Solar Energy 81 (2007) 1058–1071

www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Review

A review of transparent insulation systems and the evaluation

of payback period for building applications
a,*
I.L. Wong , P.C. Eames b, R.S. Perera a

a
Centre for Sustainable Technologies, University of Ulster, Newtownabbey, Co. Antrim BT37 0QB, UK
b
Warwick Institute for Sustainable Energy and Resources, School of Engineering, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK

Received 9 August 2006; received in revised form 9 April 2007; accepted 9 April 2007
Available online 14 May 2007

Communicated by: Associate Editor Jean-Louis Scartezzini

Abstract

Research and development of transparent insulation systems (TI-systems) has been ongoing for 20 years with transparent insulation
materials (TIMs) used to replace standard opaque insulation materials. TIM not only performs similar functions to opaque insulation,
reducing heat losses and controlling indoor temperatures, but allows solar transmittance of more than 50%. With a thickness of less than
20 cm, it can provide a financial return to building occupants when applied to building facades, maximising occupiable and sellable
spaces in urban areas, without compromising thermal comfort within buildings.
In this review of TI-systems for building applications, drawbacks to previous applications, cost trends, and analysis of the limitation
in information from previous studies are discussed. A major drawback in the development of TI-systems identified is the lack of cost
information; the payback periods for TI-systems used in previous renovation projects are virtually unknown. Simple payback period
calculations were undertaken based on information available from a demonstration project documented by the Solar Heating and
Cooling (SHC) Programme of the International Energy Agency (IEA) Task 20 ‘‘Solar Energy in Building Renovation’’. The calculations
indicated an encouraging 5–8-year payback period for this particular case study. It was concluded that the simple payback period
calculation may be used for feasibility studies to indicate the time required to recoup investment when installing TI-systems and to
provide initial guidance for building designers when evaluating the potential application of TI-systems in their buildings.
 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Transparent insulation material (TIM); Transparent insulation system (TI-system); Building applications

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . ......... . ......... . 1059

2. Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . ......... . ......... . 1059
3. Classification of TIMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . ......... . ......... . 1060
4. Materials used for TIMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . ......... . ......... . 1060
5. Physical properties of TIMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . ......... . ......... . 1061
5.1. Theoretical analysis of optical and thermal properties of TIMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061
5.2. Experimental characterisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 028 90368014; fax: +44 028 90368239.
E-mail addresses: ing.wong@ulster.ac.uk, xijiayu@hotmail.com (I.L. Wong), P.C.Eames@warwick.ac.uk (P.C. Eames), s.perera@ulster.ac.uk (R.S.
Perera).

0038-092X/$ - see front matter  2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.solener.2007.04.004
 I.L. Wong et al. / Solar Energy 81 (2007) 1058–1071 1059

6. Applications of TIMs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063

6.1. Flat-plate solar collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
6.2. Honeycomb roof cover system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
6.3. Integrated collector storage for domestic hot water supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
6.4. Space heating and daylighting for buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
7. Simulations of transparent insulation systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
8. Barriers to the development and implementation of transparent insulation systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
8.1. Imperfection in manufactured TIMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
8.2. Low working temperatures of plastic TIMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
8.3. High investment cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
8.4. Overheating problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
9. Limitations in current knowledge evident from previous studies on transparent insulation applications in buildings . . . . . 1068
9.1. Potential for commercial building applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
9.2. Design guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
9.3. Suitability for new building applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
9.4. Insufficient/inadequate cost information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
10. Calculation of simple payback period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
11. Discussion and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070

Nomenclature

g total energy transmittance (%) a solar absorptance (%)

A aspect ratio (length divided by hydraulic diame- s0 model fit parameter representing effective trans-
ter) mittance
n number of cell wall interaction for the incoming a0 model fit parameter representing effective
light beam absorption
s solar transmittance (%)
Greeks h angle of incidence ()
/ azimuth angle () K thermal conductance (W/m2 K)
q solar reflectance (%) (sae) effective transmittance–absorptance product (%)

