combine the
hard-hitting reciprocal action of the
percussion drill with the turning-under-
pressure action of the rotary drill.
Rotation of the rotary percussion
combination drill, with the bit under
constant pressure, has demonstrated its
ability to drill much faster than the
regular percussion drill.
27
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROTARY PERCUSSION
DRILLS
Rotary percussion drills require special
carbide bits, with the carbide inserts set at a
different angle from those used with
standard carbide bits.
ROTARY PERCUSSION
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DRILLS
28
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ROTARY DRILLS
A rotary drill is self-propelled drill which is
mounted on a truck or on a crawler tracks.
A tricone roller-type bit is used in the
drilling. It is attached to the lower end of a
drill pipe.
As the bit is rotated in the hole, a
continuous blast of compressed air is
forced down through the pipe and the bit to
remove the rock cuttings and to cool the
bit.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROTARY DRILLS
These drills are suitable for

drilling soft to medium rock,
such as dolomite and
limestone.
However, they are not suitable
for drilling the harder igneous
rocks.
29
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ROTARY DRILLS
Rotary drills are available to drill

holes to different diameters and
to depths up to approximately
300 ft.
Speeds can be varied from 1.5
fph in dense hard dolomite to
50 fph in limestone.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DIAMOND DRILLS
Diamond drills are used primarily for
exploration drilling, where cores are
desired for the purpose of studying the
rock structure.
A drilling rig consists of:
9 a diamond bit
9 a core barrel
9 a joined driving tube
9 a rotary head to supply the driving torque
30
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DIAMOND DRILLS
Drilling Unit for Diamond

Core Drill
(Acker Drill Company)

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DIAMOND DRILLS
Diamond-
Diamond-Point Bits (Sprague & Henwood,
Henwood, Inc.)
31
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DIAMOND DRILLS
Water is pumped through the

driving tube to remove the cuttings.
Core barrels are available in
lengths varying from 5 to 15 ft.
When the bit advances to a depth
equal to the length of the core
barrel, the core is broken off and
the drill is removed from the hole.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DIAMOND DRILLS
Diamond drill can drill in any desired
direction.
Diamond drills are capable of drilling to
depths in excess of 1,000 ft.
Bit speeds vary from 200 to 1200 rpm.
Drilling rate varies from less than a foot
to several feet per hour, depending on
the type of rock.
32
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SELECTING THE DRILLING

METHOD AND EQUIPMENT
Holes are drilled for various
purposes, such as:
9To receive charges of
explosives,
9For exploration, or
9For ground modification by the
injection of grout.

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Within practical limits, the
equipment which will
produce the greatest overall
economy for the particular
project is the most
satisfactory.
33
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Many factors affect the selection
of equipment. Among these are:
1. The nature of the terrain.
2. The required depth of holes,
3. The hardness of the rock.
4. The extent to which the formation is
broken or fractured.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

5. The size of the project.
6. The extent to which the rock is to be
broken for handling or crushing.
7. The availability of water for drilling
purposes.
8. The purpose of the holes, such as
blasting, exploration, or grout injection.
9. The size of cores required for
exploration.
34
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

For small-diameter shallow blastholes,
especially on rough surfaces where larger
drills cannot operate, it is usually
necessary to use jackhammers or track-
mounted drills.
Track-mounted, rotary-percussion, or
piston drills can be used for blastholes up
to 6 in. in diameter and up to about 50 ft
deep.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

If cores up to 3 in are desired, the
diamond coring drill is the most
satisfactory.
If intermediate-size cores, 3 to 8 in,
outside diameter, are desired, the
choice will be between a diamond drill
and a shot drill. A diamond drill will
usually drill faster than a shot drill.
35
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The pattern selected for drilling holes to
be loaded with explosives will vary with:
9The type and size drill used,
9The depth of the holes,
9The kind of rock,
9The maximum rock breakage size
permissible, and
9Other factors

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Drilling operations for rock
excavation where the material
will be used in an embankment
fill must consider the fill
specifications concerning the
maximum physical size.
36
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The drilling pattern should be
planned to produce rock sizes that
are small enough to permit most of
them to be handled by the
excavator, such as a loader or
shovel, or to pass into the crusher
opening without secondary
blasting.
37
CHAPTER
DRILLING ROCK AND EARTH

12b By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 12b. DRILLING ROCK AND EARTH Slide No. 73

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

The drilling pattern should be
planned to produce rock sizes that
are small enough to permit most of
them to be handled by the
excavator, such as a loader or
shovel, or to pass into the crusher
opening without secondary
blasting.
1
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DRILLING JOB ANALYSIS

In analyzing a job for drilling and
blasting operations, there are four
factors to be considered:
1.The cubic yards of rock per linear foot of hole.
2.The number of pounds of explosive per cubic
yard of rock.
3.The number of pounds of explosive per linear
foot of hole.
4.Will the resulting breakage meet the job
requirements?

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Note:The value of each of the first three factors

may be estimated in advance of drilling
and blasting operations, but after
experimental drilling operations are
conducted, it probably will be desirable to
modify the values to give better results.
The fourth factor is more subjective, but the

relationship between hole size and spacing
gives some indication of expected results.
2
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The relationships between the first

three factors are illustrated in Table 1.
The volumes of rock per linear foot of
hole are based on the net depth of
holes and do not include sub-drilling,
which usually will be necessary.
The pounds of explosive per linear foot
of hole are based on filling the holes
completely with 60% dynamite.

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Table 1 (Table 12-4, Text)

Drilling and Blasting Data
3
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The pounds of explosive per cubic

yard of rock are based on filling
each hole to 100, 75, and 50% of
its total capacity with dynamite.
When a hole is not filled
completely with dynamite, the
surplus volume is filled with
stemming.

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RATES OF DRILLING ROCK
The rates of drilling rock will vary with

a number of factors such as:
9The type of drill and bit size,
9Hardness of the rock,
9Depth of holes,
9Drilling pattern,
9Terrain, and
9Time lost waiting for other operations.
4
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If pneumatic drills are used, the rate of

drilling will vary with the pressure of
the air.
The portion of time that a drill is
operative is defined as the availability
factor, which is usually expressed as
a percent of the total time that the drill
is expected to be working.

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Historical drill penetration rates based
on very general rock-type
classification is shown in Table 2
(Table 12-5, Text)
These rates should be used as a
guide
Actual project estimates need to be
based on drilling tests of specified
rock which will be encountered.
5
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Table 2. Drilling Production Rates (Table 12-5, Text)

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Drill bits, rods, and couplings are

high wear items, and the time
required to replace or change each
affects the drilling production.
Table 3 (Table12-6, Text) gives the
average life of these high wear items
based on the drill footage and the
type of rock.
6
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Table 3 (Table 12-6b, Text)

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OPTIMUM AIR PRESSURE

FOR DRILLING
Figure 1 (Fig 11-
11-15 Text) shows
the relationship between the
average rate of penetration and
the operating pressure for each
group of drills.
Figure 2 (Fig 11-
11-16, Text) is a
nomogram based on the
information appearing in Fig. 13-
13-
15 which indicates the percent
increase in penetration resulting
from an increase in air pressure.
Example:
If the pressure is increased from
90 to 100 psi, the increase in
penetration will be 38%.
7
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ECONOMY OF INCREASING
AIR PRESSURE
The decision to increase the air pressure at the
drills should not be determined solely on the basis
of the anticipated increase in production and the
increase in the cost of compressed air and drilling
equipment.
Drilling is only one item in a chain of operations,
which includes drilling, blasting, loading, and
hauling.
Figure 3 presents a curve that establishes the
lowest total cost of producing the end product of a
drilling operation. The curve is plotted to indicate
this cost for varying air pressures.

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ECONOMY OF INCREASING
AIR PRESSURE
8
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DRILLING PRODUCTION
ESTIMATE
To begin a drilling production
estimate it is first necessary to
make an assumption about the
type of equipment that will be
used. Tables 12-5 & 12-6 provide
information to guide that first
decision.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PRODUCTION ESTIMATE
The final equipment decision

should only be made after test
drilling the formation. Test
drilling should help to quantify:
• Penetration rate
• Drilling method
• Bit size / Bit type
9
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PENETRATION RATE
Penetration Rate is a
function of:
• The rock
• The drilling method
• The size & type of bit
THE ROCK
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The rock properties which

effect penetration rate are:
• Hardness
• Texture
• Breaking characteristic
• Formation
10
HARDNESS
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Hardness is the resistance

of a smooth surface to
abrasion.
It is measured by the
MOH scale (Friedrich
Mohs).
HARDNESS
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Hardness is measured by
the MOH scale.
The scale is from 1 to 10,
with
• Diamond rated as 10
• Talc rated as 1
11
HARDNESS
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Scratch Test
Diamond 10.0
Schist 5.0 Knife
Granite 4.0 Knife
Limestone 3.0 Copper coin
Potash 2.0 Fingernail
Gypsum 1.5 Fingernail
HARDNESS
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Hardness affects drilling speed.

HARDNESS DRILLING SPEED
1-2 FAST
3-4 FAST - MEDIUM
5 MEDIUM
6-7 SLOW - MEDIUM
8-9 SLOW
12
TEXTURE
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Texture is the grain structure of

the rock.
• A loose grained structure
(porous, cavities) drills fast.
• Grains large enough to be seen
individually (granite) will drill
medium.
• Fine-grained rocks drill slow.
BREAKING
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CHARACTERISTIC
Describes how the rock
breaks
when
struck.
13
BREAKING
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CHARACTERISTIC
• Shatters - into small pieces from a light
blow
• Brittle - breaks easily with a light blow
• Shaving - when shaved off in pieces
they break easily
• Strong - resists breaking when hit hard
• Malleable - flattens instead of breaking
BREAKING
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CHARACTERISTIC
• Shatters - drills fast
• Brittle - drills fast to medium
• Shaving - drills medium
• Strong - drills slow to medium
• Malleable - drills slow
14
DRILLING METHOD
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ROTARY-
PERCUSSION
The piston provides
striking energy to
the rock through
the drill steel. There is
rotation so the bit strikes
fresh rock with each blow.

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ROTARY Drill
PERCUSSION steel
Text, FIG. 12-10, 11 & 12
15
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PERCUSSION DRILLING
Hardness
Quartzite 7.0
Trap Rock 6.0
Schist 5.0
Granite 4.0
Dolomite 3.5
Limestone 3.0
Galena 2.5

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ESTIMATING DRILLING
PRODUCTION
The first step in estimating
drilling production is to make an
assumption about the type of
equipment which will be used.
That first assumption will be
guided by the type of rock to be
drilled.
16
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ESTIMATING DRILLING
PRODUCTION
Both Tables 2 and 3 give
information that is useful in making
such a decision.
Once a drill type and bit is selected,
the format given in the following
figure (Figure 4) can be used to
estimate the hourly production.

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ESTIMATING DRILLING
PRODUCTION
It must again be emphasized, the
final decision on the type of
equipment should only be made
after test drilling the specific
formation.
The drilling test should yield data
on the penetration rate based on bit
size and type.
17
ESTIMATING DRILLING
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PRODUCTION
Figure 4. Format for Estimating Drilling Production

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GUIDELINES FOR ESTIMATING

DRILLING PRODUCTION
(1) Depth of Hole:
Usually, when drilling for loading explosives and
blasting, it is necessary to subdrill below the
desired final bottom or floor elevation. This
extra depth is dependent on the blasting design.
Normally, 2 or 3 ft of extra depth is required.
Therefore, if the depth to the finish grade is 25 ft
(pull depth), it may be necessary to actually drill
28 ft
Drill (ft) = Pull + 2 or 3 ft
18
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

DRILLING PRODUCTION
(2) Penetration Rate:
The penetration rate will be an average rate
developed from test drilling program based on
specific bit size and type
If no information given for a particular drill, Table 2
(Table 13 - 5) can be used for estimating the
penetration rate
Example: If a 41/2 - drill is used @ 250 psi to
penetrate dolomite, the penetration rate in
minutes will be
110 ft
Penetration Rate = = 1.83
60 min

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DRILLING PRODUCTION
Table 2. Drilling Production Rates (Table 12-5, Text)
19
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DRILLING PRODUCTION
(3) Drilling Time:
The drilling time shall be calculated from
Drill
Drilling Time =
Penetration Rate
(4) Change Steel:

If drilling depth is greater than the steel length, it will
be necessary to add steel during the drilling and to
remove steel when coming out of the hole.
For track-mounted rotary-percussion drills, standard
steel lengths are 10 or 12 ft. They require about 0.5
min or less to add or remove a length.
STEP 4
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CHANGE
STEEL
Steel
Text p. 359
20
STEP 4
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CHANGE STEEL
Shank (Striking Bar)

Steel
Coupling Bit

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DRILLING PRODUCTION
(4) Change Steel (Cont’d):
It is recommended by the author to use
1.1 min to add 20-ft length of steel, and
1.5 min to remove the same length of
steel
NOTE: if the steel length is less than 20

ft, the time required to change steel can
be taken as 0 min, unless otherwise
specified.
21
STEP 4 CHANGE STEEL

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Steel, approximate weights:

SIZE LENGTH WEIGHT
INCHES FEET POUNDS
1.5 10 53
1.5 12 64
1.75 10 60
1.75 12 71

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STEP 4
CHANGE
STEEL
Steel
22
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

DRILLING PRODUCTION
(5) Blow Hole:
After the actual drilling is completed, it is
good practice to blow out the hole to
ensure that all cuttings are removed.
Some drillers prefer to drill an extra foot
and to pull the drill out without blowing the
hole clean
NOTE: It is customary to use 0.1 min for
the blow hole time, unless otherwise
specified for a particular site conditions
and drill type.

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DRILLING PRODUCTION
(6) Move to Next Hole:
The time required to move between drill hole
locations is a function of the distance (blasting
pattern) and the terrain.
Track-mounted rotary-percussion drills have
travel speeds of from 1 to 3 mph. However,
because the hole spacing is often less than 20
ft and the operator is maneuvering to place the
drill over an exact spot, the travel speed is so
low
A speed of 0.25 mph can be used.
23
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 6
May MOVE
have
to
lower
the
mast

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

DRILLING PRODUCTION
(6) Move to Next Hole (cont’d):
Example:
If the blasting pattern is a 6 X -8 ft grid, then the
time required (in minutes) to the next hole will be
distance 8  60 
Time required (min) = =   = 0.36 min
speed 0.25  5280 
(7) Align Steel:

Once over the drilling location, the mast or steel
must be aligned. In the case of rotary drills the
entire machine is leveled by the use of hydraulic
jacks. This usually takes about 0.5 to 1.0 min.
24
STEP 6
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MOVE TO NEXT HOLE

If drilling for blasting operations
distance will be set by the
blasting pattern. An 8 X 10
pattern means 8 ft between rows
and a 10 ft spacing between holes.
Therefore, the travel distance
moving along the row is 10 ft.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEP 7 ALIGN
STEEL
Time to
align is
discussed on
page 360.
Outrigger
for leveling
25
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

DRILLING PRODUCTION
(8) Change Bit:
A time allowance must be considered for changing
bits, shanks, couplings, and steel. Table 3 (Table 13-
6, Text) provides information for determining the
frequency of such changes
On the average, the normal time is about 4 min
Unless otherwise specified.
Example: A 6 1/2 - Bdownhole drill @ 350 psi to be
used for drilling medium silica granite. What is the
time required to change bit? Assume 23’ drill length.
drill (ft) 23
Time (min) = normal time × = 4× = 0.05 min
life (ft) 1800
STEP 8 CHANGE BIT

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Bits, shanks,
couplings and
steel are all
high wear
items that must
be replaced
frequently.
26
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STEP 8 CHANGE BIT

The time allowance for
replacement is a factor of both
the actual time to remove and
replace, and the frequency of
such changes. Table 12- 6
provides frequency
information.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

DRILLING PRODUCTION
Table 4 (Table 12-6a, Text)
27
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DRILLING PRODUCTION
(9) Total Time:
TotalTime = (3) + (4) + (5) + (6) + (7) + (8)
(10) Operating Rate:

Drill (ft)
Operating Rate (ft/min) =
Total Time (min)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

DRILLING PRODUCTION
(11) Production Efficiency:
With experienced drillers working on a
large project, a 50-min production hour
should be achievable. Sometimes, a 40-
min production hour might be more
appropriate.
(12) Hourly Production
Hourly Production (ft/hr) = Production Efficiency × Operating Rate
28
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Example 1
A project utilizing experienced drillers will
require the drilling and blasting of high silica,
fine-grained sandstone rock. From field drilling
tests it was determined that a direct drilling
rate of 120 ft per hour could be achieved with a
3 1/2 HD bit on a rotary percussion drill @ 100
psi. The drills to be used take 10-ft steel. The
blasting pattern will be a 10 X 10-ft grid with 2
ft of sub-drilling required. On the average the
specified finish grade is 16 ft below the existing
ground surface. Determine the drilling
production.
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Using the format of Figure 4:

(1) Depth of hole (a) 16-ft pull (b) 18-ft drill (16 + 2)
(2) Penetration 2.00 ft/min (120 ft ÷ 60)
(3) Drilling Time: 9.00 min (18 ft ÷ 2 ft/min)

(4) Change Steel: 0.00 min (d<20 ft)
(5) Blow Hole: 0.10 min
(6) Move to Next Hole 0.45 min (10 ft ÷ 0.25 mph)
(7) Align Steel: 1.00 min
(8) Change Bit: 0.08 min (4 X 18/850 )
(9) Total Time 10.63 min
Note: 850 was obtained from Table 5
29
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Table 5 (Table 12-6c, Text)

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(10) Operating Rate: 1.69 ft/min (18 ÷ 10.63)
(11) Production Efficiency.: 50 min/hr
(12) Hourly Production 84.5 ft/hr (50 × 1.55)
30
Example 2
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The drilling production of Example 1 must

match that of hauling and loading for the
project, which is 500 cu yd per hour. How
many drill units will be required?
10 × 10 × 16
Hole Production = = 59.26 cu yd/hole
27
84.5 ft/hr hole
= 4.69 per drill
18 ft/hole hr
 hole 
4.69 per drill  × 59.26 cu yd / hole = 278 cu yd
 hr 
2 × 278 = 556 cu yd > 500 cu yd
∴ Two drills will be required

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DRILLING EARTH
Purposes for drilling holes in earth.

In the construction and mining industries
holes are drilled into the earth for many
purposes, including, but not limited to:
1.Obtaining samples of soil for test purposes.
2.Locating and evaluating deposits of aggregate
suitable for mining.
3.Locating and evaluating deposits of minerals.
4.Permitting the installation of cast- in
- place
piles or shafts to support structures.
31
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DRILLING EARTH
5. Enabling the driving of load-bearing piles

into hard and tough formations.
6. Providing wells for supplies of water or for
deep drainage purposes.
7. Providing shafts for ventilating mines,
tunnels, and other underground facilities.
8. Providing horizontal holes through
embankments, such as those for the
installation of utility conduits.
32
CHAPTER
BLASTING ROCK
13 By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 13. BLASTING ROCK Slide No. 1

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
1
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INTRODUCTION
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RBLAST DESIGN is not an exact

science, but by considering the
rock formation it is possible to
produce the desired result.
RThis is a step-by-step procedure for
designing the blast hole layout and
calculating the amount of
explosives for blasting rock.
2
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INTRODUCTION
”Blasting" is performed to break rock so
that it may be quarried for processing in
an aggregate production operation, or to
Blasting is accomplished by discharging
an explosive that has either been
placed in an unconfined manner, such
as mud capping boulders, or is confined
as in a borehole.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INTRODUCTION
There are two forms of energy released

when high explosives are detonated,
shock and gas. An unconfined charge
works by shock energy, whereas a
confined charge has a high gas energy
output.
There are many types of explosives and
methods for using them.
3
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TOPICS
Blast design
Powder factor
Vibration
Trench rock
Presplitting
Production
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
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Face
Bench height
Burden distance
Spacing
Blasthole depth
Stemming
Subdrilling
4
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OVERVIEW
) Rock breakage results from gas
pressure in the blasthole.
) Radial cracking
) Individual wedges
) Flexural rupture
) Stiffness ratio
bench height
burden distance
5
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BURDEN
Burden distance is the most
critical
dimension in
blast design.
It is the distance
to the free face
of the
excavation.