1. Introduction Russian researchers investigated the possibility of using

Standard insulation materials reduce the transmission of
heat through conduction, convection and radiation in opa-
que walls (Kaushika and Sumathy, 2003). Depending on the
building codes and regulations across different countries,
the thickness of insulation materials used is typically
around 25–30 cm (IEA, 1997). This results in a wall thick-
ness of up to 50 cm, which reduces the letable or occupied
space of buildings for a given building foot print (Hastings,
2004). TI has been used to overcome this problem and add
value with solar energy transmittance of more than 50% and
thermal conductivity of less than 0.2 W/m2 K (IEA, 1997).
2. Historical background
In the context of solar energy systems, the idea of sup-
pressing convective heat losses emerged long before the
term ‘transparent insulation’ was introduced. In 1929,
low-conducting and solar absorbing walls as a thermal
insulation material. A honeycomb made of paper was
introduced between the glass cover and absorber plate
in a flat-plate solar collector. The studies performed in
1929 were reported by Veinberg (1959) in his publication.
This inspired Francia (1961) to use glass tubes in a solar
collector designed to work at high absorber temperatures.
Subsequently a theoretical study of honeycomb structures
between absorber and outer glass cover of a flat-plate
solar collector to suppress convective heat transport
was undertaken by Hollands (1965). The earliest TIMs
were used as absorbers or convective suppression devices
(CSDs) in solar collectors. Until 1969, plastic honey-
combs with desired thermal characteristics and transpar-
ency were still not available for flat-plate solar collectors
(Tabor, 1969). In the 1980s, to achieve energy conserva-
tion, TIMs were integrated into buildings when being
renovated.
1060 I.L. Wong et al. / Solar Energy 81 (2007) 1058–1071
In the past 20 years, theoretical and experimental inves-
tigations have been undertaken to improve suppression of
natural convection using large-celled and small-celled hon-
eycomb structures. A fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP)
large-celled honeycomb structure with 20 lm thick walls
and 10 mm hydraulic diameter was proposed as a CSD
for use in flat-plate collectors, achieving a solar transmit-
tance of 92% at a 45 incidence angle (Hollands et al.,
1992). In the early 1990s, large-celled honeycomb struc-
tures made of highly transparent films, such as, polypropyl-
ene, polycarbonate (PC) and fluorised films with U-values
of approximately 2 W/m2 K and working temperatures of
between 60 C and 100 C were produced and commercia-
lised (Platzer, 2001).
Small-celled honeycomb structures with improved opti-
cal and thermal properties (U-values of less than 1 W/
m2 K) have been made of glass or plastic, with square or
circular cells. They are easier to produce compared to
large-celled honeycomb structures. The Fraunhofer Insti-
tute for Solar Energy System (FISES) were the main pio-
neer in this area of research using different materials to
suppress heat transfer by convection and radiation (Plat-
zer, 2001). Today, TIMs produced commercially are made
of polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), PC (Okalux Kapil-
larglas GmbH, Advanced Glazings Ltd., Schott, Hauptsitz
Sto AG, and Glaswerke Arnold GmbH+ Co., KG), acrylic
translucent foam (Prokuwa Kunststoff GmbH) and aero-
gels (Airglass AB). Their optical and thermal performance
are both influenced by the uniformity and quality of the
cells produced.
3. Classification of TIMs
TIMs are classified into four generic types in accordance
with the geometrical layout of the materials, each has a
unique pattern of solar transmission and physical behav-
iour, as illustrated in Fig. 1. Absorber-parallel structures
Absorber-parallel structures
Cavity structures
Fig. 1. Classification of transparent insulation materials (Goetzberger, 1991; Platzer, 2001; Kaushika and Sumathy, 2003): (a) absorber-parallel structures;
(b) absorber-perpendicular structures; (c) cavity structures; (d) quasi-homogeneous structures.
(Fig. 1a) consist of a cover, comprising of either multiple
glazing elements or transparent plastic films parallel to
the absorber surface. The number of cover layers can be
increased to reduce heat loss, but resulting in an increase
in optical reflection and solar gain reduction, thus such sys-
tems fail to meet the criteria of high transmission and low
heat loss as required for solar collectors.
Absorber-perpendicular structures (Fig. 1b), such as,
parallel slat arrays, honeycombs or capillaries, have low
optical reflection losses and reflect and transmit the incom-
ing beam radiation effectively towards the absorber. This
structure is widely used in various TIM applications, par-
ticularly, for solar collectors, avoiding the high reflection
losses occuring in the absorber-parallel structures. The cav-
ity structures (Fig. 1c) combine both absorber-parallel and
absorber-perpendicular structures, they consist of duct
plates or multiple plastic films that effectively suppress con-
vective heat loss while maintaining approximately the same
transmittance as a multiple film cover. Quasi-homogeneous
structures (Fig. 1d) include TIMs made of glass fibre or
aerogel and are characterised by both scattering and
absorption of the incident radiation within the TIM. The
structure can be as clear as a glass pane although it is
porous, with a high density (90–95%) of approximately
10–30 nm diameter pores distributed uniformly through-
out the materials (Platzer, 2001; Kaushika and Sumathy,
2003).
4. Materials used for TIMs
Over the past 30 years, different types of materials, such
as, plastics, glass, and aerogels, have been used to produce
TIMs. The materials used for different types of TIM are
detailed in Fig. 2. Various types of plastics widely used in
the productions of small-celled capillary and honeycomb
structures are PMMA, polyethylene (TPX), polytetrafluor-
ethylene (HFL), polyestercarbonate (APEC), polyether-
Absorber-perpendicular structures
Quasi-homogeneous structures
 I.L. Wong et al. / Solar Energy 81 (2007) 1058–1071
Fig. 2. Illustration of different types of materials used for transparent insulation materials.
sulfone (PES), FEP teflon (FEPT) and PC (Platzer, 2001;
Kaushika and Sumathy, 2003). Despite exhibiting Ultra-
Violet (UV) stability (Platzer, 2001), plastics do not with-
stand the high stagnation temperatures of solar collectors
due to their low melting temperatures of between 120 C
and 150 C (Rommel and Wagner, 1992; Platzer, 2001;
Kaushika and Sumathy, 2003).
Glass is an ideal substitute for plastic TIMs in solar col-
lector applications due to its high working temperature of
up to 550 C (Platzer, 2001). It is able to withstand the high
stagnation temperatures of more than 250 C that can
occur in many solar collectors (Rommel and Wagner,
1992; Platzer, 2001), however, glass is fragile due to the
average cell thickness of 100 lm (Kaushika and Sumathy,
2003). Silica aerogel is available in both monolithic
(MSA) and granular (GSA) forms. It has been used to fill
the space between double glazed collector covers or win-
dows (Rubin and Lambert, 1983; Goetzberger, 1991; Plat-
zer, 2001; Jensen et al., 2004). The high-embodied energy
required (processing temperature of up to 250 C) has been
a major obstacle in the production of this material.
5. Physical properties of TIMs
Standard thermal solar energy applications involve the
conversion of solar radiation into heat at the absorber.
The temperature of the heated surface reaches a steady
state when an energy balance between the solar gain and
thermal losses occurs. When a transparent cover, such as,
a glass pane, is included in the solar collector, convection
heat losses are suppressed and the temperature at which
an energy balance between solar gains and thermal losses
is achieved is increased (Goetzberger, 1991). The perfor-
mance of a TI-system depends on the fraction of solar
input absorbed and the portion of the heat produced.
These are influenced by solar transmittance, s, at the cover,
absorptance, a, at the absorber, and thermal insulation
(U-value) of the system (Goetzberger, 1991). Angular
dependent transmittance, s(h), and a of TIMs have been
investigated both theoretically and experimentally.
1061
5.1. Theoretical analysis of optical and thermal properties of
TIMs
Theoretical analysis can be used to determine both ther-
mal and optical properties of TIMs made of different mate-
rials with different geometrical layouts. Mathematical
models have been developed by various researchers to
assess the physical properties of different TIMs, particu-
larly, thermal conductance, K, s(h), s, and the effective
transmittance–absorptance product (sae) (Hollands, 1965;
1978; Symons, 1982; Platzer, 1987, 1992a,b,c; Arulanan-
tham and Kaushika, 1994; Kaushika and Sumathy,
2003). The earliest theoretical model was developed by
Hollands (1965) to calculate s(h) for a square honeycomb
cell structure for various incidence angles, h, taking into
consideration cell thickness, depth and width. The predic-
tions however, were not subjected to experimental verifica-
tion. A more precise model detailed in Eq. (1), derived
from the summation of all individual rays transmitted or
reflected at the cell walls was used to calculate s(h)
(Symons, 1982; Platzer, 1987, 1992a,b).
sðhÞ ¼ ½sð/Þ þ qð/Þn ¼ ½1  að/Þn ð1Þ
where n = A Æ tan h for square honeycomb cell and n = 2A Æ
tan h for circular honeycomb cell. The average number of
cell wall interactions for the incoming light beam, n, azimuth
angle, /, reflectance, q, and a at the cell wall were taken
into consideration (Symons, 1982; Platzer, 1987, 1992a,b).
Platzer (1992b) developed an approximate model, as
detailed in Eq. (2), determining parameters required to fit
s(h) for 10 different types of honeycombs and capillaries:
sðhÞ ¼ s0 exp½a0  tanðhÞ ð2Þ
The model was based on an idealisation and conceals real
factors in the measured data, which are deviations from
the idealised model. Surface imperfections and bulk effects
of the cells are included in the calculated data, incorporated
in the constants, a0, and s0, both representing the effective
absorption and effective transmittance. The constants
have been used for ten different types of capillary and
1062 I.L. Wong et al. / Solar Energy 81 (2007) 1058–1071