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COMMERCIAL
EXPLOSIVES
There are four main categories of
commercial high explosives:
1. Dynamite,
2. Slurries,
3. ANFO, and
4. Two-component explosives.
6
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COMMERCIAL
EXPLOSIVES
The first three categories,
dynamite, slurries, and ANFO, are
the principal explosives used for
borehole charges.
Two-component or binary
explosives are normally not
classified as an explosive until
mixed.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DYNAMITE
Dynamite is nitroglycerin-based
product.
It is the most sensitive of all the
generic classes of explosives in
use nowadays.
It is available in many grades and
sizes to meet the requirements of a
particular job.
7
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DYNAMITE
The approximate strength of a dynamite

is specified as a percentage (weight of
nitroglycerin to the total weight of a
cartridge.
Cartridges vary in size from
approximately 1 to 8 in. in diameter and
8 to 24 in. long.
Dynamite is used extensively for
charging boreholes, especially for the
smaller sizes.

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Dynamite Cartridge
8
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Dynamite
Cartridge

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SLURRIES
Slurries is generic term used for both
water gels and emulsion
They are water-resistant explosive
mixtures of ammonium nitrate and a
fuel sensitizer
The primary sensitizing methods are:
9introduction of air throughout the mixture
9the addition of aluminum particles
9or the addition of nitrocellulose
9
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SLURRIES
In comparison to different explosives (such
as ANFO), slurries have a higher cost per
pound and have less energy
However, their higher cost can be justified if
used in wet condition
They are not water-sensitive
An advantage of slurries over dynamite is
that the separate ingredients can be hauled
to the project in bulk and mixed
immediately before loading the blastholes

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ANFO
ANFO is blasting agent that is
produced by mixing prilled ammonium
nitrate and fuel oil
This explosive is used extensively on
construction project and represents
about 80% of all explosives used in
the United States
ANFO is the cheapest and safest
among others
10
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Texas City, 16 April 1947

ANFO
ANFO is an explosive used
extensively on construction projects.

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ANFO
The ANFO is made by blending 3.5
quarts of fuel oil with 100 lb of
ammonium nitrate blasting prills
This the optimum ratio.
The detonation efficiency is controlled
by this ratio.
Because the mixture is free-flowing, it
can be blown or augered from the bulk
trucks directly into the blasholes.
11
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INITIATING AND DELAY

DEVICES
It is common practice to fire
several holes or rows of holes at
one time.
Fragmentation, backbreake,
vibration, and violence of a blast
are all controlled by the firing
sequence of the individual
blastholes.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INITIATING AND DELAY

DEVICES
The order and timing of the
detonation of the individual holes
is regulated by the initiation
system. Electric and non-electric
initiation systems are available.
When selecting the proper
system, one should consider both
blast design and safety.
12
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ELECTRIC BLASTING CAPS

With an electric cap an explosion is
caused by passing an electric current
through a wire bridge, similar to an
electric light bulb filament.
A current of approximately 1.5 amps
heats the bridge to ignite a heat- sensitive
flash compound.
The ignition sets off a primer which in turn
fires a base charge in the cap.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DELAY BLASTING
SYSTEMS
Delay blasting caps are used to obtain a
specified firing sequence.
These caps are available for delay intervals
varying from a small fraction of second to
about 7 seconds.
When explosives charges in two or more
rows of holes parallel to the face are fired in
one shot, it is desirable to fire the charges in
the holes nearest the face a short time
ahead of those in the second row.
13
DELAY BLASTING
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SYSTEMS
This procedure will reduce the burden
in the second row, and hence, will
permit the explosives in the second
row to break more effectively.
In the case of more than two rows of
explosives, this same delayed firing
sequence will be followed for each
successive row.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DETONATING CORD
The detonating cord is a non-

electric initiation system consisting
of a flexible cord having a center
core of high explosive.
It is used to detonate dynamite and
other cap-sensitive explosives.
14
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ROCK BREAKAGE
The major mechanisms of rock
breakage result from the sustained gas
pressure buildup in the borehole by the
explosion.
First, this pressure will cause radial
cracking. Such cracking is similar to
what happens in the case of frozen
water pipes-a longitudinal split occurs
parallel to the axis of the pipe.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROCK BREAKAGE
A borehole is analogous to the frozen

pipe in that it is a cylindrical pressure
vessel. But there is a difference in the
rate of loading. A blasthole is
pressurized instantaneously. Failure,
therefore, instead of being at the one
weakest seam, is in many seams
parallel to the borehole.
15
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BLAST DESIGN
Every blast must be designed to

meet the existing conditions of
the rock formation and
overburden, and to produce the
desired final result. There is no
single solution to this problem.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BLAST DESIGN
Rock is not a homogeneous

material. There are fracture
planes, seams, and changes in
burden to be considered.
Wave propagation is faster in
hard rock than in soft rock.
16
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BLAST DESIGN
Initial blast designs use idealized

assumptions. The engineer does this
realizing that discontinuities will be
encountered in the field. Because of
these facts, it must always be
understood that the theoretical blast
design is only the starting point for
blasting operations in the field.

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BLAST DESIGN
A trial blast should always be

performed. It will either validate
the initial assumptions or
provide the information needed
for final blast design.
17
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BURDEN
The most critical dimension in blast
design is the burden distance as
shown in Figure 1 (Fig 13-1, Text)
Burden distance is the shortest
distance to stress relief at the time a
blasthole detonates. It is normally the
distance to the free face in an
excavation, whether a quarry situation
or a highway cut.

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BURDEN
Figure 1. Blasthole Dimensional Terminology
18
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BURDEN
Internal faces can be created by

blastholes fired on an earlier delay
within a shot. When the burden
distance is insufficient, rock will be
thrown for excessive distances from
the face, fragmentation may be
excessively fine, and air blast levels
will be high.
19
BURDEN
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
An empirical formula for approximating a

burden distance to be used on a first trial
shot is
 2 SGe 
B =  + 1.5  De (1)
where  SGr 
B = burden, ft
SGe = specific gravity of the explosive
SGr = specific gravity of the rock
De = diameter of the explosive, in.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BURDEN
The actual diameter will depend on the
manufacturer’s packaging container
thickness
If the specific product is known, the exact
information should be used
Rock density is an indicator of strength,
which in turn governs the amount of
energy required to cause breakage
The approximate specific gravities of
rocks are given in Table 1 (T13-1,Text)
20
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BURDEN
Table 1. Density by Nominal Rock Classifications (Table 13-1, Text)
Rock Classification Specific Gravity Density Broken (ton/cu yd)
Basalt 1.8 – 3.0 2.36 – 2.53
Dibase 2.6 – 3.0 2.19 – 2.53
Diorite 2.8 – 3.0 2.36 – 2.53
Dolomite 2.8 – 2.9 2.36 – 2.44
Gneiss 2.6 – 2.9 2.19 – 2.44
Granite 2.6 – 2.9 2.19 – 2.28
Gypsum 2.3 – 2.8 1.94 – 2.26
Hematite 4.5 – 5.3 3.79 – 4.47
Limestone 2.4 – 2.9 1.94 – 2.28
Marble 2.1 – 2.9 2.02 – 2.28
Quartzite 2.0 – 2.8 2.19 – 2.36
Sandstone 2.0 – 2.8 1.85 – 2.36
Shale 2.4 – 2.8 2.02 – 2.36
Slate 2.5 – 2.8 2.28 – 2.36
Trap Rock 2.6 – 3.0 2.38 – 2.53

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BURDEN
Explosive density is used in Eq. 1 because
of the proportional relationship between
explosive density and strength.
There are, however, some explosive
emulsions which exhibit differing strengths
at equal densities.
In such a case Eq. 1 will not be valid.
An equation based on relative bulk strength
instead of density can be used in such
situations.
21
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Example 1
A contractor plans to use dynamite that has specific
gravity of 1.3 to open an excavation in granite rock. The
drilling equipment available will drill a 3-
3-in blasthole.
blasthole.
Dynamite comes packaged in 2 3/4- 3/4-in diameter sticks.
What is the recommended burden distance for the first
trial shot?

14-1 Text):
2.6 + 2.9
Specific Gravity of Granite = = 2.8
2
 2 SGe   2(1.3) 
B =  + 1.5  De =  + 1.5 (2.75) = 6.7 ft
 SG r   2 . 8 

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BULK STRENGTH
Relative bulk strength is the strength
ratio for a constant volume compared to
a standard explosive such as ANFO
ANFO, ammonium nitrate and fuel oil, is
the standard explosive with an energy-
level rating of 100
The relative bulk strength rating should
be based on test data under specified
conditions
22
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ANFO Texas City, 16 April 1947
ANFO is an explosive used

extensively on construction projects.
Explosive diameter and

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
blasthole size are the same.
ANFO
23
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BULK STRENGTH
The burden distance, B, based on

relative bulk energy is given by
Stv
B = 0.67 De 3 (2)
SGr

Stv = relative bulk strength compared to ANFO

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BURDEN DISTANCE
When one or two rows of blastholes
are used, the burden distance
between rows will usually be equal.
If more than two rows are to be fired
in a single shot, either the burden
distance of the rear holes must be
adjusted or delay devices must be
used to allow the face rock from the
front rows to move.
24
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BURDEN DISTANCE
The burden distance should also be
adjusted because of the geological
variations.
Rock is not homogeneous material
as assumed by all formulas
Therefore, it is always necessary to
use correction factors for specific
geological conditions.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BURDEN
corrected
Kd = ?
25
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BURDEN DISTANCE
The corrected burden distance can be

computed from the following equation:
Bcorrected = B × K d × K s (3)
Where
Kd = correction factor for rock deposition
Ks = correction factor for rock structure
Table 2 gives burden distance correction factors for
rock deposition and rock structure

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BURDEN DISTANCE
CORRECTION FACTORS
Rock Depostion Kd
Bedding steeply dipping into cut 1.18
Bedding steeply dipping into face 0.95
Other cases of depostion 1.00
Rock Structure Ks
Heavily cracked, frequent weak joints, weakly 1.30
cemented layers
Thin, well-cemented layers with tight joints 1.10
Massive intact rock 0.95
26
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Example 2
A new quarry is being opened in a limestone
formation having horizontal bedding with
numerous weak joints. From a borehole test
drilling program it is believed that the limestone
is highly laminated with many weakly cemented
layers. Because of possible wet conditions, a
cartridged slurry (relative bulk density of 140)
will be used as explosive. The 6.5-in blastholes
will be loaded with 5-in diameter cartridges.
What is the burden distance?

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

13-1, Text):
For limestone, the specific gravity is between 2.4 and
2.9 2.4 + 2.9
Average Specific Gravity = = 2 .9
2
Stv 140
B = 0.67 De 3 = 0.67(5)3 = 12.65 ft
SGr 2.6
Kd = 1 (horizontal bedding, see Table 2)

Ks = 1.3 (numerous weakly cemented layers, Table 2)
Bcorrected = B × Kd × Ks = 12.65(1)(1.3) = 16.4 ft
27
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Basalt 1.8 – 3.0 2.36 – 2.53
Dibase 2.6 – 3.0 2.19 – 2.53
Diorite 2.8 – 3.0 2.36 – 2.53
Dolomite 2.8 – 2.9 2.36 – 2.44
Gneiss 2.6 – 2.9 2.19 – 2.44
Granite 2.6 – 2.9 2.19 – 2.28
Gypsum 2.3 – 2.8 1.94 – 2.26
Hematite 4.5 – 5.3 3.79 – 4.47
Limestone 2.4 – 2.9 1.94 – 2.28
Marble 2.1 – 2.9 2.02 – 2.28
Quartzite 2.0 – 2.8 2.19 – 2.36
Sandstone 2.0 – 2.8 1.85 – 2.36
Shale 2.4 – 2.8 2.02 – 2.36
Slate 2.5 – 2.8 2.28 – 2.36
Trap Rock 2.6 – 3.0 2.38 – 2.53

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STEMMING
Definition:
Stemming is the adding of an inert
material, such as drill cuttings, on
top of the explosive in a blasthole
for the purpose of confining the
energy of the explosive
To function property the material
used for stemming must lock into
the borehole.
28
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STEMMING
It is common practice to use drill
cuttings as the stemming material.
To function properly, the stemming
material should have an average
diameter 0.05 times the diameter of the
hole and should be angular.
If the stemming distance is too great,
there will be poor top breakage from the
explosion and backbreak will increase.
29
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STEMMING
When the stemming distance is

inadequate, the explosion will escape
prematurely from the hole.
Under normal conditions, properly
designed burden and explosive, and
good stemming material, a stemming
distance, T, of 0.7 times the burden
distance, B, will be satisfactory.
T = 0.7 x B (4)

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SUBDRILLING
A shot will normally not break to the very
bottom of the blasthole. This can be
understood by remembering that the
second mechanism of breakage is
flexural rupture.
To achieve a specified grade, one will
need to drill below the desired floor
elevation. This portion of the blasthole
below the desired final grade is termed
"subdrilling."
30
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SUBDRILLING
The subdrilling distance, J, required

can be approximated by the following
formula:
J = 0.3 x B (5)
Subdrilling represents the depth

required for explosive placement, not
a field drilling depth

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SUBDRILLING
During the drilling operation there

will be random drilling depth
errors, holes will slough, and
material will accidentally fall into
some holes. Therefore, for
practical reasons drilling should
be to a depth slightly greater than
that calculated.
31
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BLASTHOLE SIZE
The size (diameter) of the blasthole will
affect blast considerations concerning
fragmentation, air blast, flyrock, and
ground vibration.
The economics of drilling is the second
consideration in determining blasthole
size.
Larger holes are usually more
economical to drill but they introduce
possible blast problems.

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BLASTHOLE SIZE
Once again, the second mechanism

of rupture and the stiffness ratio (SR)
need to be considered.
The stiffness ratio (SR) for blasting
purposes is the bench height (L)
divided by the burden distance (B).
L
SR = (6)
B
32
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STIFFNESS RATIO
 bench height 
Stiffness ratio  burden distance 
affects several critical blasting
considerations.
• Fragmentation
• Air blast
• Flyrock
• Ground vibration

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STIFFNESS RATIO
The bench height
is usually set by
physical
constrains, the
existing ground
elevation and
plan grade.
33
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STIFFNESS RATIO
In the case of
deep cuts it may
be possible to
adjust the bench
height with
stepped cuts.

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STIFFNESS RATIO
The bench
height should
be matched to
the reach of
the excavation
equipment
(optimum
height of cut).
34
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BLASTHOLE SIZE
In some situations, as in a quarry, the
blaster can adapt the bench height to
optimize the blast, but on a road project
the existing ground and the specified
final roadway grades set limits on any
bench height modification.
The following table (Table 3, Table 13-3,
Text) gives the relationship between the
stiffness ratio and the critical blasting
factors.
BLASTHOLE SIZE
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Table 3. Stiffness Ratio’s Effect on Blasting Factors (Table 13-3, Text)

Stiffness Ratio (RS) 1 2 3 > 4*
Fragmentation Poor Fair Good Excellent
Air Blast Severe Fair Good Excellent
Flyrock Severe Fair Good Excellent
Ground Vibration Severe Fair Good Excellent
*
Stiffness Ratios above 4 yield no increase in benefit
35
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BLASTHOLE SIZE
One of the parameters in both Eqs. 1

and 2 was the diameter of the explosive,
De. The diameter of the explosive is
limited by the diameter of the blasthole
 2 SGe  Stv
B =  + 1.5  De B = 0.67 De 3
 SGr  SGr
If it is desirable to drill larger blastholes

for economic reasons (usually cheaper),
the burden distance will be affected

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BLASTHOLE SIZE
Explosive diameter and bore hole
diameter may not be the same.
LINER or FILLER
EXPLOSIVE
BORE HOLE
36
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Example 3
A contractor plans to use dynamite that has
specific gravity of 1.3 to open an excavation in
granite rock. The drilling equipment available
will drill a 5-in blastones. Dynamite comes
packaged in 2.75-in and 4.5-diameter sticks. If
the specifications call for a 13-ft bench height
and the extent of the excavation perpendicular
to the face is 100 ft,how many rows of
blastholes will be required for both the 2.75 and
4.5-diameter packages? Which package of
dynamite will result in lesser blasting problems?

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
For the 2.75-
2.75-in dia.
dia. package:
2.6 + 2.9
2
 2SGe   2(1.3) 
B1 =  + 1.5  De =  + 1.5 ( 2.75 = 6.7 ft
 SGr   2 .8 
100
No. of rows required = + 1 = 15.93 ≈ 16 rows
6.7
For the 4.5-
4.5-in. dia,
dia, package:
 2 SGe   2(1.3) 
B2 =  + 1.5  De =  + 1.5 (4.5 = 10.9 ft
 SG r   2 . 8 
100
No. of rows required = + 1 = 10.17 ≈ 10 rows
10.9
37
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For the 2.75-

2.75-in. dia.
dia. explosive package:
L 13
SR1 = = = 1.94
B1 6.7
For the 4.5-
4.5-in. dia.
dia. explosive package:
L 13
SR2 = = = 1.19
B2 10.9
Comparing the results of the stiffness ratios using Table 3

(Table 13-
13-3, Text), the 2.5-
2.5-in. diameter explosive package
has lesser blasting problem

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*
38
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Example 4
Suppose that the rock blasting in Example 3 should be
accomplished with a minimum stiffness ratio of 3, what will
be the ideal explosive diameter?
L L 13
SR = ⇒ B= = = 4.33
B SR 3
 2 SGe   2(1.3) 
B =  + 1.5  De =  + 1.5  De = 4.33 ft
 SG r   2 . 8 
∴ De = 1.783 in
∴ ideal explosive diameter = 1.75 or 1 3/4 - diameter
CKECK :
 2(1.3)  L 13
B= + 1.5 (1.75) = 4.25 ⇒ SR = = = 3.06 > 3 OK
 2 .8  B 4.25

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPACING
Proper spacing of blastholes is
controlled by the initiation timing and the
stiffness ratio.
When holes are spaced too close and
fired instantaneously, venting of the
energy will occur with resulting air blast
and flyrock.
When the spacing is extended, there is a
limit beyond which fragmentation will
become harsh.
39
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPACING
Before beginning a spacing

analysis, two questions must be
answered concerning the shot:
1. Will the charges be fired
instantaneously or will delays be
used?
2. Is the stiffness ratio greater than 4?

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPACING
Spacing is controlled by initiation
timing and stiffness ratio.
) Instantaneous initiation: SR
greater than 1 but less than 4
) Instantaneous initiation: SR
equal to or greater than 4
Text p. 388, equations (13-6 and 13-7)
40
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPACING
Spacing is controlled by initiation
timing and stiffness ratio.
+ Delayed initiation: SR greater
than 1 but less than 4
+ Delayed initiation: SR equal to
or greater than 4
Text p. 388, equations (13-8 and 13-9)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPACING
An SR of less than 4 is considered a
low bench and a high bench is a SR
value of 4 or greater. This means that
there are four cases to be considered:
1. Instantaneous initiation. with the SR
greater than I but less than 4.
L + 2B
S= (7)
where S = spacing 3
L = bench height
41
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPACING
2. Instantaneous initiation, with the SR
equal to or greater than 4.
S = 2B (8)
3. Delayed initiation, with the SR

greater than I but less than 4.
L + 7B (9)
S=
8

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPACING
4. Delayed initiation, with the SR
equal to or greater than 4.
S = 1.4 B (9)
Note: The actual spacing utilized in the

field should be within 15% plus or
minus the calculated value.
42
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPACING
Spacing in the field should
be within plus or minus 15%
of the calculated value.
Calculated spacing
-15% +15%

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 5
It is proposed to load 4-in diameter

blasholes with bulk ANFO. The
contractor would like to use an 8 X
8 drill pattern. Assuming the
burden distance is correct, will the
8-ft spacing be acceptable? The
bench height is 35 ft and each hole
is to be fired on separate delay.
43
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
B = 8 ft and L = 35 ft
Check the stiffness ratio, L/B for high or low bench:

L 35
= = 4.4 ft
B 8
Delay timing; therefore, use Eq.
Eq. 9:
S = 1.4(8) = 11.2 ft
Range = 11.2 ± 0.15(11.2) : S = 9.5 to 12.9 ft
The spacing is not OK. As a minimum, the pattern

should be:
8 X 9.5
Example 6
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
A project in granite rock will have an average bench

height of 20 ft. An explosive having a specific gravity of
1.2 has been proposed. The contractor’s equipment
can easily drill 3-
3-in diameter holes. Assume the
packaged diameter of the explosives will be 2.5 in.
Delay blasting techniques will be used. Develop a blast
design for the project.
From Table 1 (Table 13-1 Text):
2.6 + 2.9
2
 2 SGe   2(1.2) 
B =  + 1.5  De =  + 1.5 ( 2.5) = 5.93 ft
 SG r   2. 75 
44
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Basalt 1.8 – 3.0 2.36 – 2.53
Dibase 2.6 – 3.0 2.19 – 2.53
Diorite 2.8 – 3.0 2.36 – 2.53
Dolomite 2.8 – 2.9 2.36 – 2.44
Gneiss 2.6 – 2.9 2.19 – 2.44
Granite 2.6 – 2.9 2.19 – 2.28
Gypsum 2.3 – 2.8 1.94 – 2.26
Hematite 4.5 – 5.3 3.79 – 4.47
Limestone 2.4 – 2.9 1.94 – 2.28
Marble 2.1 – 2.9 2.02 – 2.28
Quartzite 2.0 – 2.8 2.19 – 2.36
Sandstone 2.0 – 2.8 1.85 – 2.36
Shale 2.4 – 2.8 2.02 – 2.36
Slate 2.5 – 2.8 2.28 – 2.36
Trap Rock 2.6 – 3.0 2.38 – 2.53

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Hence, use 6 in for the burden distance B.
L 20
SF = = = 3.3 ⇒ good (according to Table 3)
B 6
The stemming depth (T ) = 0.7 × B = 0.7(6) = 4.2 ft
Use 4 ft for the stemming depth, T.
The subdrilling ( J ) = 0.3 × B = 0.3(6) = 1.8 ft
Use 2 ft for subdrilling depth, J

L + 7 B 20 + (7)(6)
1 < SR < 4 and delayed initiation ⇒ S = = = 7.75 ft
8 8
Range = 7.75 ± 0.15(7.75) : S = 6.6 to 8.9 ft
As a first trial, use a 6-ft burden X 8-ft spacing pattern
45
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

*

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWDER COLUMN AND

POWDER FACTOR
The amount of explosive required to
fracture a cubic yard of rock is a
measure of economy of blast design.
Table 5 (Table 13-4, Text) is a
loading density chart which allows
the engineer to easily calculate the
weight of explosive required for a
blasthole.
46
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWDER COLUMN AND

POWDER FACTOR
Table 4. Explosive Loading Density Chart in lb per ft of Column for a
a Given Explosive Specific Gravity (Table 13-4, Text)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWDER COLUMN
Powder column length is the blasthole
depth minus the stemming depth.
Blasthole depth =
bench height + subdrilling
Powder column =
blasthole depth - stemming
47
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWDER COLUMN AND

POWDER FACTOR
Definition:
“The powder column length is the total
hole length less stemming” that is
Powder Length = L + J − T (10)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWDER COLUMN AND

POWDER FACTOR
Definition:
“The powder factor is the ratio of the total
weight (lb)of explosive in powder column
length to the total volume (cu yd) of rock
fractured by one blasthole under the pattern
area to a depth of bench depth equal L” that
is
Total Weight (lb) of Powder Column Length
Powder Factor = (11)
Total Volume under Pattern Area (cu yd)
48
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 7
For Example 6, calculate the powder column length, the
total weight of explosive used per blasthole,
blasthole, and the
powder factor.
From Example 6, L = 20 ft, J = 4 ft, and T = 4 ft, Pattern = 6 X 8
Specific Gravity of Explosive = 1.2
Explosive diameter = 2.5
From Table 4 (Table 14-4 Text): Loading Density = 2.55 lb per ft
Powder Column Length = ( L + J ) − T = 20 + 2 − 4 = 18 ft
The Total Weight of Explosive per Column = 18 × 2.55 = 45.9 lb
Total Weight of Explosive per Hole
Powder Factor = =
Volume of Rock Fractured under Pattern Area
6(8)20
= 45.9 ÷ = 1.29 lb/cu yd
27

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWDER COLUMN AND

POWDER FACTOR
In all the examples presented so far, it has
been assumed that only one explosive was
used in a blasthole.
If a hole is loaded with ANFO, it will require a
primer to initiate the explosion.
For example, in the case of a powder column
that is 18 ft, and that will be loaded with ANFO
(Gs=0.8), a primer will have to be placed at the
bottom of the hole.
49
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
POWDER COLUMN AND

POWDER FACTOR
A stick dynamite (Gs = 1.3) will require a
minimum of 8 in (0.667 ft). Therefore, there will
be 208 in (17.33 ft) of ANFO and 8 in (0.67 ft) of
dynamite
The weight of explosives based on a 2.5-in
explosive diameter will be:
1.70 lb/ft X 17.33 ft = 29.46 lb
2.77 lb/ft X 0.67 ft = 1.85 lb
31.31 lb
The total per hole is 31.31 lb for 18 ft of powder column

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
MATERIAL HANDLING
CONSIDERATIONS
The economics of handling the fractured
rock is a factor which should be
considered in blast design.
Although it is critical to achieve good
breakage, the blast pattern will affect
such considerations as the type of
equipment and the bucket fill factor.
The appropriate piling of the blasted rock
by the shot is dependent on the blast
design.
50
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
MATERIAL HANDLING
CONSIDERATIONS
To utilize the blast to accomplish good
breakage and appropriate piling, one should
apply the following principles:
1.Rock movement will be parallel to the burden
dimension.
2.Instantaneous initiation along a row causes more
displacement than delayed initiation.
3.Shots delayed row - by- row scatter the rock more
than shots fired in a V pattern.
4.Shots designed in a V - pattern firing sequence
give maximum piling close to the face.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
MATERIAL HANDLING
CONSIDERATIONS
51
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PRESPLITTING ROCK
Presplitting Rock is a technique of

drilling and blasting which breaks rock
along a relatively smooth surface (see
next figure).
The holes usually are 2.5 to 3 in. in
diameter and are drilled along the
desired surface at spacings varying
from 18 to 36 in depending on the
characteristic of the rock.
PRESPLITTING ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Presplitting breaks rock along

a relatively smooth surface.
52
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PRESPLITTING ROCK
The holes are loaded with one or

two sticks of dynamite at the
bottoms, with smaller charges,
such as 1.25 x 4- in. sticks spaced
at 12-in intervals to the top of the
portion of the holes to be loaded.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PRESPLITTING ROCK
It is important that the charges be less than
half the blasthole diameter and they should not
touch the walls of the holes
The appropriate load of explosive per foot of
presplit blasthole is given by
Dh2
dec = (12)
28
where dec = explosive load, lb per ft
Dh = diameter of blasthole, in
53
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PRESPLITTING ROCK
When the formula given by Eq. 12 is used to
arrive at an explosive loading, the spacing
between blastholes can be determined by the
following equation:
S p = 10 Dh (13)
where Sp = presplit blasthole spacing, in

Presplit blastholes are not extended below
grade. In the bottom of the hole a
concentrated charge of 2 to 3 times dec should
be placed instead of subdrilling

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 8
By contract specification the walls of a highway
excavation through rock must be presplit. The
contractor will be using drilling equipment
capable of drilling a 3-in hole. What explosive
load and hole spacing should he try for the first
presplit shot on the project?
Dh2 (3) 2 lb
d ec = = = 0.32
28 28 ft
S p = 10 Dh = 10(3) = 30 in
The bottom load should be 3 × 0.32 = 0.96 lb
54
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
An accident involving explosives may
easily kill or cause serious injury.
The prevention of such accidents
depends on careful planning and
faithful observation of proper blasting
practices.
There are federal and state regulations
concerning the transportation and
handling of explosives.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Safety information on specific products
is provided by the manufacturer.
In addition to regulations and product
information, there are recommended
practices, such as the evacuation of the
blast area during the approach of an
electrical storm whether electric or
nonelectric initiation systems are used.
55
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
A good source for material on recommended
blasting safety practices is the Institute of
Makers of Explosives in New York City.
Misfire: In shooting charges of explosives,
one or more charges may fail to explode.
This is referred to as a “misfire.”
It is necessary to dispose of this explosive
before excavating the loosened rock
The most satisfactory method is to shoot it if
possible.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FACTORS AFFECTING
VIBRATION
Some of the critical factors that should be
considered are:
1. Burden 10. Rock Type
2. Spacing 11. Rock Physical Properties
3. Subdrilling 12. Geological Features
4. Stemming Depth 13. Number of Holes in a Row
5. Type of Stemming 14. Number of Rows
6. Bench Height 15. Row-to-Row Delays
7. Number of Decks 16. Initiator Precision
8. Charge Geometry 17. Face Angle to Structure
9. Powder Column Length 18. Explosive Energy
56
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPACING don’t forget --

SAFETY
Throw rock
FACTORS AFFECTING
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
VIBRATION
The U.S. Bureau of Mines has proposed a
formula to evaluate vibration and as a way to
control blasting operation as follows:
d
Ds = (14)
W
where Ds = scaled distance (nondimensional
(nondimensional factor)
d = distance from shot to structure, ft
W = maximum charge weight per delay, lb
A scale value of 50 or greater indicates that a
shot is safe with respect to vibration
Some regulatory agencies require a value of 60
or greater
57
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
VIBRATION
Check vibration by formula
13-12 and adjust amount of
explosive per delay if
necessary. d
Ds =
Text p. 397 W

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
VIBRATION
How many
holes at
one time.
58
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FIRE IN
THE HOLE

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FIRE IN THE HOLE
59
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Time to load and haul.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
60
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Where to get more

information
Blasters’ Handbook, E. I. du
Pont de Nemours & Co.,
Wilmington, DE
Rock Blasting and Overbreak
Control, National Highway
Institute, Washington, DC
61
CHAPTER
AGGREGATE PRODUCTION
14 By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 14. AGGREGATE PRODUCTION Slide No. 1

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PRODUCTION OF CRUSHED-
STONE AGGREGATE
The production of crushed-stone
aggregate involves:
9Drilling
9Blasting
9Loading
9Transporting
9Crushing
9Screening
9Product handling and storage
1
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PRODUCTION OF CRUSHED-
STONE AGGREGATE
In operating a quarry and crushing
plant, the drilling pattern, the
amount of explosives, the size
shovel or loader used to load the
stone, and the size of the primary
crusher should be coordinated to
assure that all stone from the
quarry can be economically utilized.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RECOMMENDED MINIMUM
SIZES OF PRIMARY CRUSHERS
Table 1
2
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF CRUSHERS
Crushers are classified according to the
stage of crushing which they
accomplish, such as:
9Primary
9Secondary
9Tertiary
A primary crusher receives the stone
directly from a quarry after blasting, and
produces the first reduction in size.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF CRUSHERS
The output of the primary crusher is fed
to a secondary crusher, which further
reduces the stone size. Some of the
stone may pass through four or more
crushers before it is reduced to the
desired size.
The degree of breakage is spread over
several stages as a means of closely
controlling product size and limiting
waste material.
3
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF CRUSHERS
As stone passes through a crusher, the
reduction in size may be expressed as
reduction ratio.
The reduction ratio is the ratio of crusher
feed size to product size.
The sizes are usually defined as the 80%
passing size of the cumulative size
distribution.
For jaw crusher, the ratio can be
estimated by the gape.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF CRUSHERS
The gape is the distance between the
fixed and moving faces at the top, divided
by the distance of the open-side setting at
the bottom.
The reduction ratio of a roller crusher can
be estimated as the ratio of the dimension
of the largest stone that can be nipped by
the roller, divided by the setting of the
rolls, which is the smallest distance
between the faces of the rolls.
4
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF CRUSHERS
Crushers are also classified by their
method of mechanically transmitted
fracturing energy to the rock.
Jaw, gyratory, and roll crushers work by
applying compressive force.
Impact crushers such as single rotor and
hammer mill apply high-speed impact
force to accomplish fracturing
Table 2 (T 14-2, Text) lists the major
types of crushers.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
MAJOR TYPES OF CRUSHERS

Table 2
5
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
JAW CRUSHERS
Jaw crushers operate by allowing stone to
flow into the space between two jaws, one
of which is stationary while the other is
movable .
The distance between the jaws diminishes
as the stone travels downward under the
effect of gravity and the motion of the
movable jaw, until the stone ultimately
passes through the lower opening.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
JAW CRUSHERS
6
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
JAW CRUSHERS
Jaw crushers are usually designed with
the toggle as the weakest part. The
toggle will break if the machine
encounters an uncrushable object or is
subjected to overload. This limits
damage to the crusher.
In selecting a jaw crusher,
consideration must be given to the size
of the feed stone.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GYRATORY CRUSHERS
Gyratory crushers are
characterized by a gyrating mantle
mounted within a deep bowl.
Gyratory crushers provide
continuous crushing action and are
used for both primary and
secondary crushing of hard, tough,
abrasive rock.
7
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GYRATORY CRUSHERS

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GYRATORY STANDARD
CONE CRUSHER
Cone crushers are used as
secondary or tertiary crushers.
Cone crushers are capable of
producing large quantities of
uniformly fine crushed stone.
8
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GYRATORY STANDARD
CONE CRUSHER
A cone crusher differs from a true
gyratory crusher in the following
respects:
1. It has a shorter cone.
2. It has a smaller receiving opening.
3. It rotates at a higher speed, about twice
that of a true gyratory
4. It produces a more uniformly sized
stone.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
GYRATORY STANDARD
CONE CRUSHER
9
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROLL CRUSHERS
Roll crushers are used for producing
additional reductions in the sizes of stone
after the output of a quarry has been
subjected to one or more stages of prior
crushing.
A roll crusher consists of a heavy cast-
iron frame equipped with either one or
more hard-steel rolls, each mounted on a
separate horizontal shaft.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROLL CRUSHERS
10
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SIZES OF STONE PRODUCED BY

JAW AND ROLLS CRUSHERS
Even though the setting of the discharge
opening of a crusher will determine the
maximum-size stone produced, the
aggregate sizes will range from slightly
greater than the crusher setting to fine
dust.
For any given setting for jaw or roll
crusher approximately 15% of the total
amount passing through the crusher will
be larger than the setting.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

If the opening of the screen which
receives the output from such
crusher are the same size as the
crusher setting, 15% of the output
will not pass through the screen.
Figure 1 (Figure 14.4, Text) provides
the percent of material passing or
retained on screens having the size
opening indicated.
11
Sizes of Stone Produced by

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Crushers
Figure 1 (Figure 14.4, Text)
Analysis of the Size of Aggregate
Produced by Jaw and Roll Crushers

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

The chart can be applied to both jaw and
roll-type crushers.
To read the chart:
9 Select the vertical line corresponding to the
crusher setting
9 Then go down this line to the number which
indicates the size of screen opening
9 From the size of the screen opening proceed
horizontally to the left to determine the percent of
material passing through the screen or the right to
determine the percent of material retained on the
screen.
12
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 1
A jaw crusher with a closed setting

of 3 in produces 50 tons per hour of
crushed stone. Determine the
amount of stone produced in tons
per hour within the following size
range: in excess of 2 in; between 2
and 1 in; between 1 and 1/4 in.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
From Figure 1, the amount retained

on a 2-in screen is 42% of 50,
which is 21 tons per hr.
Similarly, the amount in each of the
size range is determined as shown
in the following Table 3:
13
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Table 3
Size Range (in) % Passing Screen Percent in Size Total Output of Amount
Range Crusher (ton/hr) Produced in Size
Range (ton/hr)
Over 2 100 – 58 42 50 21.0
2 –1 58 – 33 25 50 12.5
1 – 1/4 33 – 11 22 50 11.0
¼-0 11 - 0 11 50 5.5
Total 100 % 50.0 tph

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FEED SIZE
The maximum size of material that may

be fed to a roll crusher is directly
proportional to the diameter of the rolls.
If the feed contains stones that are too
large, the rolls will not grip the material
and pull it through the crusher.
The angle of nip, B, in the following figure
(Figure 2) has been found to be 16.760.
14
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FEED SIZE
Figure 2

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FEED SIZE
The maximum-size particles that can be
crushed is determined as follows:
Let
R = radius of rolls
B = angle of nip
D = R cos B = R cos(16.76) = 0.9575 R
A = maximum-size feed
C = roll setting = size of finished product
15
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FEED SIZE
X = R − D = R − 0.9575 R = 0.0425 R
A = 2 X + C = 2(0.0425 R ) + C = 0.085R + C
∴ Maximum - size Feed ( A) = 0.085R + C (1)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 2
Determine the maximum-size stone
that may be fed to a smooth-roll
crusher whose rolls are 40 in. in
diameter when the roller setting (size
of finished product) is 1 in.
Maximum - size Feed ( A) = 0.085R + C
A = 0.085( 20) + 1 = 2.7 in
16
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CAPACITY OF ROLL
CRUSHER
The capacity of a roll crusher will vary
with:
9The kind of stone
9The size of feed
9The size of the finished product
9The width of rolls
9The speed at which the rolls rotate
9The extent to which the stone is fed
uniformly into the crusher.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CAPACITY OF ROLL
CRUSHER
Referring to Figure 1, the theoretical
volume of a solid ribbon of material
passing between the rolls in 1 min will
be the product of the width of the
opening times the width of the rolls
times the speed of the surface of the
rolls
17
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CAPACITY OF ROLL
CRUSHER
The volume may be expressed in
cubic inches per minute or in
cubic feet per minute (cfm).
In actual practice, the ribbon of
crushed stone will never be solid.
A more realistic volume should
approximate one-fourth to one-
third the theoretical volume.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CAPACITY OF ROLL
CRUSHER
An equation which may be used as a guide in
estimating the capacity is derived as follows:
Let
C = distance between rolls, in.
W = width of rolls, in.
S = peripheral speed of rolls, in. per min
N = speed of rolls, rpm
R = radius of rolls, in.
VI= theoretical volume, cu in. or cfm
V2= actual volume, cu in. or cfm
Q = probable capacity, tons per hour
18
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CAPACITY OF ROLL
CRUSHER
Then
V1 = CWS
1
Assume V2 = V1
3
CWS
∴V2 = , in ft 3 per min
3
Dividing by 1,728 in 3per ft 3
CWS CWS
V2 = = , in cfm
3(1728) 5,184

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CAPACITY OF ROLL
CRUSHER
Assume the crushed stone has a unit
weight of 100 lb per cubic ft, then
100 × 60(V2 ) CWS CWS
Q= = 3V2 = 3 = , in tons per hour
2,000 5184 1728
S = 2πRN
Substituting for S , hence
CWπRN
Q= (2)
864
19
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CAPACITY OF ROLL
CRUSHER
• Table 4 (Table 14-6, Text) gives representative
capacities for smooth-roll crushers, expressed
in tons of stone per hour for material having a
unit weight of 100 lb per cu ft when crushed
• The capacities should be used as a guide only
in estimating the probable output of a crusher
• The actual capacity may be more or less than
the given values