1.0
rectangular
0.9 hc (eq 1)

0.8 rectangular
hc (Buch)
0.7
τ(θ )

15mm PC
0.6
cp (eq 2)

0.5
60mm PC
hc (eq 2)
0.4

0.3 rectangular
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 hc (eq 1)
θ (degree)

Fig. 3. Comparison of angular dependent direct-diffuse transmittance, s(h) calculation with analytical models for rectangular honeycomb (hc) (Platzer,
1987, 1992a), rectangular honeycomb (Buch) (Buchberg et al., 1971), 15 mm polycarbonate (PC) capillary (cp) (Platzer, 1992b) and 60 mm PC honeycomb
(Platzer, 1992b).

honeycomb (Platzer, 1992b). Fig. 3 shows the values of s(h)
for different TIMs calculated using Eqs. (1) and (2) (Platzer,
1987, 1992a,b) and that due to Buchberg et al. (1971). It was
concluded that, the values of s(h) calculated using the differ-
ent analytical models agreed well for most TIMs for smaller
incidence angles. Despite theoretical calculations that indi-
cate high s(h) of more than 90% for all TIMs, when h is 0,
this value decreases dramatically after 70. The models are
however, only developed for a limited number of TIM sam-
ples (Platzer, 1992a,b).
5.2. Experimental characterisation
Experiments undertaken to validate theoretical predic-
tions of s(h) for TIMs were part of the TIM system optimisa-
tion process (Symons, 1982; Platzer, 1987, 1992a,b,c;
Goetzberger, 1991). In order to measure direct-diffuse trans-
mittance at absorber-perpendicular structures, instruments
used included integrating spheres for diffuse transmittance
measurement and a rotating support disc for angular mea-
surements. A pyroelectric radiometer was used to sense the
solar wavelength range from 300 nm to 2500 nm. The exper-
imental setup and procedure adopted were described in de-
tail by Buchberg et al. (1971), Symons et al. (1982), Symons
(1982), Platzer (1987, 1992b) and Goetzberger (1991).
Fig. 4 shows the comparison of experimental measure-
ments reported by different researchers. The experimental
results show s(h) of more than 90% for h in the range of
0–60, agreeing well with the calculated results. Research
shows that errors associated with spectrometry measure-
ments that affect the precision of results may be reduced
by taking more measurements (Platzer, 1992b).
To measure the heat transport and thermal conductance
within the TIMs, a hot plate apparatus that consisted of
400 mm · 400 mm hot and cold copper plates, heat flux
meters and temperature sensors was used (Goetzberger,
1991; Platzer, 1992a,c). The hot plate was electrically
heated up to 230 C, the cold plate was thermostatically
controlled in the temperature range between 5 C and
60 C, the total apparatus could be tilted in the angular
range from 0 to 180. The radiative and conductive heat
transport of TIMs of up to 120 mm thickness were

1.0
FEPT square
hc
0.9 FEPT parallel
slat
FEPT V-slat
0.8
Tubular glass
τ(θ )

0.7
FEPT parallel
0.6 wall
100mm hc

0.5 100mm PC cp

0.4 100mm PC hc
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
θ (deg re e)

Fig. 4. Comparison of angular dependent transmittance, s(h) for experiments undertaken by Symons (1982) (FEPT square honeycomb (hc), parallel slat,
V-slat and tubular glass), Symons et al. (1982) (FEPT parallel wall), Platzer (1987) (100 mm honeycomb) and Platzer (1992b) (100 mm PC honeycomb and
capillary).
 I.L. Wong et al. / Solar Energy 81 (2007) 1058–1071 1063

PMMA capillaries (Platzer, 1992c) PC capillaries (Platzer, 1992c)

5.0

Heat Conductance, Λ(W/m2K)

4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Thickness (cm)

Fig. 5. Experimental results of total heat conductance, K of PMMA and PC capillaries of various thicknesses.