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CAPACITY OF ROLL
CRUSHER
Table 4. (Table 14-6, Text) Representative Capacities of Smooth-Roll
Crushers, in Ton/hr of Stone
20
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
IMPACT CRUSHERS
In impact crusher stones are broken
by the application of high-speed
impact forces.
9Single rotor. The single rotor-type
impact crusher breaks the stone both by
the impact action of the impellers striking
the feed material and by the impact
which results when the impeller-driven
material strikes against the aprons within
the crusher unit.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
IMPACT CRUSHERS
9Double rotor. These units are similar
to the single rotor models and
accomplish aggregate-size reduction
by the same mechanical mechanisms.
They will produce a somewhat higher
proportion of fines. With both single
and double rotor crushers, the
impacted material flows freely to the
bottom of the units without any further
size reduction.
21
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
IMPACT CRUSHERS

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
IMPACT CRUSHERS
9Hammer mills. The hammer mill, which is the
most widely used impact crusher, may be used
for primary or secondary crushing. The basic
parts of a unit include a housing frame, a
horizontal shaft extending through the housing, a
number of arms and hammers attached to a spool
which is mounted on the shaft, one or more
manganese-steel or other hard-steel breaker
plates, and a series of grate bars whose spacing
may be adjusted to regulate the width of openings
through which the crushed stone flows.
22
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
IMPACT CRUSHERS
Cutaway of Hammer Mill Rock

Crusher Showing Breaking
Action

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HAMMER MILL ROCK

CRUSHER
Table 5. Representative Capacities for Hammer Mills
23
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SPECIAL AGGREGATE
PROCESSING UNITS
To produce fine aggregate, such as sand,
from stone that has been crushed to suitable
sizes by other crushing equipment, rod or
ball mills are frequently used.
It is not uncommon for concrete
specifications to require the use of a
homogeneous aggregate regardless of size.
If crushed stone is used for coarse
aggregate, sand manufactured from the
same stone can satisfy the specifications.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Rod Mill
A rod mill is a circular steel shell that is
lined on the inside with a hard wearing
surface.
Rod mill is equipped with a suitable
support or trunnion arrangement at each
end and a driving gear at one end. It is
operated with its axis in a horizontal
position. The rod mill is charged with
steel rods, whose lengths are slightly less
than the length of the mill.
24
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Rod Mill
Crushed stone, which is fed through
the trunnion at one end of the mill,
flows to the discharge at the other end.
As the mill rotates slowly, the stone is
constantly subjected to the impact of
the tumbling rods, which produce the
desired grinding. A mill may be
operated wet or dry, with or without
water added.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Ball Mill
A ball mill is similar to a rod mill
but it uses steel balls instead of
rods to supply the impact
necessary to grind the stone.
Ball mills will produce fine
material with smaller grain sizes
than those produced by a rod
mill.
25
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Ball Mill

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CRASHING EQUIPMENT
SELECTION
In selecting crushing and screening
equipment, it is essential that
certain information be known prior
to making the selection.
26
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CRASHING EQUIPMENT
SELECTION
The information needed should include,
but will not necessarily be limited to, the
following items:
1. The kind of stone to be crushed.
2. The maximum individual size of the feed
stones and perhaps the size ranges of the
feed to the plant.
3. The method of feeding the crushers.
4. The required capacity of the plant.
5. The percent of material failing within specified
size ranges.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SCREENING AGGREGATE
Screening of crushed stone is

necessary in order to separate the
aggregate by size ranges.
Most specifications covering the
use of aggregate stipulate that the
different sizes shall be combined to
produce a blend having a given
size distribution.
27
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SCREENING AGGREGATE
Persons who are responsible for

preparing the specifications for the
use of aggregate realize that
crushing and screening cannot be
done with complete precision, and
accordingly they allow some
tolerance in the size distribution.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SCREENING AGGREGATE
28
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DETERMINATION OF
REQUIRED SCREEN SIZE
Figure 3 gives the theoretical capacity of
a screen in tons per hour per square foot
based on material weighing 100 lb per cu
ft when crushed
The corrected capacity of a screen is
given by the following equation
Q = ACEDG (3)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DETERMINATION OF
Figure 3. (Figure 14-15) Screen-Capacity Chart
29
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DETERMINATION OF
Where
Q = capacity of screen, tons per hour
A = area of screen, sq ft
C = theoretical capacity of screen, tons per
hour per sq ft
E = efficiency factor
D = deck factor
G = aggregate factor

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DETERMINATION OF
The minimum area of a screen to provide a
given capacity is determined from the
following expression:
Q
A= (4)
CEDG
Tables 6, 7, and 8 give the efficiency, deck,

and aggregate-size factors for use in Eqs. 3
and 4
30
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DETERMINATION OF
Table 6. Efficiency Factors for Aggregate Screening
Permissible Screen Efficiency Factor
Efficiency (%)
95 1.00
90 1.25
85 1.50
80 1.75
75 2.00
Table 7. Deck Factors for Aggregate Screening

For Deck Number Deck Factor
1 1.00
2 0.90
3 0.75
4 0.60

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DETERMINATION OF
Table 8. Aggregate-size Factors for Screening
Percent of Aggregate less Aggregate-size Factor
than ½ the Size of Screen
Opening
10 0.55
20 0.70
30 0.80
40 1.00
50 1.20
60 1.40
70 1.80
80 2.20
90 3.00
31
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 3
Determine the minimum-size single-deck
screen, having 1.5-in-sq openings, for
screening 120 tons per hour of dry
crushed stone, weighing 100 lb per cu ft
when crushed. A screening efficiency of
90% is satisfactory. An analysis of the
aggregate indicates that approximately
30% of it will be less than 0.75 in. in size.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The values of the factors to be used in Eq. 4 are
as follows:
Q = 120 ton/hr
C = 3.3 ton/hr per sq ft (Figure 3)
E = 1.25 (Table 6)
D = 1.0 (Table 7)
G = 0.8 (Table 8)
Substituting these values in Eq. 4, we get
Q 120
A= = = 36.4 sq ft
CEDG 3.3(1.25)(1.0)(0.8)
32
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HANDLING CRASHED-
STONE AGGREGATE
After stone is crushed and
screened to provide the desired
size ranges, it is necessary to
handle the stone carefully or the
large and small particles may
separate, thereby destroying the
blend in sizes which is essential
to meeting graduation
requirements. If aggregate is
permitted to flow freely off the
end of a belt conveyor, especially
at some height above the storage
pile, the material will be
segregated by sizes.
33
CHAPTER
CRANES
17 By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 17. CRANES Slide No. 1

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CRANES
1
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CRANES
The crane is the primary

machine used for the
vertical movement of
construction materials.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CRANES
Boom
Mast
Counter
weight Boom stop
2
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CRANES
Cranes are a broad class of

construction equipment used to
hoist and place loads.
Each type of crane is designed and
manufactured to work economically
in a specific site situation.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CRANES
The most common types are:
1. Crawler
2. Hydraulic truck
4. Rough-terrain
5. All-terrain
6. Heavy lift
8. Tower
3
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CRANES
• The full revolving superstructure of this type of
unit is mounted on a pair of continuous parallel
crawler tracks.
• Many manufacturers have different option
packages available which permit the
configuration of the crane to a particular
application, standard lift, tower unit, or duty
cycle.
• Units in the low
- to
- m d
i dle range of lift capacity
have good lifting characteristics and are capable
of duty- cycle work such as handling a concrete
bucket.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CRAWLER CRANES
4
CRAWLER CRANES
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CRAWLER CRANES
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
• Machines of 100-ton capacity and above are

built for lift capability and do not have the
heavier components required for duty-cycle
work.
• The universal machines incorporate heavier
frames, have heavy duty or multiple clutches
and brakes, and have more powerful swing
systems. These designs allow for quick
changing of drum laggings which vary the
torque/speed ratio of cables to the
application.
5
CRAWLER CRANES
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The crawlers provide the crane with

travel capability around the job site.
The distance between crawler
tracks affects stability and lift
capacity.
To be transported between
projects, the crawler crane must be
transported by truck, rail, or barge.
CRAWLER CRANES
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
As the size of the crane increases,

the time and cost to dismantle,
load, investigate haul routes, and
reassemble the crane increases.
Transporting the largest machines
can require 15 or more truck trailer
units.
6
CRAWLER CRANES
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The crawlers usually have lower

initial cost per rated lift capability,
but movement between jobs is
more expensive.
Crawler-type machines should be
considered for projects requiring
long-duration usage at a single site.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HYDRAULIC TRUCK
CRANES
The hydraulic truck crane has a self-
contained boom.
Most units can travel on the public
highways between projects under their
own power with a minimum of
dismantling. Once the crane is leveled
at the new work site, it is ready to work
without setup delays.
7
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HYDRAULIC TRUCK
CRANES

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HYDRAULIC TRUCK
CRANES
If a job requires crane utilization for a
few hours to a couple of days a
hydraulic truck crane should be given
first consideration because of its case of
movement and setup.
The hydraulic multisection telescoping
boom is a permanent part of the full
revolving superstructure. In this case
the superstructure is mounted on a
multiaxle truck/carrier.
8
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HYDRAULIC TRUCK
CRANES
There are three common power and
control arrangements for hydraulic truck
cranes:
1. A single engine as both the truck and crane
power source, with a single dual- position cab
used both for driving the truck and operating the
crane.
2. A single engine in the carrier but with both truck
and crane operating cabs.
3. Separate power units for the truck and the
superstructure. This arrangement is standard
for the larger capacity units.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HYDRAULIC TRUCK
CRANES
Hydraulic truck crane units have
extendable outriggers for stability.
In fact, many units cannot be
operated safely with a full reach of
boom unless the outriggers are fully
extended and the machine raised
so that the tires are clear of the
ground.
9
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HYDRAULIC TRUCK
CRANES
Remember: All mobile cranes are
stability-sensitive machines. Rated
loads are based on ideal
conditions, a level machine, calm
air, and no dynamic effects.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LATTICE-BOOM TRUCK
CRANES
As with the hydraulic truck crane a
full revolving superstructure is
mounted on a multiaxle truck/carrier.
The advantage of this machine is the
lattice-boom.
A lattice-boom is cable-suspended,
and therefore acts as a compression
member, not a bending member like
the telescoping, hydraulic boom.
10
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LATTICE-BOOM TRUCK
CRANES

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LATTICE-BOOM TRUCK
CRANES
The lattice-boom structure is of
lightweight. The reduction in boom
weight means additional lift capacity as
the machine predominantly handles
hoist load and less weight of boom.
The lattice-boom does take longer to
assemble. The lightweight boom will
give a less expensive lattice-boom
machine the same hoisting capacity as
a larger hydraulic unit.
11
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LATTICE-BOOM TRUCK
CRANES
The disadvantage of these units is the
time and effort required disassembling
them for transport. In the case of the
larger units it may be necessary to
remove the entire superstructure.
Additionally a second crane is often
required for this task. Some newer
models are designed so that the
machine can separate itself without the
aid of another crane.
ROUGH-TERRAIN TRUCK
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CRANES
These cranes are mounted on two-axle
carriers.
The operator's cab may be mounted in
the upper works allowing the operator to
swing with the load.
On many models the cab is located on
the carrier. This is a simpler design
because controls do not have to be
routed across the turntable. In turn
these units have a lower cost.
12
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROUGH-TERRAIN TRUCK
CRANES
The units are equipped with unusually
large wheels in order to improve
maneuverability at the job site. Most
units can travel on the highway but have
maximum speeds of only about 30 mph.
In the case of long moves between
projects they should be transported on
low-bed trailers.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ROUGH-TERRAIN TRUCK
CRANES
Many units now have joy stick controls.
A joy stick allows the operator to
manipulate four functions
simultaneously.
The most common models are in the
18-50-ton capacity range and typically
are employed as utility machines. They
are primarily lift machines but are
capable of light, intermittent duty-cycle
work.
13
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ALL-TERRAIN TRUCK
CRANES
The all-terrain crane is designed
with an undercarriage that is
capable of long-distance highway
travel.
All-terrain truck carrier has four
wheel-drive and four wheel-steer,
large tires, and high ground
clearance .

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ALL-TERRAIN TRUCK
CRANES
They have dual cabs, a lower cab
for fast highway travel, and a
superstructure cab which has
both drive and crane controls.
The machine can be used for
limited pick-and-carry work.
14
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ALL-TERRAIN TRUCK
CRANES
By combining job-site mobility
and transit capability, these
machines are very good when
multiple lifts are required at
scattered project sites or at
multiple work locations on a
single project.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ALL-TERRAIN TRUCK
CRANES
Because all-terrain truck is a
combination of two features it
has a higher cost than an
equivalent capacity hydraulic
truck crane or a rough-terrain
crane.
15
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HEAVY LIFT CRANES

• Heavy lift cranes are machines that
provide lift capacities in the 600 through
2,000 short-ton range.
• Heavy lift cranes consist of a boom and
counterweight each mounted on
independent crawlers that are coupled
by a stinger. This configuration utilizes a
vertical strut and inclined mast to
decrease compressive forces in the
boom.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HEAVY LIFT CRANES
16
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HEAVY LIFT CRANES

Components of Heavy Lift Crane

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STABILITY
Counterweight
and Load
superstructure
Short Load distance

distance
17
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TOWER CRANES
These are cranes that

provide a high-lifting
height with good
working radius, and
take up limited space.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TOWER CRANES
The three common configurations

are:
(1) a special vertical boom
arrangement on a mobile crane,
(2) a mobile crane superstructure
mounted atop a tower, or
(3) a vertical tower (European type)
with a jib and operator's cab atop.
18
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TOWER CRANES

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TOWER CRANES
Components of Tower Crane
19
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TOWER CRANES
Some tower cranes have fixed towers

and a swing circle mounted at the top;
these are referred to as the fixed tower
type.
Others, the slewing tower type have the
swing circle located at the base, and
both the tower and jib assembly rotate
relative to the base.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TOWER CRANES
Tower cranes are usually the

machines of choice when:
1. Site conditions are restrictive.
2. Lift height and reach are
extreme.
3. There is no need for mobility.
20
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SUITABILITY
BUILDING PROJECTS:
• Low rise structures - short cycle times
• High rise structures - long cycle times
• High speed/high volume operations
(concrete placement)
• Site conditions (position, locations)
• Vertical reach requirements

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SUITABILITY
INDUSTRIAL PROJECTS:
• Very precise (one time hoists)
• Heavy loads (possibly dual hoists)
• Working around fixed objects
21
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SUITABILITY
HEAVY PROJECTS:
• Very precise (one time hoists)
• High speed/high volume
operations (concrete placement)
• Multiple work locations

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SUITABILITY
HEAVY PROJECTS:
22
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SAFETY
Crane fatality data:

•Energized power lines 50%
• Overturning 19%
• Load dropped 14%
• Boom collapsed 12%
• Two-block 5%

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SAFETY
Crane Accidents: :
•Overturning 61.0%
• Overload 12.5%
• Rigging 12.5%
• Road accidents 10.0%
23
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Crane Accidents:
• Overturning 61.0%

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SELECTION FACTORS
Height of reach required
Working envelope
Maximum load
Time
Duty cycle
24
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HEIGHT OF REACH
REQUIRED
9 Height load is to be lifted
9 Height of the load
9 Sling height
9 Hook block height
9 Size of the load

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CONSIDER ALL
HEIGHTS
Hook Block
Sling Height
Load Height
Height Load is
to be Lifted
25
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HEIGHT
OF
LOAD

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SLING HEIGHT
26
HOOK ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BLOCK
HEIGHT
CLEARANCE
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SIZE BETWEEN
THE BOOM
OF AND THE
THE LOAD
LOAD CLEARANCE
27
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RATED LOADS
• The rated load for a crane as published by the
manufacturer is based on ideal conditions.
• A partial safety factor in respect to tipping is
introduced by the Power Crane and Shovel
Association (PCSA) rating standards, which state that
the rated load of a lifting crane shall not exceed the
following percentages of tipping loads at specified
radii.
1. Crawler-mounted machines, 75%
2. Rubber-tire-mounted machines 85%
3. Machines on outriggers, 85%

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RATED LOADS
In addition to PCSA there are other

groups that recommend rating
criteria. The Construction Safety
Association of Ontario recommends
that for rubber-tire-mounted
machines, on rubber a factor of
0.75 should be utilized.
28
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RATED LOADS
• Load capacity will vary depending on the

quadrant position of the boom with respect to
the machine's undercarriage.
• In the case of crawler cranes the three
quadrants which should be considered are:
1.Over the side
2.Over the drive end of the tracks
3.Over the idler end of the tracks

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RATED LOADS
Crawler-crane quadrants are

usually defined by the longitudinal
centerline of the machine's
crawlers. The area between the
centerlines of the two crawlers is
considered over the end and the
area outside the crawler centerlines
is considered over the side.
29
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RATED LOADS
• In the case of wheel- mounted cranes the quadrants
of consideration will vary with the configuration of the
outrigger locations. If a machine has only four
outriggers, two on each side, one located forward
and one to the rear, the quadrants are usually
defined by imaginary lines running from the
superstructure center of rotation through the position
of the outrigger support. In such a case the three
quadrants to consider are:
1. Over the side
2. Over the rear (of the carrier)
3. Over the front (of the carrier)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RATED LOADS
30
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 1
Can the tower crane, whose load chart is given in Table 1(Table
1(Table
14.3 of Textbook), lift a 15,000-
15,000-lb load at a radius of 142 ft? The
crane has a L7 jib and a two-
two-part line hoist. The slings that will be
used for the pick weigh 400 lb. Assume 5% margin be applied to
computed weight.
Weight of Load = 15,000 lb

Weight of slings = 400 lb
Total Weight = 15,000 + 400 = 15,400 lb
Required Capacity = 15,400 X 1.05 = 16,170 lb
From Table 1, the maximum capacity at a 142-
142-ft radius is 16,400 lb
16,400 lb > 16,170 lb
Therefore, the crane can safely make the lift

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Table 1. (Text 14.3) Lifting Capacities (lb) for a Tower Crane
31
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 2
Determine the minimum boom length that will permit the crawler
crane to lift a load which is 34 ft high to a position 114 ft above the
surface on which the crane is operating. The length of the block,
hook, and slings that are required to attach the hoist rope to the load
is 26 ft. The location of the project will require the crane to pick up
the load from a truck at a distance of 70 ft from the center of rotation
of the crane. If the block, hook, and slings weigh 5,000 lb, determine
the maximum net weight of the load that can be hoisted.
The operating radius = 70 ft

Total height of boom point = 114 + 34 + 26 = 174 ft
From Figure 1 (Figure 14.11 of Textbook), for a radius of 70 ft, the height of
of the boom point is 178 ft for 180-ft boom, which is high enough.
From Table 2 (Table 14.1 in Textbook),
for 180-ft boom and 70-ft radius, Maximum total load = 47,600 lb
Hence
Maximum Safe Weight = 47,600 - 5,000 = 42,600 lb
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Figure 1. (Text 14.11) Working Ranges for a 200-ton Crawler Crane (Manitowoc Eng. Co)
32
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Table 2. (Text 14.1) Lifting Capacities (lb) for 200-ton Crawler Crane with 180 ft of Boom
33
CHAPTER
DRAGLINES AND CLAMSHELLS

18 By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 18. DRAGLINES AND CLAMSHELLS Slide No. 1

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DRAGLINE, CLAMSHELL
AND MAGNET CRANES
1
DRAGLINES AND
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CLAMSHELLS

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DRAGLINES
Draglines are used to excavate

material and to load it into
hauling units, such as trucks or
tractor-pulled wagons, or to
deposit it in levees, dams, and
spoil banks near the pits from
which it is excavated.
2
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DRAGLINES
The dragline is designed to excavate
below the level of the machine.
A dragline usually does not have to go
into a pit or hole in order to excavate. It
operates adjacent to the pit while
excavating material from the pit by
casting its bucket. This is very
advantageous when earth is removed
from a ditch, canal, or pit containing
water.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DRAGLINES
Frequently, it is possible to use a

dragline with a long boom to
dispose of the earth in one
operation if the material can be
deposited along the canal or near
the pit. This eliminates the need for
hauling units, thus reducing the
cost of handling the material.
3
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BASIC COMPONENTS OF
DRAGLINE
Figure 1
Hoist cable Boom
Dump cable
Hoist chain
Bucket
Fairlead
Drag cable Drag chain

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF DRAGLINES
Draglines may be divided into

three types:
1. Crawler-mounted
2. Wheel-mounted, self-propelled
3. Truck-mounted
4
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF DRAGLINES
Crawler-mounted draglines can operate
over soft ground conditions that would
not support wheel-or truck-mounted
equipment.
The travel speed of a crawler machine
is very slow, frequently less than 1 mph,
and it is necessary to use auxiliary,
hauling equipment to transport the unit
from one job to another.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF DRAGLINES
Wheel-and track-
mounted units may
have travel speeds in
excess of 30 mph.
5
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
THE SIZE OF A DRAGLINE
The size of a dragline is indicated

by the size of the bucket,
expressed in cubic yards (cu yd).
Most draglines may handle more
than one size bucket, depending on
the length of the boom utilized and
the class and weight of the material
excavated.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Since the maximum lifting capacity

of a dragline is limited by the force
which will tilt the machine over, it is
necessary to reduce the size of the
bucket when a long boom is used
or when the excavated material has
a high unit weight.
6
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
In practice, the combined

weight of the bucket and its
load should produce a tilting
force that is not greater than
75% of the force required to
tilt the machine.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

A longer boom, with a smaller bucket,
will be used to increase the digging
reach or the dumping radius when it is
not desirable to bring in a larger
machine.
If the material is difficult to excavate, the
use of a smaller bucket, which will
reduce the digging resistance, may
permit an increase in production.
7
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Figure 2
Relationship between bucket
size and boom length and
angle

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
THE SIZE
Figure 3
Typical Dragline Working Ranges
with Maximum Weight
8
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATION OF A
DRAGLINE
The excavating cycle is started by
swinging the empty bucket to the
digging position, while at the same time
slacking off the drag-and the hoist lines.
There are separate drums on the basic
unit for each of these cables so that
they may be coordinated into a smooth
operation.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATION OF A
DRAGLINE
Digging is accomplished by pulling
the bucket toward the machine
while regulating the digging depth
by means of the tension maintained
in the hoist line.
When the bucket is filled, the
operator takes in the hoist line
while playing out the dragline.
9
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATION OF A
DRAGLINE
The bucket is so constructed that it will
not dump its contents until the drag line
tension is released.
Hoisting, swinging, and dumping the
loaded bucket follow in that order; then
the cycle is repeated.
An experienced operator can cast the
excavated material beyond the end of
the boom.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPERATION OF A
DRAGLINE
Figure 4
Dragline Digging Zones
10
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OUTPUT OF DRAGLINES
• The output of a dragline will vary with the following
factors:
1. Class of material
2. Depth of cut
3. Angle of swing
4. Size and type of bucket
5. Length of boom
6. Method of disposal, casting, or loading haul units
7. Size of the hauling units, when used
8. Skill of the operator
9. Physical condition of the machine
10. Job conditions

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OUTPUT OF DRAGLINES
The output of a dragline should be

expressed in bank measure cubic yards
(bcy) per hour. This quantity is best
obtained from field measurements. It
may be estimated by multiplying the
average loose volume per bucket by the
number of cycles per hour and dividing
by 1 plus the swell factor for the
material, expressed as a fraction.
11
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OUTPUT OF DRAGLINES
Example:
If a 2-cu-yd bucket, excavating material whose swell is
25%, will handle an average loose volume of 2.4 cu yd,
the bank-measure volume will be
2.4/1.25 = 1.92 cu yd.
If the dragline can make 2 cycles per min, the output
will be
2 x 1.92 = 3.84 bcy per min or 230 bcy per hour.
OUTPUT OF DRAGLINES
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Table 1. Approximate Dragline Digging and Loading Cycles for Various

Angles of Swing
12
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
OPTIMUM DEPTH OF CUT

Greatest output of a dragline is
expected when it is operating at the
optimum depth of cut
The following Table (Table 2, or Table
18-3 of Textbook) provides the optimum
depth of cut for various sizes of buckets
and types of materials based on using
short-boom draglines.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Table 2. Optimum Depth of Cut and Ideal Outputs of Short-boom Draglines
13
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

Ideal outputs (bcy) of short-boom
draglines are accomplished when
digging at the optimum depth with a
900 swing and no delays are
presented in the table.
The upper figure is the optimum
depth in feet and the lower number
is the ideal output in cubic yards.
EFFECT OF THE DEPTH OF CUT

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
AND SWING ANGLE ON

DRAGLINE OUTPUT
The table (Table 2) also gives the
optimum depth and ideal outputs in
metric units (e.g., m and m3).
The outputs of draglines provided
in Table 2 (Table 18-3 of Textbook)
are based on digging at optimum
depths with a swing angle of 900.
14
EFFECT OF THE DEPTH OF

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CUT AND SWING ANGLE ON

DRAGLINE OUTPUT
For any other depth or swing angle,
the ideal output of the machine
must be adjusted by an appropriate
depth-swing factor.
The effect of the depth of cut and
swing angle on dragline production
is given in the following table (Table
3, or Table 18-4 of Textbook).

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

DRAGLINE OUTPUT
The percent of optimum depth
of cut in the table is obtained by
dividing the actual depth of cut
by the optimum depth for the
given material and bucket, then
multiplying the result by 100.
15

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

DRAGLINE OUTPUT
Table 3. Factors for Depth of Cut and Angle of Swing Effect on
Dragline Production (Table 8-4 of Textbook)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 1
A 2-cu-yd short-boom dragline
is to be used to excavate hard,
tough clay. The depth of cut
will be 15.4 ft, and the swing
angle will be 1200. Compute the
probable production of the
dragline.
16
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Optimum Depth of Cut = 11.8 ft ⇒ 195 cu-yd Ideal production (see Table 2)
15.4
Percent of Optimum Depth = × 100 = 130%
11.8
The appropriate depth-swing factor = 0.89 (by interpolation in Table 3)
The Probable Production = 195 (0.89) = 173.6 bcy per 60-min hour
The production should be corrected for normal delays (i,e., 50-min hour)
 50  bcy
Production (corrected) = 173.6   = 145
 60  hr
EFFECT OF BUCKET SIZE AND

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BOOM LENGTH ON DRAGLINE

PRODUCTION
For best operating efficiency, one should
match the dragline and the bucket properly.
There are generally three types of buckets
9 Light Duty, for easily dug material (i.e., sandy
loam and sandy clay)
9 Medium Duty, for general excavation (I.e., clay,
soft shale)
9 Heavy Duty, for mine tripping and handling
blasted rocks
17

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PRODUCTION
Buckets are sometimes are
perforated to allow access water to
drain.
In selecting the most suitable size
of bucket for use with a given
dragline, the loose weight (in lb per
cu ft) should be known.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

PRODUCTION
Larger buckets can increase
production, but they may exceed the
recommended safe load for a
dragline.
The following table (Table 4, or Table
18.5 of Textbook) provides
representative capacities, weight, and
dimensions for dragline buckets
18

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PRODUCTION
Table 4. Capacities, Weights, and Dimension of Dragline Buckets

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 2
The material to be handled has a loose weight of 90 lb per cu ft. The
use of a 2-cu-yd medium duty bucket will be considered. The dragline
is to be operated with an 80-ft boom at a 400 angle. Is the 2-cu-yd
considered safe for the job? If not, what size bucket should be used.
Weight of Bucket = 4,825 lb (from Table 4)

Weight of Material = 60 X 90 = 5,400 lb (60 cu ft from Table 4)
Combined Weight = 10,225 lb
For 80-ft boom at a 400 swing angle:

Maximum Safe Load = 8,600 lb (from Figure 3)
Combined Weight (10,225 lb) > Maximum Safe Load (8600 lb) NOT OK
19
Example 2
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
(cont’d)
Figure 3
Typical Dragline Working Ranges
with Maximum Weight
NOTE: Figure 3 is repeated here for Example 2

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Try a 1½-cu-yd bucket

Weight of Bucket = 3,750 lb (from Table 4)
Weight of Material = 47 X 90 = 4,230 lb (47 cu ft from Table 4)
Combined Weight = 7,980 lb
For 80-ft boom at a 400 swing angle:

Maximum Safe Load = 8,600 lb (from Figure 3)
Combined Weight (7,980 lb) < Maximum Safe Load (8600 lb) OK
Hence, use 1½-cu-yd bucket
20
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CLAMSHELLS
Clamshells are used to

handle loose material such
as sand, gravel, and crushed
stone. They are specially
suited for lifting material
vertically.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CLAMSHELLS
Clamshell buckets are available

in various sizes, and in heavy-
duty types for digging, medium-
weight types for general-
purpose work and lightweight
types for rehandling light
materials.
21
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CLAMSHELLS
Manufacturers supply buckets

either with removable teeth or
without teeth.
Teeth are used in digging the
harder types of materials but are
not required when a bucket is used
for re-handling purposes.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CLAMSHELLS
A B
(A) Wide Re-handling Clamshell bucket

(B) Heavy Duty Clamshell Bucket
22
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CAPACITY OF CLAMSHELL
BUCKETS
The capacity of a clamshell
bucket is usually given in cubic
yards.
A more accurate capacity is
given as water level, plate-line,
or heaped-measure, generally
expressed in cubic feet.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BUCKETS
The water-level capacity is the
capacity of the bucket if it were
hung level and filled with water.
The plate-line capacity indicates
the capacity of the bucket
following a line along the tops of
the clams.
23
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
BUCKETS
capacity of the bucket when it is
filled to the maximum angle of
repose for the given material.
In specifying the heaped
capacity, the angle of repose is
usually 45º.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PRODUCTION RATES FOR

CLAMSHELLS
Because of the variable
factors which affect the
operations of a clamshell, it
is difficult to give dependable
production rates.
24
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PRODUCTION RATES FOR

CLAMSHELLS
The variable factors affecting operations
include:
9The difficulty of loading the bucket,
9The size load obtainable,
9The height of lift,
9The angle of swing,
9The method of disposing of the load, and
9The experience of the operator.
25
CHAPTER
PILES AND PILE-DRIVING
EQUIPMENT
19 By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 19. PILES AND PILE-DRIVING EQUIPMENT Slide No. 1

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PILES
1
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PILES
Crawler crane
w/ single acting
air hammer and
hydraulic leads.
Driving 12-in.
concrete piles.
PILES
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Load-bearing piles, are used

primarily to transmit structural
loads, through soil formations with
poor supporting properties, into or
onto soil strata that are capable of
supporting the loads.
2
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PILES
If the load is transmitted to the soil

through skin friction between the
surface of the pile and the soil, the
pile is called a friction pile.
through the lower tip, the pile is
called an end-bearing pile.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PILES
Many piles depend on a

combination of friction and end
bearing for their supporting
strengths.
Piles may be classified on the basis
of either their use or the materials
from which they are made.
3
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TYPES OF PILES
On the basis of use, there are

two major classifications:
1. Sheet
2. Load bearing.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF PILES
Sheet piling is used primarily to

resist the flow of water and
loose soil. Typical uses include
cutoff walls under dams,
cofferdams, bulkheads, and
trench sheeting.
4
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TYPES OF PILES
On the basis of the materials from

which they are made, sheet pilings
may be classified as:
9Steel
9Wood
9Concrete, or
9Composite.

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PILE TYPES
Timber
treated
untreated
Concrete
Precast
reinforced
prestressed
Steel
Composite
5
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TYPES OF LOAD-BEARING
PILES
Considering both the type of the
material from which they are made,
and the method of constructing and
driving them, load-bearing piles
may be classified as follows:
1. Timber
a. Untreated
b.Treated with a preservative

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PILES
2. Concrete
a.Precast-prestressed
b.Cast-in-place with shells
c.Augered cast-in-place
3. Steel
a. H section
b. Steel pipe
6
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PILES
4. Composite
5. Sheet
a. Steel
b. Prestressed concrete
c. Timber

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SELECTION OF PILES
It is the responsibility of the

engineer to select the pile type
which is best suited for a given
project, taking into account all the
factors that affect both installation
and performance.
7
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SELECTION OF PILES
Factors that will influence the

decision of selecting the pile type
are:
1. The type, size, and weight of the
structure to be supported.
2. The physical properties of the soil
stratum at the site.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SELECTION OF PILES
3. The depth to a stratum capable of

supporting the piles.
4. The variations across the site in the
depth to a supporting stratum.
5. The availability of materials for
piles.
6. The number of piles required.
8
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SELECTION OF PILES
7. The driving equipment.

8. The comparative in-place costs.
9. The durability required.
10. The types of structures adjacent to
the project.
11. The depth and kind of water, if any,
above the ground into which the
piles will be driven.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SITE INVESTIGATION AND

TEST PILE PROGRAM
For projects of intermediate to large
scale a thorough site investigation
can be very cost effective.
The geotechnical information
gathered from borings can be used
to determine the soil characteristics
and the depths to strata capable of
supporting the design loads.
9
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

TEST PILE PROGRAM
The number of blows per foot, from
geotechnical tests such as the standard
penetration test, is normally recorded
during the soil sampling operations and
can be extremely valuable for use in
predicting pile lengths. From this
information pile types, sizes, and
capacities may be chosen.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

TEST PILE PROGRAM
Once a pile type has been
selected, or if several types are
deemed practical for use on a
particular project, a test pile
program should be conducted.
10
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LOAD TEST
A reaction frame or beam is attached to
the reaction piles and spans over the
top of the test pile so that the test load
may be applied by utilizing an hydraulic
jack. The jack is located between the
reaction beam and the top of the test
pile. As the load is applied by the jack,
the reaction beam transfers the load to
the test pile, putting it in compression
and putting the reaction piles in tension.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LOAD TEST
11
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LOAD TEST
Reaction
frame and
hydraulic
jacks used to
load test a 54-
in. concrete
cylinder pile.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LOAD TEST
For either type test, direct load or
reaction, the magnitude of the
applied test load is normally 2 to 3
times the design bearing capacity
of the pile.
Any sudden or rapid movement of
the pile indicates a failure of the
pile.
12
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TIMBER PILES
Timber piles are made from the trunks of trees.

The advantages of timber piles include the
following:
1. The more popular lengths and sizes are available
on short notice.
2. They are economical in cost.
3. They are handled easily, with little danger of
breakage.
4. After driving they can be easily cut off to any
desired length.
5. Usually they can be extracted easily in the event
that removal is necessary.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TIMBER PILES
The disadvantages of timber piles include the

following:
1. It may be difficult to economically obtain piles that are
sufficiently long and straight.
2. They may be difficult or impossible to drive into hard formations.
3. They are difficult to splice when increased lengths are
necessary.
4. While they are satisfactory when used as friction piles, they are
not usually suitable for use as end bearings under heavy loads.
5. The duration over which they maintain their structural capacity
may be short unless the piles are treated with a preservative,
and preservatives may have undesirable environmental effects.
13
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PRECAST-PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE PILES
Precast-prestressed concrete piles are
normally manufactured at established
plants utilizing approved methods in
accordance with the PCI MNL-116-85
"Manual for Quality Control".
Specifications for many projects, such
as those used by state highway
departments, require the piles to be
manufactured at PCI certified plants.
PRECAST-PRESTRESSED
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CONCRETE PILES
Square and octagonal piles are
cast in horizontal forms on
casting beds, whereas cylinder
piles are cast in cylindrical
forms and then centrifugally
spun.
14
Precast-prestressed Concrete ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Piles

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PRECAST-PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE PILES
The advantages of concrete
precast piles include the
following:
1. They have high resistance to
chemical and biological attacks.
2. They have great strength.
3. A pipe may be installed along the
center of the pile to facilitate jetting
15
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PRECAST-PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE PILES
The disadvantages of precast concrete
piles include the following:
1.It is difficult to reduce or increase the length
2.Large sizes require heavy and expensive
handling and driving equipment.
3.The inability to obtain piles quickly by
purchase may delay the starting of a project.
4.Possible breakage of piles during handling or
driving produces a delay hazard.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE PILES
As the name implies, cast-in-
place concrete piles are
constructed by depositing the
freshly mixed concrete in place
in the ground and letting it cure
there.
16
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE PILES
The two principal methods of
constructing cast-in-place
concrete piles are:
1. Driving a metallic shell and leaving
it in the ground, and then filling the
shell with concrete.
2. Driving a metallic shell and filling
the resulting void with concrete as
the shell is pulled from the ground

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE PILES
17
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE PILES
The advantages of cast-in-place
concrete piles include the following:
1. The lightweight shells may be handled and
driven easily.
2. The variations in length do not present a
serious problem. The length of a shell may
be increased or decreased easily.
3. The shells may be shipped in short lengths
and assembled at the job.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE PILES
4. The excess reinforcing, to resist stresses
caused only by handling the pile, is
eliminated
5. The danger of breaking a pile while driving is
eliminated
6. Additional piles may be provided quickly if
they are needed
18
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE PILES
The disadvantages of cast-in-place
concrete piles include the following:
1. A slight movement of the earth around an
unreinforced pile may break it
2. An uplifting force, acting on the shaft of an
uncased and unreinforced pile, may cause it
to fail in tension
3. The bottom of a pedestal pile may not be
symmetrical

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
STEEL PILES
In constructing foundations that require piles

driven to great depths, steel piles probably
are more suitable than any other type
Steel H section piles. Steel piles may be
driven through hard materials to a specified
depth to eliminate the danger of failure due to
scouring, such as under a pier in a river.
Steel piles may be driven to great depths
through poor soils to bear on a solid rock
stratum
19
STEEL PILES
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

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STEEL PILES
Steel-pipe piles. These piles are

installed by driving pipes to the
desired depth and, if desired, filling
them with concrete. A pipe may be
driven with the lower end closed
with a plate or steel driving point, or
the pipe may be driven with the
lower end open.
20
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPOSITE PILES
When extremely hard soils or soil layers

are encountered, it may be cost-
effective to consider the use of a
composite pile.
The top portion of the pile would be a
prestressed concrete pile and the tip
would be a steel H pile embedded into
the end of the concrete pile.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
COMPOSITE PILES
The composite design is

suggested for marine
applications, where the
concrete pile section offers
resistance to deterioration and
the steel pile tip enables
penetration of hard underlying
soils.
21
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SHEET PILES
Sheet piles are used primarily to retain or

support earth.
Sheet piles are commonly used for
bulkheads and cofferdams and when
excavation depths or soil conditions
require temporary or permanent bracing
to support the lateral loads imposed by
the soil or by the soil and adjacent
structures.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SHEET PILES
Sheet piles supported loads include any live

loads imposed by construction operations.
Sheet piles can be made of steel, concrete,
or timber.
Each of sheet pile types can support limited
loads without additional bracing or tieback
systems.
When the depth of support is large or when
the loads are great, it is necessary to
incorporate a tieback or bracing system with
the sheet piles.
22
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
THE RESISTANCE OF PILES

TO PENETRATION
In general, the forces which enable a
pile to support a load also cause the
pile to resist the efforts made to drive
it.
The total resistance of a pile to
penetration will equal the sum of the
forces produced by skin friction and
end bearing.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
THE RESISTANCE OF PILES