measured. Fig. 5 shows the heat conductance, K experi- studies used plastic or glass honeycombs and capillaries
mentally determined for PMMA and PC capillaries with to replace the conventional glass pane aperture covers of
different thicknesses by Platzer (1992c). The comparisons solar collectors (Hollands, 1965; Tabor, 1969; Symons,
of experimental results and theoretical calculations showed 1984; Hollands and Iynkaran, 1985; Goetzberger, 1991;
approximately 3.6% deviation (Arulanantham and Kaush- Goetzberger et al., 1992; Nordgaard and Beckman, 1992;
ika, 1994), for h of between 0 and 55, which is acceptable. Rommel and Wagner, 1992; Ghoneim, 2005). The working
temperature of the solar collectors using TIM cover could
6. Applications of TIMs be increased from 90 C to 150 C or higher (Symons,
1984). The energy absorbed was calculated as effective
6.1. Flat-plate solar collectors transmittance–absorptance product, (sae), taking into
account both s at the cover and a at the absorber, which
Prior to the application of TIMs to building facades, lead to approximately 2% higher optical efficiency com-
optical and thermal properties of circular capillaries and pared to the product of s multiplied with a (Rommel and
square-celled honeycombs were analysed theoretically with Wagner, 1992; Symons, 1984; Platzer, 1992c). Fig. 6 shows
tests undertaken in flat-plate solar collectors in a range of prototypes of solar collectors integrated with PC honey-
scaled experiments (Platzer, 1987, 1992b,c). Numerous combs, glass capillaries (Rommel and Wagner, 1992;

a) Glass capillary flat-plate solar collector (Rommel b) Polycarbonate honeycomb flat-plate solar
and Wagner, 1992) collector (Rommel and Wagner, 1992)
8 3 2 1
13
2 1
4 3
9 5

8 6

10
11
1) low-iron glass panes; 2) 80mm or 100mm glass
capillaries; 3) 20mm air gap; 4) absorber; 5) 20mm
microporous high temperature insulation material; 6)
100mm mineral wool; 7) 60mm polyurethane foam; 8)
22mm wooden frame; 9) 20mm mineral wool; 10)
30mm foam glass; 11) wooden support frame; 12)
aluminium weather protection; 13) aluminium frame
c) Monolithic silica aerogel flat-plate solar collector
(Nordgaard and Beckman, 1992)
1 4
7
12 4 5 6 7
1) 4mm low-iron glass pane; 2) 50mm or 100mm
PC honeycombs; 3) 20mm air gap; 4) selective
absorber (α: 0.95 and emittance: 0.1); 5) 1.5cm
microporous high temperature insulation
material; 6) 60mm polyurethane foam; 7) 15mm
wooden frame with aluminium weather
protection; 8) aluminium frame
d) Polycarbonate honeycomb bifacial absorber
solar collector (Goetzberger et al., 1992)
4 5
1 2 3

2 6
3 7
5

1) stainless steel seal; 2) steel frame; 3) copper foil 1) absorber sheet (α: 0.95; emittance: 0.1); 2)
supporter; 4) 4mm low iron glass pane; 5) 20mm MSA; 24mm air gap; 3) 50mm PC honeycomb; 4) 4mm
6) copper foil; 7) copper tube low-iron glass pane; 5) semi-cylindrical mirrors

Fig. 6. Illustration of different types of transparently insulated flat-plate solar collectors.