TO PENETRATION
The relative portions of the resistance
contributed by either skin friction or end
bearing may vary from almost 0 to 100%,
depending more on soil type than on the
type of pile.
A steel H pile driven to refusal in stiff clay
should be classified as a skin friction pile,
whereas the same pile driven through a
mud deposit to rest on solid rock should
be classified as an end-bearing pile.
23
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PILE HAMMERS
The function of a pile

hammer is to furnish the
energy required to drive a
pile. Pile driving hammers
are designated by type and
size.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PILE HAMMERS
The hammer types commonly used

include the following:
1. Drop
2. Single-acting steam or compressed air
3. Double-acting steam or compressed air
4. Differential-acting steam or compressed air
5. Diesel
6. Hydraulic
7.Vibratory drivers
24
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DIESEL
HAMMERS
Diesel hammers
impart
compression,
impact and
explosion energy
to the pile.
1 ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
2
3
DIESEL
HAMMERS
1. Raise the
piston to start.
2. Injection of
diesel fuel and
compression.
3. Impact and
explosion.
25
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
4
DIESEL
5 HAMMERS
4. Exhaust ports
exposed and
gases escape.
5. Draws fresh
air through the
exhaust ports.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DIESEL HAMMERS
Fuel usage varies with the size
of the hammer see Table 19-2b.
DELMAG
10,500 ft-lb 0.7 gal/hr
58,248 ft-lb 2.11 gal/hr
107,177 ft-lb 4.23 gal/hr
300,000 ft-lb 7.93 gal/hr
26
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
VIBRATORY
HAMMERS
Vibratory
hammers
use exciting
shafts
rotating in
opposite
directions.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
R RY
ME O
M AT
HA BR
VI
27
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
VIBRATORY
HAMMER
Can be driven
by hydraulic or
electric motors.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
METHODS OF SUPPORTING
AND POSITIONING PILES
When driving piles, it is
necessary to have a method
which will position the pile in the
proper location with the
required alignment or batter,
and which will support the pile
during driving.
28
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The following methods are utilized
to accomplish such alignment and
support:
9Fixed leads
9Swing leads
9Hydraulic leads
9Templates

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
To control pile position, hydraulic
leads utilize a system of hydraulic
cylinders connected between the
bottom of the leads and the driving
rig.
This system allows the operator to
position the pile very quickly and
accurately.
29
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HYDRAULIC LEADS

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PILE LEADS
30
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PILE LEADS
Forward
Batter
Vertical Aft
Batter

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HYDRAULIC LEADS
Hydraulic leads are extremely useful in

driving batter piles since the system can
rapidly and easily adjust the angle of the
leads for the required batter.
The system is more costly than standard
fixed leads but that dollar difference is
quickly recovered by any contractor who
is regularly involved in pile-driving
operations.
31
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PILE DRIVING EQUATIONS
There are many pile-driving equations, each

of which is intended to give the supporting
strength of a pile.
The equations are empirical, with coefficients
that have been determined for certain
existing or assumed conditions under which
they were developed.
None of the equations will give dependable
values for the supporting strength of the piles
for all the varying conditions that exist on
foundation jobs:

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

– For a drop hammer:
2WH
R= (1)
S + 1.0
where
R = safe load on a pile, lb
W = weight of a falling mass, lb
H = height of free fall for mass W, ft
E = total energy of ram at the bottom of its downward
stroke, ft-lb
S = average penetration per blow for last 5 or 10 blows, in.
32
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
9For a single-acting steam hammer:

2WH
R= (2)
S + 0.1
9For a double- and differential-acting
steam hammer:
2E
R= (3)
S + 0 .1
Example 1
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
The falling ram of a drop hammer used to drive

a timber pile is 6,500 lb. The free-fall height
during driving was 19 in, and the average
penetration for the last eight blows was 0.5 in
per blow. What is the safe rated load?
From Eq. 1 :
 20 
2(6,500 ) 
2WH  12  = 14,444 lb
Safe Rated Load, R = =
S + 1.0 0.5 + 1.0
33
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SELECTING A PILE-
DRIVING HAMMER
Selecting the most suitable pile-driving
hammer for a given project involves a
study of several factors, such as:
9The size and type of piles
9The number of piles
9The character of the soil
9The location of the project
9The topography of the site
9The type of rig available, whether driving
will be done on land or in water, etc.
SELECTING A PILE-
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DRIVING HAMMER
A pile-driving contractor is usually concerned
with selecting a hammer that will drive the
piles for a project at the lowest practical cost
As most contractors must limit their
ownership to a few representative sizes and
types of hammers, a selection should be
made from hammers already owned unless
conditions are such that it is economical or
necessary to secure an additional size or
type.
34
SELECTING A PILE-
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DRIVING HAMMER
The function of a pile hammer is to provide
the energy needed to drive a pile. This
energy is supplied by a weight which is
raised and permitted to drop onto the top of
the pile, under the effect of gravity alone or
with steam/air acting during the downward
stroke.
The theoretical energy per blow will equal
the product of the weight times the
equivalent free fall.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SELECTING A PILE-
DRIVING HAMMER
Since some of this energy is lost in friction as
the weight travels downward, the net energy
per blow will be less than the theoretical energy
The actual amount of energy depends on the
efficiency of the particular hammer. The
efficiency ranges from 50 to 100%.
The following table (Table 1, Table 19-3, Text)
gives recommended sizes of hammers for
different types and sizes of piles and driving
resistances.
35
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SELECTING A PILE-
DRIVING HAMMER
Table 1. Recommended Sizes of Hammer for Driving Various
Types of Piles† (Table 19-4, Text)

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HAMMER SPEC’S
36
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HAMMER SPEC’S
37
CHAPTER
EQUIPMENT FOR PUMPING
WATER
20 By
Spring 2003
CHAPTER 20. EQUIPMENT FOR PUMPING WATER Slide No. 1
PUMPING
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
EQUIPMENT
1
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
USES OF PUMPS
Pumps are used extensively on

construction projects for:
1. Removing water from pits, tunnels. and
other excavations.
4. Furnishing water for many types of utility
services.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PUMP SELECTION
The factors that should be considered
in selecting pumps for construction
applications include:
1. Dependability.
2. Availability of repair parts.
3. Simplicity to permit easy repairs.
4. Economical installation and operation.
5. Operating power requirements.
2
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CLASSIFICATION OF
PUMPS
The pumps commonly used on
construction projects may be
classified as:
1. Displacement
a. Reciprocating
b. Diaphragm
2. Centrifugal
a. Conventional
b. Self- priming
c. Air- operated

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
A reciprocating pump operates as the result
of the movement of a piston inside a cylinder.
Double-acting pump.
When the piston is moved in one direction, the
water ahead of the piston is forced out of the
cylinder. At the same time additional water is
drawn into the cylinder behind the piston.
Regardless of the direction of movement of the
piston, water is forced out of one end and
drawn into the other end of the cylinder.
3
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RECIPROCATING PUMPS
Single-acting pump.
If water is pumped during a piston movement
in one direction only, the pump is classified as
single-acting pump
If a pump contains more than one cylinder,
mounted side by side, it is classified as a
duplex for two cylinders, triplex for three
cylinders, etc. Thus, a pump might be
classified as duplex double-acting, duplex
single-acting.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
The volume of water pumped in one stroke will
equal the area of the cylinder times the length
of the stroke, less a small deduction for
slippage through the valves or past piston,
usually about 3 to 5%.
If this volume is expressed in cubic inches
(in3), it may be converted to gallons by dividing
by 231, which is the number of cubic inches in
one gallon.
4
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SIMPLEX DOUBLE-ACTING
PUMP
The volume pumped in gallons per minute (gpm)
by a simplex double-acting pump will be
c (area of cylinder × l × n )
Q (gpm ) =
231
  πd 2   πd 2 l n
Q (gpm ) = c   × l × n  ÷ 231 = c (1)
 4   924
where Q= capacity of a pump, gpm
c= one-slip allowance; varies from 0.95 to 0.97
d= diameter of cylinder, in.
l = length of stroke, in.
n= number of strokes per min

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SIMPLEX DOUBLE-ACTING
PUMP
The volume pumped in gallons per minute (gpm)
by a multiplex double-acting pump is given by
c(area of cylinder × l × n )
Q (gpm ) = N
231
  πd 2  
Q (gpm ) = Nc   × l × n  ÷ 231
 4  
πd 2 l n (2)
Q (gpm ) = Nc
924
where N = number of cylinders in a pump
5
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ENERGY REQUIRED TO
OPERATE A PUMP
The energy (ft-lb/min) required to operate a
pump is given by the following equation:
wQh
W= (3)
e
where
W = energy, ft-lb per min
w = weight of one gallon of water, lb
h = total pumping head (ft), including friction loss in pipe
e = efficiency of the pump, expressed decimally

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
HORSEPOWER REQUIRED
BY A PUMP
The horsepower (hp) required by a pump is
given by the following equation:
W wQh
P= = (4)
33,000 33,000e
where
P = power, hp
33,000 = ft-lb per minute for 1 hp
6
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 1
How many gallons of freshwater will be pumped per
minute by a duplex double - acting pump, size 6 X 12 in,
driven by crankshaft making 90 rpm? If the total head
is 160 ft and the efficiency of the pump is 60%, what is
the minimum horsepower required to operate the
pump? The weight of water is 8.34 lb per gallon.
Assume a water slippage of 4%, therefore, c = 1.0 − 0.04 = 0.96

πd 2l n π (6) 2 (12)(2 × 90)
Q(gpm ) = Nc = (2)(0.96) = 508 gpm
924 924
wQh 8.34(508)(160)
∴P = = = 34.2 HP
33,000e 33,000(0.6)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
The capacity of a reciprocating pump depends
essentially on the speed at which the pump is
operated and is independent of the head.
The maximum head at which a reciprocating
pump will deliver water depends on the
strength of the component parts of the pump
and the power available to operate the pump.
The capacity of reciprocating pumps may be
varied considerably by varying the speed of
the pump.
7
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ADVANTAGES OF
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
The advantages of reciprocating pumps
are:
1. They are able to pump at a uniform rate
against varying heads
2. Their capacity can be increased by
increasing the speed
3. They have reasonably high efficiency
regardless of the head and speed
4. They are usually self-priming

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DISADVANTAGES OF
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
The disadvantages of reciprocating
pumps are summarized as follows:
1. The heavy weight and large size for the
given capacity.
2. The possibility of valve trouble, especially in
pumping water containing abrasive solids
3. The pulsating flow of water.
4. The danger of damaging a pump when
operating against a high head.
8
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DIAPHRAGM PUMPS
The principle under which a diaphragm

pimp operates is shown in Figure 1
(Figure 20-3, Text).
The central portion of the flexible
diaphragm is alternately raised and
lowered by the pump rod, which is
connected to a walking beam.
This action draws water into and
discharges it from the pump.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DIAPHRAGM PUMPS
Figure 1. Section through a Diaphragm Pump (Fig 20-3, Text)
9
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DIAPHRAGM PUMPS
Because this type of pump will handle clear
water or water containing large quantities of
mud, sand, sludge, and trash, it is popular as
a construction pump.
It is perfect for use on jobs where the
quantity of water varies considerably, as the
loss of prime during low flow does not
prevent the pump from automatically re-
priming when the quantity of water
increases.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DIAPHRAGM PUMPS
The accessible diaphragm may be

replaced easily.
The Contractor’s Pump Bureau
specifies that diaphragm pumps shall
be manufactured in the size and
capacity ratings as given in Table 1
(Table 16-1, Text).
10
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DIAPHRAGM PUMPS
Table 1. Minimum Capacities for Diaphragm Pumps at

10-ft Suction Lifts
Size Capacity (gph)
Two-in, single 2,000
Three-in, single 3,000
Four-in, single 6,000
Four-in, double 9,000

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
A centrifugal pump contains a rotation element,
called an impeller, which imparts to water
passing through the pump a velocity sufficiently
great to cause it to flow from the pump, even
against considerable pressure.
A mass of water may possess energy due to
either its height above a given datum or its
velocity. The former is potential, whereas the
latter is kinetic energy. One type of energy can
be converted into the other under favorable
conditions.
11
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CENTRIFUGAL
Fig. 20-4

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CENTRIFUGAL
6” diesel
powered
2” gas
powered
4” diesel
powered
12
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
The Bernoulli Equation:
v2 p
z+ + = constant (5)
2g γ
where
z = elevation above datum
v = velocity of the fluid
p = pressure of the fluid

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Application of Bernoulli Equation:
v12 p1 v22 p2
z1 + + = z2 + + + Losses1-2 (6)
2g γ 2g γ
p1
1 v1
z1
2 p2
Datum v2
13
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 2
Water is flowing in an open channel (as shown) at a
depth of 2 m an a velocity of 3 m/s. If then flows down
a contracting chute into another channel where the
depth is 1 m and the velocity is 10 m/s. Assuming
frictionless flow, determine the difference in elevation
of the channel floors.
2m v1 = 3 m/s
1m v2 = 10 m/s

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
v12 p1 v22 p2
z1 + + = z2 + + + Losses1-2
2g γ 2g γ
z1 = y + 2, z 2 = 1, v1 = 3 m/s, v2 = 10 m/s, and p1 = p2 = 0
Losses1-2 = 0 (assumed)
32 10 2
∴ ( y + 2) + + 0 = 1+ +0
2(9.806) 2(9.806)
∴ y = 3.64m
14
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
The principle of the centrifugal pump may be
illustrated by considering a drop of water at rest
at a height h above a surface. If the drop of
water is permitted to fall freely, it will strike the
surface with a velocity given by the equation
v = 2 gh (7)
where v = velocity, fps

g = acceleration of gravity, equal to 32.2 ft per sec at sea level
h = height of fall, ft

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
If the drop falls 100 ft, the velocity will be
80.2 fps.
If the same drop is given an upward velocity
of 80.2 fps, it will rise 100 ft.
These values assume no loss in energy due
to friction through air.
It is the function of a centrifugal pump to
give the water the necessary velocity as it
leaves the impeller.
15
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
If the speed of the pump is doubled, the
velocity of the water will increase from
80.2 to 160.4 fps, neglecting any
increase in friction losses
With this velocity, the water can be
pumped to height given by
v 2 (160.4 )
2
h= = = 400 ft
2 g 2(32.4)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
This indicates that if a centrifugal pump is pumping
water against a total head of 100 ft, the same
quantity of water can be pumped against a total
head of 400 ft simply by doubling the speed of the
impeller.
However, in actual practice, the maximum possible
head for the increased speed will be less than 400 ft
because of increases in losses in the pump due to
friction.
These results illustrate the effect which increasing
the speed or the diameter of an impeller has on the
performance of a centrifugal pump.
16
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
A centrifugal pump may be equipped with an
open or enclosed impeller
Although an enclosed impeller usually has
higher efficiency, it will not handle water
containing trash as well as an open impller
The power required to operate centrifugal pump
is given by Eq. 4
The efficiencies of these pumps may be as high
as 75% W wQh
P= = (4)
33,000 33,000e

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SELF-PRIMING
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
In construction projects, sometimes pumps must be
set above the surface of the water which is to be
pumped.
This is why self-priming centrifugal pumps are more
suitable than conventional types on construction
projects.
The operation of a centrifugal pump is illustrated in
Figure 2 (Fig. 20-4, Text) .
A check valve on the suction side of the pump
permits the chamber to be filled with water prior to
the starting the pump.
17
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SELF-PRIMING
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Figure 2. Section through a Self-priming Pump. (a) Priming Action. (b) Pumping Action

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SELF-PRIMING
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
When the pump is started, the water in the
chambre produces a seal flow through channel A
into the chamber, where air escapes through the
discharge, and the water flows down through
channel B to the impeller.
This action continues until all the air is exhausted
from the suction line and water enters the pump
When the pump is stopped, it will retain its charge
of priming water indefinitely.
Such a pump is self-priming to heights in excess of
25 ft.
18
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS
Submersible pumps are very useful in dewatering
9 tunnels
9 foundation pits
9 trenches
9 others
Figure 3 (Fig
(Fig 20
- 7, Text)
Text) illustrates an electric
- motor-
operated submersible pump.
Figure 4 (Fig.
(Fig. 20
- 8, Text)
Text) is a performance curve for
this pump when operated against varying heads of
water. The figure includes pertinent information related
to the pump. Other types and models have different
performance characteristics.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS
Figure 3. Electric-motor Operated Submersible Pump (The Gorman-Rupp Co.)
19
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SUBMERSIBLE
Different
sizes to fit
specific
needs.
Fig. 20-7

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE CURVE FOR

A SUBMERSIBLE PUMP
Figure 4. Performance Curve for Gorman-Rupp Submersible Pump (G-R Co.)
20
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
MULTISTAGE
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
If a centrifugal pump has a single impeller, it is
described as a single-stage pump.
If there are two or more impellers and the water
discharge from one impeller flows into the suction
of another, it is described as multistage pump
These pumps are useful for pumping against high
heads of pressure.
Pumps of this type are used sometimes to supply
water for jetting, where the pressure may run as
high as several hundred pounds per square inch
(psi).

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE OF
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Pump manufacturers will furnish sets
of curves showing the performance of
their pumps under different operating
conditions
A set of curves for a given pump will
show the variations in capacity,
efficiency, and horsepower for
different pumping heads
21
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE OF
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Figure 5 (Fig. 20-5, Text)
Performance Curves for Centrifugal Pump.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PERFORMANCE OF
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Figure 5 illustrates a set of
performance curves for a 10-in
centrifugal pump.
For a total head of 60 ft, the
capacity will be 1,200 gpm, the
efficiency 52%, and the required
power 35 brake horsepower (bhp).
22
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO

FRICTION IN PIPE
Table 2 (Table 20-4, Text) gives the
nominal loss of head due to water
flowing through clean iron or steel pipe.
The actual losses of head may differ
from the values given in Table 1
because of variations in the diameter of
a pipe and in the condition of the inside
surface.
Loss of Head due to Friction

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
in Pipe
Table 2 (Table 20-5 Text)
Water Friction Loss in Feet
Per 100 ft for Clean Iron Steel
Pipe.
23
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO

FRICTION IN PIPE
The relationship between the head of
freshwater in feet and pressure in psi is
given by the equation
h = 2.31 p (8)
p = 0.433h (9)
where h = depth of water or head, ft

p = pressure at depth h, psi

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO

FRICTION IN PIPE
Table 3 (Table 20-5, Text) gives the
equivalent length of straight steel
pipe having the same loss in head
due to water friction as fittings and
valves.
24
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO

FRICTION IN PIPE
Table 3. Length of Steel Pipe (ft) Equivalent to
Fittings and Valves (Table 20-5, Text)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO

FRICTION RUBBER HOSE
The flexibility of rubber hose makes it a desirable
substitute for pipe for use with pumps on many
construction projects.
A hose may be used on the suction side of a
pump if it is constructed with a wire insert to
prevent collapse under partial vacuum.
Rubber hose is available with end fittings
corresponding with those for iron or steel pipe
Table 4 (Table 20-6, Text) provides the loss in
head in feet per 100 ft due to friction caused by
water flowing through the hose.
25
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO

FRICTION RUBBER HOSE

Water Friction Loss, in Feet Per
100 ft of Smooth Bore Hose.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SELECTING A PUMP
Before a pump for a given job is
selected, it is necessary to analyze all
information and conditions that will
affect the selection.
The most satisfactory pumping
equipment will be the combination of
pump and pipe that will provide the
required service for the least total cost.
26
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PUMP SELECTION
What size
centrifugal
pump is
required to
handle the
200 gpm from
the previous
example?