1064 I.L. Wong et al. / Solar Energy 81 (2007) 1058–1071
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
(ταe)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 10 20 30 40
θ (degree)
Fig. 7. Comparison of the (sae) at various h for flat-plate solar collectors developed by various authors.
Goetzberger et al., 1992) and MSA (Nordgaard and Beck-
man, 1992).
Rommel and Wagner (1992) presented a solar collector,
comprised of a 4 mm single low-iron glass pane, a 50 mm or
100 mm honeycomb slab, a 20 mm air gap and an absorber
(a: 0.95; emittance: 0.1). Research showed that when the
absorber temperature was at more than 80 C, the front
cover heat losses were reduced to 0.9 W/mK, optical effi-
ciency, (sa) of between 0.7 and 0.9 were recorded at inci-
dence angles of between 0 and 30 (Rommel and
Wagner, 1992). A significant setback to PC honeycomb
was that it did not withstand the high stagnation tempera-
ture of 261 C achieved. Thus, glass capillaries of 8 mm
diameter and 50 mm or 100 mm thickness were used in pref-
erence to PC honeycombs (Rommel and Wagner, 1992).
Goetzberger et al. (1992) presented a bifacially irradi-
ated flat-plate solar collector, which had 50 mm PC honey-
combs on both sides of an absorber sheet. A system
efficiency of 72% and (sae) of 64% were measured at the
operating temperatures, which were close to the ambient
temperatures, which ranged between 10 C and 10 C
(Goetzberger et al., 1992). A solar collector comprised of
FEPT honeycombs, encapsulated by a low-iron glass cover
with anti-reflection coatings, which had (sae) of more than
0.9, was presented by Symons (1984). It was concluded that
an optimised solar collector aperture should have a 2–
4 mm thick low-iron glass cover, a 3–20 mm air gap below
a TIM of thickness of between 50 mm and 100 mm and an
absorber with a of at least 0.95. Fig. 7 shows the optical
performance of flat-plate collectors integrated with various
aperture cover systems.
For flat-plate solar collectors integrated with PC honey-
combs, the value of (sae) decreases at greater incidence
angles, with a negative influence in the performance of
the solar collectors (Rommel and Wagner, 1992). The inte-
gration of MSA into the aperture cover of a flat-plate solar
collector achieves efficiencies of more than 60% at temper-
atures below 80 C and increased the annual energy gain by
41% (Nordgaard and Beckman, 1992).
5cm PC honeycombs
(Rommel and Wagner,
1992)
5cm PC honeycombs
(Goetzberger et al.,
1992)
10cm PC honeycombs
(Rommel and Wagner,
1992)
10cm glass capillaries
(Rommel and Wagner,
1992)
2cm MSA (Nordgaard
and Beckman, 1992)
6cm FEPT honeycombs
50 60 70 80 90
(Symons, 1984)
a a) Glass cover
b b) Honeycomb slab
c c) 4cm to 16cm air gap
d
d) Blackened surface
e
e) Concrete slab
f f) Indoor space
Fig. 8. Schematic of a honeycomb roof cover system, redrawn and
adopted from Kaushika et al. (1987, 1992).
6.2. Honeycomb roof cover system
Kaushika et al. (1987, 1992) applied honeycombs on top
of the concrete roof slab of buildings for passive space
heating in the winter season. The roof cover system illus-
trated in Fig. 8, consisted of a cover glass, a square cell
honeycomb slab, a 4–16 cm air gap, a blackened absorber
and a concrete slab for thermal storage.
The square cell (1.25 cm · 1.25 cm) honeycombs were
made of 0.076 mm thick lexan films or 1 mm thick acrylic
sheets (Kaushika et al., 1987). Calculations showed that
s(h) of the lexan film system was greater than 0.9, com-
pared to around 0.6 for the acrylic sheet system for 0–60
incidence angles (Kaushika et al., 1987). Positive solar
gains were calculated for more than 10 h for a typical win-
ter day in the USA when the thickness of honeycombs was
increased from 5 cm to 15 cm. It was concluded that the
optimum thickness of the honeycomb slab for a roof cover
was approximately 10–15 cm (Kaushika et al., 1992).
6.3. Integrated collector storage for domestic hot water
supply
Integrated collector storage systems (ICS) enhanced
with PC honeycombs were developed to provide hot
water for domestic houses and reported by various
researchers (Goetzberger and Rommel, 1987; Schmidt
et al., 1988; Schmidt and Goetzberger, 1990; Goetzber-
ger, 1991; Goetzberger et al., 1992; Rommel and Wagner,
 I.L. Wong et al. / Solar Energy 81 (2007) 1058–1071
a b
a) Glazing
b) PC honeycombs
c) Roof beam
d) Reflector
e) Absorber
c f) Stainless steel storage tank
d g) Opaque insulation
g f e
Fig. 9. Illustration showing a cross section of a collector storage system
for solar domestic hot water production, adopted from Rommel and
Wagner (1992).
1992; Kaushika and Reddy, 1999). A prototype ICS
shown in Fig. 9 was constructed and tested at the FISES
and consisted of a cylinder shaped stainless steel storage
tank with a black absorbing surface (Rommel and Wag-
ner, 1992).
The collector was mounted on a south-facing test stand,
inclined at an angle of 45, for testing under central Euro-
pean outdoor winter climates. Water was stored inside the