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SELECTING A PUMP
The total cost includes the installed and
operating cost of the pump and pipe for
the period that it will be used, with an
appropriate allowance for salvage value
at the completion of the project.
In order to analyze the cost of pumping
water, it is necessary to have certain
information, such as:
1. The rate at which the water is pumped.
27
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
SELECTING A PUMP
2.The height of the lift from the existing water surface
to the point of discharge.
3.The pressure head at discharge, if any.
4.The variations in water level at suction or discharge.
5.The altitude of the project.
6.The height of the pump above the surface of water to
be pumped.
7.The size of pipe to be used, if already determined.
8.The number, sizes, and types of fittings and valves
in the pipeline.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TERMINOLOGY
R Static discharge head is the
vertical distance from the pump
impeller
to the point
of discharge.
28
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
RStatic suction lift is

the vertical distance
from the pump impeller
to the surface of the
liquid pumped.
TERMINOLOGY

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TERMINOLOGY
Suction capability is limited
by atmospheric pressure.
Maximum practical
suction lift is 25 ft.
Decreasing suction lift will
increase the volume that can be
pumped.
29
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
TERMINOLOGY
RTotal static
head is the
static suction lift
plus the static
discharge head.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
FRICTION LOSSES
The shearing stresses resist flow
(friction losses), the overcoming of
which requires that work be done.
Concerned with losses in all
components of the system:
5 Pipe
5 Hose
5 Fittings and valves
30
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 3
Select a self- priming centrifugal pump, with a capacity of
600 gpm,
gpm, for the project illustrated as shown in the figure.
All the pipe, fittings, and valves will be 6 in. with threaded
connections.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
From Table 3 (Table
(Table 20-
20-5 Text):
Text):
Length of pipe: 25 + 24 + 166 + 54 + 10 = 279 ft
One foot valve and strainer = 76 ft
0
3 90 -elbows: 3 X 16 = 48 ft
2 gate valves: 2 X 3.5 = 7 ft
1 check valve: 1 X 63 = 63 ft
Total equivalent length = 473 ft
From Table 2 (Table
(Table 20-
20-4,Text)
4,Text) the friction loss per 100 ft of
6-in pipe will be 3.10 ft
 473 
Total Head = Lift Head + Head lost in Friction = (15 + 54) +  × 3.1 = 83.7 ft
 100 
A model 90-
90-M pump will deliver the required quantity of water
(see Table 5 (Table
(Table 20-
20-2c, Text)
Text)
31
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

Pipe.
32
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Table 5 (20-2c)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 4
In operating a rock quarry, it is necessary to pump 400
gpm of clear water. The pump and pipeline selected will
be installed as shown. Based on 4 and 6 - in steel pipes
for the water line, select self- priming pumps for the job.
33
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
From Table 3 (Table
(Table 20-
20-5 Text)
Text) for 4-
4-in pipe:
Length of pipe: 20 + 40 + 176 + 44 + 40 = 320 ft
0
3 90 -elbows: 3 X 11 = 33 ft
From Table 2 (Table
(Table 20-
20-4,Text)
 433 
Total Head = Lift Head + Head lost in Friction = (10 + 44) +  × 10.4  = 99.0 ft
 100 
A model 125-
(see Table 5 (Table
(Table 20-
20-2d, Text)
Text)
Its capacity is 800 gpm

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

34
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

Pipe.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Table 5 (20-2c)
35
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
From Table 3 (Table
(Table 20-
20-5 Text)
Text) for 6-
6-in pipe:
Length of pipe: 20 + 40 + 176 + 44 + 40 = 320 ft
0
3 90 -elbows: 3 X 16 = 48 ft
From Table 2 (Table
(Table 20-
20-4,Text)
 451 
Total Head = Lift Head + Head lost in Friction = (10 + 44) +  × 1.4  = 60.3 ft
 100 
A model 40-
(see Table 6 (Table
(Table 20-
20-2b, Text)
Text)
Its capacity is 585 gpm.
gpm.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Table 6 (20-2b)
36
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Example 5
In a highway project, it is required to pump 250 gpm of dirty
water. For convenience, the contractor has decided to use a
6-in smooth rubber hose with expected maximum length of 300
ft. The hose will be used on the suction side of a proposed
self-
self-priming pump. A 4-4-in steel pipe will be used on the other
side of the pump to remove the water as shown in the figure.
What capacity pump should the contractor select?
Gate Valve
Pump
10 ft 600 ft
3 ft

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
From Table 3 (Table

(Table 20-
20-5 Text)
Text) for 4-
4-in pipe:
Length of pipe: = 600 ft
1 gate valves: 1 X 2.5 = 2.5 ft
Total equivalent length of pipe = 602.5 ft
From Table 2 (Table
(Table 20-
20-4,Text)
From Table 4 (Table
(Table 20-
20-6,Text)
6-in smooth rubber hose will be 0.49 ft
Total Head = Lift Head + Head lost in Friction (Pipe) + Head lost in Friction (Hose)
 602.5   300 
= (10) +  × 4.4  +  × 0.49  = 38 ft
 100   100 
37
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf

Water Friction Loss, in Feet Per
100 ft of Smooth Bore Hose.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
A model 18-MT pump will deliver the

required quantity of water
(see Table 7 (Table 20-3a, Text)
Its capacity is 300 gpm
38
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
Table 7 (Table 20-3a, Text)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WELLPOINT SYSTEMS
In excavating below the surface of the
ground, the contractor may encounter
groundwater prior to reaching the
bottom of a pit.
For pits excavated into sand and gravel,
the flow of water will be large if some
method is adopted to remove the water
before it enters the pit.
39
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WELLPOINT SYSTEMS

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
PREDRAINING
METHODS
Produce a
Excavation
cone of
depression in
the water
table so that
the excavation
can take place
in the dry.
40
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
DEEP WELLS
Large-diameter deep wells are suitable
for lowering the water table when the soil
becomes more pervious with depth or the
excavation penetrates or is underlain by
sand or coarse granular soils.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WELLPOINT SYSTEMS
While the water may be permitted to flow into
sumps located in the pit and then removes by
pumps, the presence of such water usually
creates a nuisance and interferes with the
The installation of a wellpoint system along or
around the pit may lower the water table
below the bottom of the excavation, thus
permitting the work to take place under
relatively dry conditions.
41
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WELLPOINT SYSTEMS
A wellpoint is a perforated tube enclosed in
a screen, which is installed below the
surface of the ground in order to collect
and remove water from the ground
The essential parts of wellpoint system is
shown in Figure 6
The principle by which a wellpoint system
work is illustrated in Figure 7 (Fig. 20-12,
Text)

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WELLPOINT SYSTEMS
Figure 6 The Essential parts of a Wellpoint System
42
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WELLPOINT SYSTEMS
Figure 7. Lowering Water Table Adjacent to Welllpoints

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WELLPOINT SYSTEMS
Figure 7a shows a single point will lower the

surface of water table in the soil adjacent to
the point.
Figure 7b shows several points, installed
reasonably close together, lower the water
table over extended area.
A group of wellpoints properly installed along
a trench or around a foundation pit can lower
the water table below the depth of excavation.
43
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WELLPOINT SYSTEMS
The efficiency of a wellpoint systems
depends on the type of soil.
They operate satisfactory if they are
installed in a permeable soil such as sand
and gravel.
If they are installed in less permeable soil,
such as silt, it may be necessary first to
sink a large pipe, say 6 to 10 in in
diameter, for each point.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
WELLPOINT SYSTEMS
Then, remove the soil from inside the
pipe, install a wellpoint, fill the space
inside the pipe with sand or fine
gravel, and then withdraw the pipe.
This will leave a volume of sand
around each wellpoint to act as a
water collector and a filter to increase
the rate of flow for each point.
44
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
INSTALLING A
WELLPOINT SYSTEM
A wellpoint is jetted into position by forcing
water through an opening at the bottom of the
point.
After each point is jetted into position, it is
connected through a pipe or a rubber hose to
a header pipe
Header pipe are usually 6 to 10 in. in
diameter.
A header is connected to a self-priming
centrifugal pump.

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
CAPACITY OF A
WELLPOINT SYSTEM
The capacity of a wellpoint system
depends on:
9number of point installed
9the permeability of soil
9the amount of water present
The flow per wellpoint may vary from 3
or 4 gpm to as much as 30 or more
gpm on some installations.
45
ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
MORE INFORMATION
6 Selection Guidebook for
Portable Dewatering Pumps,
Contractors Pump Bureau, P.
O. Box 5858, Rockville, MD
20855
6 Construction Dewatering,
(1981) J. P. Powers, Wiley &
Sons, NY

ENCE 420 ©Assakkaf
MORE INFORMATION
Foundation Engineering,
(1962) edited by G. A.
Leonards, McGraw-Hill
Pump Handbook, (1976) edited
by Igor J. Karassik, William C.
Krutzsch, Warren H. Fraser and
Joseph P. Messina, McGraw-
Hill
46
REVIEW FOR FINAL
EXAM
• A. J. Clark School of Engineering •Department of Civil Engineering
by
Dr. Ibrahim A. Assakkaf

Spring 2002
ENCE 420 - Construction Equipment and Methods
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Maryland
Finishing Equipment
(Ch. 9)
• A. J. Clark School of Engineering • Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Finishing equipment
include, but not limited to:
Graders
Gradalls
trimmers
 Assakkaf
ENCE 420 – REVIEW FOR THE FINAL EXAM Slide No. 1
1
GRADERS
 Assakkaf
Finishing Equipment
(Ch. 9)
estimate the total time
P× D
Total Time = (1)
S×E
P = number of passes required
D = distance traveled in each pass, in miles or feet
S = speed of grader (mph or fps)
E = grader efficiency factor
 Assakkaf
2
Finishing Equipment
(Ch. 9)
The gradall is a utility machine

which combines the operating
features of the hoe, dragline, and
motor grader.
The full revolving superstructure
of the unit can be mounted on
either crawler tracks or wheels.
 Assakkaf
Finishing Equipment
(Ch. 9)
 Assakkaf
3
Finishing Equipment
(Ch. 9)
Trimmers are specialty

machines to fine finishing for
special jobs.
The result is better accuracy
and greater production
compared to the fine-grading
with a grader.
 Assakkaf
Finishing Equipment
(Ch. 9)
 Assakkaf
4
Finishing Equipment
(Ch. 9)
Production of a Trimmer
A large full-width trimmer can
have speeds of about 30 fpm.
A small, single-lane trimmer, can
be rated at 128 fpm.
As operating speed is increased,
there is usually a decrease in
quality.
 Assakkaf
Trucks and Hauling

Equipment (Ch. 10)
Trucks are hauling units .

Trucks have high travel speeds when
operating on suitable roads, provide
relatively low hauling costs.
Trucks provide a high degree of
flexibility permitting modifications in the
total hauling capacity of a fleet and
adjustments for changing haul
distances.
 Assakkaf
5
TRUCKS
 Assakkaf
TRUCKS
Distance is the
principal factor
in selecting haul
units.
Feet
 Assakkaf
6
Trucks and Hauling
Equipment (Ch. 10)
Tires are about 35%

of a truck’s operating
cost. Overload a
truck and you abuse
the tires.
 Assakkaf
TIRES
Tires are designed for a wide
range of applications.
Section 20 CAT Handbook

 Assakkaf
7
Trucks and Hauling
Equipment (Ch. 10)
There are three methods of

expressing the capacities of
trucks and wagons:
1) by the load which it will carry,
expressed gravimetrically in
tons.
2) by its struck volume (cu yd).
3) by its heaped volume (cu yd).
 Assakkaf
Trucks and Hauling

Equipment (Ch. 10)
The struck capacity of a truck is

the volume of material which it will
haul when it is filled level to the top
of the sides of the body.
volume of material, which it will
haul when the load is heaped
above the sides.
 Assakkaf
8
Trucks and Hauling
Equipment (Ch. 10)
STRUCK
HEAPED
 Assakkaf
Example 1
Determine the maximum speed for the truck, whose specifications are
given below, when it is hauling a load of 22 tons up a 6% grade on a
haul road having a rolling resistance of 60 lb per ton:
Engine: 239 fwhp
Capacity:
Struck, 14.7 cu yd
Heaped, 2:1, 18.3 cu yd
Net Weight (empty) = 36,860 lb
Payload = 44,000 lb
Gross Vehicle Weight = 36,860 + 44,000 = 80,860 lb

60
Total Resistance = rr + gr =
+ 6 = 9%
20
Maximum Speed ≈ 6.5 mph (from Figure 1, or Fig.10 - 9 Text)
 Assakkaf
9
Figure 1
 Assakkaf
TRUCK
PRODUCTION
LOAD
RETURN HAUL
A
DUMP  Assakkaf
10
TRUCK PRODUCTION
STEP 6: TRUCK CYCLE TIME

CYCLE TIME =
Load Time
+ Haul Time
+ Dump Time
+ Return Time  Assakkaf
Compressed Air (Ch. 11)

Compressed air is used extensively

on construction projects for:
Drilling rock
Loosening earth
Operating air motors
Hand tools
Pile drivers
Pumps
Mucking equipment
Cleaning.  Assakkaf
11
Boyle’s and Charles’ Laws
(Ch.11)
When a gas undergoes a change in volume

Boyle’s Law states that when a gas is or pressure with a change in temperature,
subjected to a change in volume due to a Boyle’s law will not apply
change in pressure, at a constant Charles law states that the volume of a
temperature, the product of the pressure given weight of gas at constant pressure
times the volume will remain constant varies in direct proportion to its absolute
temperature, that is
P1V1 = P2V2 = K V1 V2
= =C
where T1 T2
P1 = initial absolute pressure where
V1 = initial volume V1 = initial volume
P2 = final absolute pressure T1 = initial absolute temperature
V2 = final volume V2 = final volume
K = a constant T2 = final absolute temperature
P1V1 P2V2 C = a constant
= = a constant
T1 T2
 Assakkaf
Example 1 (Ch. 11)

Determine the final volume of 1,000 ft3 of air

when the gauge pressure is increased from 20
to 120 psi, with no change in temperature.
The barometer indicates an atmospheric
pressure of 14.7 psi.
P1 = 20 + 14.7 = 34.7 psi

P2 = 120 + 14.7 = 134.7 psi
P1V1 = P2V2 = K
V1 = 1,000 ft3
P1V1 34.7(1000)
V2 = = = 257.6 ft 3
P2 134.7
 Assakkaf
12
Example 5 (Ch. 11)
Consider a 315-
315-cfm two stage portable compressor with the following
specifications as given by the manufacturer:
No. of low-pressure cylinders = 4
Diameter of low-pressure cylinders = 7 in
Length of stroke = 5 in
Revolution per minute (rpm) = 870
What is the efficiency of this compressor?
2
7
π 
2
Area of cylinder =   = 0.267 ft 2
(144)
5
Displacement per cylinder per stroke = 0.267  = 0.111 ft 3
 12 
ft 3
Displacement per minute = 4 × 0.111× 870 = 386.3
min
315
Efficiency = ×100 = 81.5%
386.3  Assakkaf
Loss of Air Pressure in Pipe

due to Friction (Ch. 11)
CL Q 2 0.1025L Q 2
f = × f = × 5.31
r d5 r d
Where
f = pressure drop, psi
L = length of pipe, ft
Q = volume of free air, ft3, per second
r = ratio of compression, based on absolute press.
d = actual ID of pipe, in
C = experimental coefficient (0.1025/d
(0.1025/d0.31 for steel pipe)
 Assakkaf
13
Figure 2
Compressed-Air Flow Chart
 Assakkaf
Example 9 (Ch. 11)

A 4-
4-in ordinary steel pipe with screwed fittings is
used to transmit 1200 cfm of free air at an initial
pressure of 90 psi gauge pressure. Determine
the total loss of pressure in the pipline if the
pipline includes the following items:
1450 ft of pipe, 6 standard on-
on-run tees
4 gate valves, 3 angle Valves
Size of pipe = 4 in.

Length of pipe = 1450 ft
Q = 1200 cfm
P1 = 90 psi gauge
 Assakkaf
14
Example 9 (continued) (Ch.11)
The equivalent length of the pipe will be:
Pipe = 1450 ft
Gate valves: 4 X 2.4 (Table 3) = 9.6 ft
on-
on-run tees: 6 X 7.7 (Table 3) = 46.2 ft
angle valves: 3 X 56.0 (Table 3) = 168 ft
Total 1673.8 ft
90 + 14.7
r= = 7.122
14.7
2
 1200 
2  
0.1025L Q 0.1025(1673.8)  60 
f = × 5.31 = × = 7.86 psi
r d 7.122 (4)5.31
 Assakkaf

Table 3. Equivalent Length (ft) of Standard-weight Pipe Having the Same

Pressure Losses as Screwed Fittings
 Assakkaf
15
Effects of Altitude on the Consumption of
Air by Rock Drills (Ch. 11)
Table 6. Factors to be Used in Determining the Capacities of Compressed air

Required by Rock Drills at Different Altitudes
 Assakkaf
Example 11 (Ch. 11)

A single drill requires a capacity of 600 cfm of

air at sea level. What would be the required
capacities at altitudes of 5,000 ft and 15,000 ft?
Using Table 6 (Table 12-

12-10, Text):
 Assakkaf
16
Drilling Rock and Earth
(Ch. 12)
Drilling equipment and methods are

used by the construction and mining
industries to drill holes in both rock and
earth.
Same or similar equipment may in some
instances be used for drilling both
materials.
Purposes for which drilling are
performed vary a great deal from
general to highly specialized
applications.  Assakkaf
Selecting the Drilling Method

and Equipment (Ch. 12)
Holes are drilled for various purposes,

such as:
To receive charges of explosives,
For exploration, or
For ground modification by the injection
of grout.
Within practical limits, the equipment
which will produce the greatest overall
economy for the particular project is the
most satisfactory.  Assakkaf
17
Selecting the Drilling Method
and Equipment (Ch. 12)
Many factors affect the selection of

equipment. Among these are:
1.The nature of the terrain.
2.The required depth of holes,
3.The hardness of the rock.
4.The extent to which the formation is broken
or fractured.
5.The size of the project.
6.The extent to which the rock is to be broken
for handling or crushing.
 Assakkaf
Estimating Drilling Production

(Ch. 12)
Figure 4. Format for Estimating Drilling Production
 Assakkaf
18
Example 1 (Ch. 12)
A project utilizing experienced drillers will require
the drilling and blasting of high silica, fine-
fine-grained
sandstone rock. From field drilling tests it was
determined that a direct drilling rate of 120 ft per
hour could be achieved with a 3 1/2 HD bit on a
rotary percussion drill @ 100 psi. psi. The drills to be
used take 10- 10-ft steel. The blasting pattern will be a
10 X 10-
10 - ft grid with 2 ft of sub-
sub-drilling required. On
the average the specified finish grade is 16 ft
below the existing ground surface. Determine the
drilling production.
 Assakkaf

Using the format of Figure 4:

(1) Depth of hole (a) 16-ft pull (b) 18-ft drill (16 + 2)
(2) Penetration 2.00 ft/min (120 ft ÷ 60)
(3) Drilling Time: 9.00 min (18 ft ÷ 2 ft/min)

(4) Change Steel: 0.00 min (d<20 ft)
(5) Blow Hole: 0.10 min
(6) Move to Next Hole 0.45 min (10 ft ÷ 0.25 mph)
(7) Align Steel: 1.00 min
(8) Change Bit: 0.08 min (4 X 18/850 )
(9) Total Time 10.63 min
Note: 850 was obtained from Table 5
 Assakkaf
19
Table 5 (Table 13-6c, Text)
 Assakkaf

(10) Operating Rate: 1.69 ft/min (18 ÷ 10.63)
(11) Production Efficiency.: 50 min/hr
(12) Hourly Production 84.5 ft/hr (50 X 1.55)
 Assakkaf
20
Example 2 (Ch. 12)
The drilling production of Example 1 must match
that of hauling and loading for the project, which is
500 cu yd per hour. How many drill units will be
required?
10 ×10 ×16
Hole Production = = 59.26 cu yd/hole
27
84.5 ft/hr hole
= 4.69 per drill
18 ft/hole hr
 hole 
4.69 per drill  × 59.26 cu yd / hole = 278 cu yd
 hr 
2 × 278 = 556 cu yd > 500 cu yd
∴ Two drills will be required
 Assakkaf
Blasting Rock (Ch. 13)

”Blasting" is performed to break rock so

that it may be quarried for processing in
an aggregate production operation, or to
Blasting is accomplished by discharging
an explosive that has either been placed
in an unconfined manner, such as mud
capping boulders, or is confined as in a
borehole.
 Assakkaf
21
Commercial Explosives (Ch.13)
There are four main

categories of commercial high
explosives:
1. Dynamite,
2. Slurries,
3. ANFO, and
4. Two-component explosives.  Assakkaf
Blasthole Dimensional
Terminology (Ch.13)
Figure 1. Blasthole Dimensional Terminology
 Assakkaf
22
Burden (Ch. 13)
The burden distance, B, based on relative
An empirical formula for approximating a bulk energy is given by
burden distance to be used on a first trial
shot is Stv
B = 0.67 De 3
 2 SGe  SGr
B =  + 1.5  De
 SGr 
where
B = burden, ft
SGe = specific gravity of the explosive Stv = relative bulk strength compared to ANFO
De = diameter of the explosive, in.]
 Assakkaf
Problem (Ch. 13)

A material company is opening a new quarry in a

limestone formation. Tests have shown that the specific
gravity of this formation is 2.7. The initial mining plan
envisions an average bench height of 24 ft based on the
loading and hauling equipment capabilities. Bulk ANFO,
specific gravity 0.8, and dynamite specific gravity 1.5,
will be the explosives used. The contractor’s equipment
can drill 6-
6-in diameter holes. Delayed initiation will be
utilized. Develop a blasting plan for the first shot.
 2 SGe   2(0.8) 
B =  + 1.5  De =  + 1.5 (6) = 12.6 ft
 SG r   2. 7 
 Assakkaf
23
Problem (Ch. 13)
SR= L/B = 24 ÷ 12.6 = 1.9 ---->

----> Table 3: Fair
This might cause problem
Try drilling 4 in blasthole and loading 4 inches with
ANFO:
 2SGe   2(0.8) 
B =  + 1.5  De =  + 1.5 (4) = 8.4 ft
 SGr   2.7 
Use a burden distance of 8 ft
SR= L/B = 24 ÷ 8 = 3 ---->
----> Table 3: Good
Stemming depth: T = 0.7 (8) = 5.6 ft ---->
----> use 6 ft
Subdrilling depth: J = 0.3 (8) = 2.4 ft ----->
-----> use 2.5 ft
 Assakkaf
Problem (Ch. 13)

*
SR > 1 but < 4, and delayed initiation, hence

L + 7 B 24 + 7(8)
S= = = 10 ft
8 8
10 ± 0.15(10): The range for S is 8.5 to 11.5 ft

As a first try: Use a 8 X 10 Pattern
 Assakkaf
24
Aggregate Production (Ch. 14)
The production of crushed-stone

aggregate involves:
Drilling
Blasting
Loading
Transporting
Crushing
Screening
Product handling and storage
 Assakkaf
Types of Crushers (Ch. 14)

Crushers are classified according to the

stage of crushing which they
accomplish, such as:
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
A primary crusher receives the stone
directly from a quarry after blasting, and
produces the first reduction in size.
 Assakkaf
25
Major Types of Crushers
(Ch. 14)
Table 2
 Assakkaf
Sizes of Stone Produced by

Crushers
Figure 1 (Figure 14.4, Text)

Analysis of the Size of Aggregate
Produced by Jaw and Roll Crushers
 Assakkaf
26
Example 1 (Ch. 14)
A jaw crusher with a closed setting

of 3 in produces 50 tons per hour of
crushed stone. Determine the
amount of stone produced in tons
per hour within the following size
range: in excess of 2 in; between 2
and 1 in; between 1 and 1/4 in.
 Assakkaf
Example 1 (cont’d) (Ch. 14)

From Figure 1, the amount retained

on a 2-in screen is 42% of 50,
which is 21 tons per hr.
Similarly, the amount in each of the
size range is determined as shown
in the following Table 3:
 Assakkaf
27
Table 3
Size Range (in) % Passing Screen Percent in Size Total Output of Amount
Range Crusher (ton/hr) Produced in Size
Range (ton/hr)
Over 2 100 – 58 42 50 21.0
2 –1 58 – 33 25 50 12.5
1 – 1/4 33 – 11 22 50 11.0
¼-0 11 - 0 11 50 5.5
Total 100 % 50.0 tph
 Assakkaf
Feed Size (Ch. 14)

Figure 2
 Assakkaf
28
Feed Size (Ch. 14)
The maximum-size particles that can be

crushed is determined as follows:
Let
R = radius of rolls
B = angle of nip
D = R cos B = R cos(16.76) = 0.9575 R
A = maximum-size feed
C = roll setting = size of finished product
 Assakkaf
Feed Size (Ch. 14)

X = R − D = R − 0.9575 R = 0.0425 R
A = 2 X + C = 2(0.0425 R ) + C = 0.085R + C
∴ Maximum - size Feed ( A) = 0.085R + C (1)
 Assakkaf
29
Example 3 (Ch. 14)
Determine the minimum-size single-deck

screen, having 1.5-in-sq openings, for
screening 120 tons per hour of dry
crushed stone, weighing 100 lb per cu ft
when crushed. A screening efficiency of
90% is satisfactory. An analysis of the
aggregate indicates that approximately
30% of it will be less than 0.75 in. in size.
 Assakkaf

The values of the factors to be used in Eq. 4 are

as follows:
Q = 120 ton/hr
C = 3.3 ton/hr per sq ft (Figure 3)
E = 1.25 (Table 6)
D = 1.0 (Table 7)
G = 0.8 (Table 8)
Substituting these values in Eq. 4, we get
Q 120
A= = = 36.4 sq ft
CEDG 3.3(1.25)(1.0)(0.8)
 Assakkaf
30
Cranes (Ch. 17)
The crane is the primary

machine used for the
vertical movement of
construction materials.
 Assakkaf
CRANES
Boom
Mast
Counter
weight Boom stop
 Assakkaf
31
Cranes (Ch. 17)
The most common types are:

1. Crawler
2. Hydraulic truck
4. Rough-terrain
5. All-terrain
6. Heavy lift
8. Tower
 Assakkaf
Hydraulic Truck Cranes

(Ch. 17)
Remember: All mobile cranes are

stability-sensitive machines. Rated
loads are based on ideal
conditions, a level machine, calm
air, and no dynamic effects.
 Assakkaf
32
STABILITY
Counterweight
and Load
superstructure
Short Load distance

distance  Assakkaf
Tower Cranes (Ch. 17)

These are cranes that

provide a high-lifting
height with good
working radius, and
take up limited space.
 Assakkaf
33
The three common configurations

are:
(1) a special vertical boom
arrangement on a mobile crane,
(2) a mobile crane superstructure
mounted atop a tower, or
(3) a vertical tower (European type)
with a jib and operator's cab atop.
 Assakkaf

 Assakkaf
34
Example 1 (Ch. 17)
Can the tower crane, whose load chart is given in Table 1(Table
1(Table
17.3 of Textbook), lift a 15,000-
15,000-lb load at a radius of 142 ft? The
crane has a L7 jib and a two-
two-part line hoist. The slings that will be
used for the pick weigh 400 lb. Assume 5% margin be applied to
computed weight.
Weight of Load = 15,000 lb

Weight of slings = 400 lb
Total Weight = 15,000 + 400 = 15,400 lb
Required Capacity = 15,400 X 1.05 = 16,170 lb
From Table 1, the maximum capacity at a 142-
142-ft radius is 16,400 lb
16,400 lb > 16,170 lb
Therefore, the crane can safely make the lift
 Assakkaf

Table 1. (Text 17.3) Lifting Capacities (lb) for a Tower Crane
 Assakkaf
35
Example 2 (Ch. 17)
Determine the minimum boom length that will permit the crawler
crane to lift a load which is 34 ft high to a position 114 ft above the
surface on which the crane is operating. The length of the block,
hook, and slings that are required to attach the hoist rope to the load
is 26 ft. The location of the project will require the crane to pick up
the load from a truck at a distance of 70 ft from the center of rotation
of the crane. If the block, hook, and slings weigh 5,000 lb, determine
the maximum net weight of the load that can be hoisted.
The operating radius = 70 ft

Total height of boom point = 114 + 34 + 26 = 174 ft
From Figure 1 (Figure 17.11 of Textbook), for a radius of 70 ft, the height of
of the boom point is 178 ft for 180-ft boom, which is high enough.
From Table 2 (Table 17.1 in Textbook),
for 180-ft boom and 70-ft radius, Maximum total load = 47,600 lb
Hence
Maximum Safe Weight = 47,600 - 5,000 = 42,600 lb  Assakkaf

Figure 1. (Text 17.11) Working Ranges for a 200-ton Crawler Crane (Manitowoc Eng. Co)
 Assakkaf
36
Table 2. (Text 17.1) Lifting Capacities (lb) for 200-ton Crawler Crane with 180 ft of Boom
 Assakkaf
Draglines and Clamshells

(Ch. 18)
 Assakkaf
37
Draglines (Ch. 18)
Draglines are used to excavate

material and to load it into
hauling units, such as trucks or
tractor-pulled wagons, or to
deposit it in levees, dams, and
spoil banks near the pits from
which it is excavated.
 Assakkaf
Basic Components of Dragline

(Ch. 18)
Figure 1
Hoist cable Boom
Dump cable
Hoist chain
Bucket
Fairlead
Drag cable Drag chain
 Assakkaf
38
Types of Draglines (Ch. 18)
Draglines may be divided into

three types:
1. Crawler-mounted
2. Wheel-mounted, self-propelled
3. Truck-mounted
 Assakkaf
Operation of a Dragline
(Ch. 18)
Figure 4
Dragline Digging Zones
 Assakkaf
39
Output of Draglines (Ch. 18)
• The output of a dragline will vary with the following

factors:
1. Class of material
2. Depth of cut
3. Angle of swing
4. Size and type of bucket
5. Length of boom
6. Method of disposal, casting, or loading haul units
7. Size of the hauling units, when used
8. Skill of the operator
9. Physical condition of the machine
10. Job conditions
 Assakkaf
Example 1 (Ch. 18)

A 2-cu-yd short-boom dragline

is to be used to excavate hard,
tough clay. The depth of cut
will be 15.4 ft, and the swing
angle will be 1200. Compute the
probable production of the
dragline.
 Assakkaf
40
Optimum Depth of Cut = 11.8 ft ⇒ 195 cu-yd Ideal production (see Table 2)
15.4
Percent of Optimum Depth = × 100 = 130%
11.8
The appropriate depth-swing factor = 0.89 (by interpolation in Table 3)
The Probable Production = 195 (0.89) = 173.6 bcy per 60-min hour
The production should be corrected for normal delays (i,e., 50-min hour)
 50  bcy
Production (corrected) = 173.6   = 145
 60  hr
 Assakkaf
Effect of the Depth of Cut and Swing

Angle on Dragline Output (Ch. 18)
Table 3. Factors for Depth of Cut and Angle of Swing Effect on

Dragline Production (Table 8-4 of Textbook)
 Assakkaf
41
Clamshells (Ch. 18)
Clamshells are used to

handle loose material such
as sand, gravel, and crushed
stone. They are specially
suited for lifting material
vertically.
 Assakkaf
Piles and Pile-Driving

Equipment (Ch. 19)
Load-bearing piles, are used primarily

to transmit structural loads, through
soil formations with poor supporting
properties, into or onto soil strata that
are capable of supporting the loads.
through skin friction between the
surface of the pile and the soil, the pile
is called a friction pile.
 Assakkaf
42
Piles and Pile-Driving
Equipment (Ch. 19)

through the lower tip, the pile is
called an end-bearing pile.
Many piles depend on a
combination of friction and end
bearing for their supporting
strengths.
 Assakkaf
Pile Driving Equations (Ch.19)

For a drop hammer: For a single-acting steam hammer:

2WH
2WH R=
R= S + 0 .1
S + 1.0
where
For a double- and differential-acting
R = safe load on a pile, lb
steam hammer:
W = weight of a falling mass, lb
H = height of free fall for mass W, ft 2E
R=
E = total energy of ram at the bottom of its downward S + 0 .1
stroke, ft-
ft-lb
S = average penetration per blow for last 5 or 10 blows, in.
 Assakkaf
43
Example 1 (Ch. 19)
The falling ram of a drop hammer used to drive
a timber pile is 6,500 lb. The free-fall height
during driving was 19 in, and the average
penetration for the last eight blows was 0.5 in
per blow. What is the safe rated load?
From Eq. 1 :
 20 
2(6,500) 
2WH  12  = 14,444 lb
Safe Rated Load, R = =
S + 1.0 0.5 + 1.0
 Assakkaf
Equipment for Pumping Water

(Ch. 20)
Pumps are used extensively on
construction projects for:
1. Removing water from pits, tunnels. and
other excavations.
4. Furnishing water for many types of utility
services.
 Assakkaf
44
Classification of Pumps (Ch.20)
The pumps commonly used on

construction projects may be classified as:
1. Displacement
a. Reciprocating
b. Diaphragm
2. Centrifugal
a. Conventional
b. Self-priming
c. Air-operated
 Assakkaf
Simplex Double-Acting Pump

(Ch. 20)
The volume pumped in gallons per minute
(gpm) by a simplex double-acting pump will
be c (area of cylinder × l × n )
Q (gpm ) =
231
  πd 2   πd 2 l n
Q (gpm ) = c   × l × n  ÷ 231 = c (1)
 4   924
where Q= capacity of a pump, gpm

c= one-slip allowance; varies from 0.95 to 0.97
d= diameter of cylinder, in.
l = length of stroke, in.
n= number of strokes per min
 Assakkaf
45
Multiplex Double-Acting Pump
(Ch. 20)
The volume pumped in gallons per minute
(gpm) by a multiplex double-acting pump is
given by c(area of cylinder × l × n )
Q (gpm ) = N
231
  πd 2  
Q (gpm ) = Nc   × l × n  ÷ 231
 4  
πd 2 l n (2)
Q (gpm ) = Nc
924
where N = number of cylinders in a pump

 Assakkaf
Horsepower Required by a
Pump (Ch. 20)
The horsepower (hp) required by a pump is

given by the following equation:
W wQh
P= = (4)
33,000 33,000e
where
P = power, hp
33,000 = ft-lb per minute for 1 hp
 Assakkaf
46
Example 1 (Ch. 20)
How many gallons of freshwater will be pumped per

minute by a duplex double-
double-acting pump, size 6 X 12 in,
driven by crankshaft making 90 rpm? If the total head
is 160 ft and the efficiency of the pump is 60%, what is
the minimum horsepower required to operate the
pump? The weight of water is 8.34 lb per gallon.
Assume a water slippage of 4%, therefore, c = 1.0 − 0.04 = 0.96

πd 2l n π (6) 2 (12)(2 × 90)
Q(gpm ) = Nc = (2)(0.96) = 508 gpm
924 924
wQh 8.34(508)(160)
∴P = = = 34.2 HP
33,000e 33,000(0.6)
 Assakkaf
Centrifugal Pumps (Ch. 20)

The Bernoulli Equation:
v2 p
z+ + = constant (5)
2g γ
where
z = elevation above datum
v = velocity of the fluid
p = pressure of the fluid
 Assakkaf
47
Centrifugal Pumps (Ch. 20)
Application of Bernoulli Equation:
v12 p1 v22 p2
z1 + + = z2 + + + Losses1-2 (6)
2g γ 2g γ
p1
1 v1
z1
2 p2
Datum v2
 Assakkaf
Example 3 (Ch. 20)

Select a self-
self-priming centrifugal pump, with a capacity of
600 gpm,
gpm, for the project illustrated as shown in the figure.
All the pipe, fittings, and valves will be 6 in. with threaded
connections.
 Assakkaf
48
From Table 3 (Table 20-20-5 Text):
Length of pipe: 25 + 24 + 166 + 54 + 10 = 279 ft
0
3 90 -elbows: 3 X 16 = 48 ft
1 check valve: 1 X 63 = 63 ft
From Table 2 (Table 20-20-4,Text) the friction loss per 100 ft of
 473 
Total Head = Lift Head + Head lost in Friction = (15 + 54) +  × 3.1 = 83.7 ft
 100 
A model 90-
(see Table 5 (Table 20-
20-2c, Text)  Assakkaf


 Assakkaf
49

Pipe.
 Assakkaf

Table 5 (20-2c)
 Assakkaf
50
Wellpoint Systems (Ch. 20)
Figure 7. Lowering Water Table Adjacent to Welllpoints
 Assakkaf
Capacity of a Wellpoint System

(Ch.20)
The capacity of a wellpoint system

depends on:
number of point installed
the permeability of soil
the amount of water present
The flow per wellpoint may vary from 3
or 4 gpm to as much as 30 or more
gpm on some installations
 Assakkaf
51
Good Luck
with Your
Finals
☺
 Assakkaf
52

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Construction Planning, Equipment,

and Methods Sixth Edition

CHAPTER 0. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND METHODS Slide No. 1

CHAPTER 0. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND METHODS Slide No. 3

TEXTBOOK: “Construction Planning, Equipment, and Methods,”

GRADING: HW (20%), Midterm Exam (25%), Final Exam (30%),

GENERAL COURSE DESCRIPTION (UM SCHEDULE OF CLASSES):

CHAPTER 0. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND METHODS Slide No. 5

COURSE OUTLINE & SCHEDULE:

1 W, Jan. 29 Introduction to Course (General Overview) Chapter 1

4 M, Feb. 17 Geotechnical Materials (cont’d) Chapter 4

COURSE OUTLINE & SCHEDULE (cont’d):

7 M, Mar. 10 Excavators Chapter 8

8 M, Mar. 17 Trucks and Hauling Equipment Chapter 10

9 M, Mar. 31 Trucks and Hauling Equipment Chapter 10

CHAPTER 0. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND METHODS Slide No. 7

COURSE OUTLINE & SCHEDULE (cont’d):

Week Date Topic of Discussion Source

COURSE OUTLINE & SCHEDULE (cont’d):

15 M, May 12 Project Presentations (Groups 1, 2, 3, and 4)

CHAPTER 0. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND METHODS Slide No. 9

HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENTS (cont’d):

CHAPTER 0. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND METHODS Slide No. 11

PROJECT (Term Paper): To be announced and discussed.

“Learn how to apply engineering

CHAPTER 0. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND METHODS Slide No. 13

This course uses concepts from various

CHAPTER 0. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND METHODS Slide No. 15

Purpose of the Course

Learn to apply engineering fundamentals and analyses to the

Through understanding of:

Course Outline & Topics

CHAPTER 0. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND METHODS Slide No. 17

Course Outline & Topics

• Discounted Present Worth Analysis

Course Outline & Topics

Equipment Cost (Chapter 3)

CHAPTER 0. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND METHODS Slide No. 19

Course Outline & Topics

The Planning Process for Equipment and

Course Outline & Topics

• Formal Planning involves the following steps:

CHAPTER 0. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND METHODS Slide No. 21

Course Outline & Topics

Geotechnical Materials, Compaction, and

“Persons in a construction industry, including

Course Outline & Topics

CHAPTER 0. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND METHODS Slide No. 23

Course Outline & Topics

Soil mass weight and volume relationships

Course Outline & Topics

Soil mass weight and volume relationships

Unit weight (γ) = total weight of soil/total soil volume = W/V

Weight of solids (Ws) = weight of soil (W)/(1+water content (ω))

CHAPTER 0. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND METHODS Slide No. 25

Course Outline & Topics

Compaction and Soil Stabilization

Course Outline & Topics

 Machine Power (Chapter 5)

CHAPTER 0. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND METHODS Slide No. 27

Course Outline & Topics

Course Outline & Topics

Dozers and Tractors(Chapter 6)

Machine Power (Chapter 5)