tank under standard pressure conditions and the aperture
cover was transparently insulated to reduce heat losses
through the aperture (Rommel and Wagner, 1992). The
ICS is more economical compared to conventional domes-
tic hot water system, due to direct integration into the
domestic water circuit, avoiding an additional circulation
pump and control unit. When PC honeycombs were com-
bined with the thermal storage mass, the system was pre-
vented from freezing during the winter period and thus,
saved the cost of freeze protection. An ICS with a 2.8 m2
absorber recorded an annual system efficiency of 0.4 com-
pared to less than 0.25 for a conventional flat-plate system
(Rommel and Wagner, 1992). A bifacial-absorber collector
as shown in Fig. 6d was used as part of the domestic hot
water system and mounted at 40 on a flat roof of a solar
house in Germany. The system with 13.5 m2 collector area
supplied more than 90% of the hot water demand for four
persons (Goetzberger et al., 1992).
6.4. Space heating and daylighting for buildings
The concept of insulating external building walls using
TIMs emerged more than 20 years ago. It combines the
advantages of opaque insulation and solar collection. The
transmission heat losses of the wall are reduced and the
solar radiation transmitted through the TIM is converted
into useful heat at the dark painted wall surfaces (Goetz-
berger, 1991). As TIM possesses both light guiding and
solar energy transmission properties, the use of TIM in
buildings makes it suitable for capture of daylight and solar
heat at the same time, resulting in the reduction of both
lighting and space heating energy consumption for build-
ings (IEA, 1997).
The first real outdoor experiments with TI-walls were
undertaken in 1982 by the FISES using 16 mm thick
PMMA foam, where direct monthly heat gains of between
1 kWh/m2 and 3 kWh/m2 were measured during the winter
1065
period (Braun et al., 1992). In 1983, a TI research pro-
gramme was initiated by the German government and led
several research institutes and companies to produce and
market TI for application in buildings. Under the IEA
SHC Programme Task 20, TIMs have been used for build-
ing renovation to improve daylighting and thermal perfor-
mance (IEA, 1997; Braun et al., 1992; Voss, 2000;
Dalenback, 1996). To date, over 5000 m2 of TI-walls have
been installed in more than 20 projects throughout Europe,
which involve mostly low-rise, uncomplicated domestic
buildings. Small-scale experiments were also conducted
by Rubin and Lambert (1983), Kaushika et al. (1987),
Raicu et al. (2002) and Wallner et al. (2004). Table 1 details
various types of TI-systems presented in previous case
studies.
A well-designed TI-wall requires a massive wall for ther-
mal storage, a mechanical shading device to control exces-
sive solar gain and a south orientation (IEA, 1997; Braun
et al., 1992; Voss, 2000). TI-glazing consists of honeycombs
or monolithic silica aerogel (MSA) (Jensen et al., 2004)
sandwiched between two sets of glazing, which improves
the potential use of daylight in the room (IEA, 1997). A
glazing with 15 mm thick MSA has a center heat loss coef-
ficient of less than 0.7 W/m2K and transmittance of 76%
(Jensen et al., 2004). Yearly solar energy gains of between
100 kWh/m2 and 200 kWh/m2 and solar conversion effi-
ciencies of between 15% and 30% have been calculated in
buildings with TI-systems (Braun et al., 1992; Voss,
2000). Table 2 and Table 3 show the energy savings of
TI-applications in the demonstration projects.
A large scale TI-system was applied to the south façades
of two blocks of five-storey university residential buildings
in Glasgow, UK. The system consisted of 100 mm thick,
3 mm · 3 mm square size PC honeycombs, encapsulated
by an external glass layer. Positive heat gains at the south
facades were measured experimentally and it was found
that the buildings consumed 40% less energy when com-
pared to the ‘good’ category in official UK indicators over
the winter period (Twidell et al., 1994).
In Norway, Lien et al. (1997) applied capillaries of var-
ious thicknesses (35 mm, 100 mm and 200 mm) to the
south facades of dwelling houses, replacing standard win-
dows. The implications of TIM thickness and area on the
energy performance of the models were studied. When a
5 m2 TI-glazing made of 100 mm thick capillaries was
used, 43 kWh/m2 heating energy consumption or 16%
reduction compared to a reference case was recorded.
The heating energy consumption dropped to 29 kWh/m2
(20% reduction) when the TI-glazing area was increased
to 10 m2 (Lien et al., 1997). It was concluded that the
increase in TIM thickness contributes very little to the
heating energy reduction, but increases the investment cost
significantly.
Another type of TIM, made of novel polymer films,
such as, cellulose triacetate (CTA) and polyethyl-
eneterephthalate (PET) was applied to the south-facing faç-
ade of a low-energy solar house in Austria (Wallner et al.,
1066 I.L. Wong et al. / Solar Energy 81 (2007) 1058–1071

Table 1
Specifications of different transparent insulation systems, adopted from IEA (1997)

Table 2
Comparison of the TI-systems for building façade applications
Authors TI-systems
Braun et al. (1992) Capillaries and honeycombs for
south-facing wall application
Twidell et al. (1994) 1040 m2 PC honeycombs for south
facing wall application
Lien et al. (1997) Capillaries for south-facing TI-
glazing
Wallner et al. (2004) Thirty square meter novel polymer
film for south facing wall of a testing
house
Energy balance
Solar energy gains of 100–200 kWh/
m2 year; space heating demand of
43 kWh/m2 year
40% reduction of energy use
20% reduction of heating energy
consumption
Heat gain fluxes of up to 50 W/m2 in
cold January; solar energy efficiency of
44%
Remarks
The estimates of solar energy gains are
only applicable to a particular TI-wall
30% financial saving; 20 years payback;
maintenance costs not considered
Optimisation of the TIM thickness and
area was crucial
The development of TI-system with easy
site installation can be used for building
renovation

Table 3
Summary of annual heating energy demand for demonstration projects after TI-application
Types of TI-system TIM Demonstration projects Specific energy yield Heating energy References
area (floor area) demand
TI-compound with PC capillaries 53 m2 Villa Tannheim, Germany 86 kWh/m2of TI- 75 kWh/m2of heated Voss et al. (1996) and
(750 m2) façade area floor area IEA (1997)
Cast-glass elements with 4 cm 7500 m2 Salzgitter, Germany – 72 kWh/m2of heated Voss et al. (1996) and
acrylic glass capillaries (43,000 m2) floor area IEA (1997)
TI-wall with 10 cm PC honeycombs 120 m2 Sonnenaeckerweg, – 43 kWh/m2of heated IEA (1997)
Germany (400 m2) floor area
TI-wall with 10 cm acrylic 63 m2 Affolternstrasse, 160 kWh/m2of TI- 40 kWh/m2of floor IEA (1997)
capillaries Switzerland (702 m2) façade area area
TI-wall 84 m2 Niederurnen, Switzerland 141 kWh/m2of TI- – IEA (1997)
(966 m2) façade area
TI-wall 300 m2 Wurzen, Germany 161 kWh/m2of TI- – IEA (1997)
(4100 m2) façade area

2004; Wallner and Lang, 2005; Wallner et al., 2005a,b; thicknesses and cell geometries were obtained from theoret-
Wallner et al., 2006). Optimum optical and thermal prop- ical model calculations. A solar energy collection efficiency
erties from more than 80 polymer film samples of different of 44% and heat gain fluxes of up to 50 W/m2 were
 I.L. Wong et al. / Solar Energy 81 (2007) 1058–1071
achieved in the experimental characterisation of the opti-
mised TI-wall in a demonstration building during a cold
sunny week in January (Wallner et al., 2004).
7. Simulations of transparent insulation systems
Computer simulation programs exist that predict the
thermal and optical implications of integrating TI-systems
on buildings before real systems are manufactured and
installed (Wilke and Schmid, 1991; Braun et al., 1992; Sick
and Kummer, 1992; Strachan and Johnstone, 1994; Manz
et al., 1997; Matuska, 2000). Compared to scale-models,
it is economic both in time and finance to conduct simula-
tions due to the fact that parametric changes to TIMs can
be readily undertaken using simulation programs, thus,
offering guidance for design optimisation (Strachan and
Johnstone, 1994). Daylighting and heating performance
of buildings are strongly influenced by TIM parameters,
as an excessive quantity of TIMs are not only uneconomi-
cal, but also cause problems of overheating.
To date, many building simulation programs have been
extended to handle TI-applications, particularly, WAND-
SIM (Wilke and Schmid, 1991), TRNSYS (Sick and
Kummer, 1992), HAUSSIM (Braun et al., 1992), finite dif-
ference model (Ramadan and Athienitis, 1998; Athienitis
and Ramadan, 1999) and ESP-r (Strachan and Johnstone,
1994; Matuska, 2000; Heim, 2004). Wilke and Schmid
(1991) predicted heat gains of TI-systems, as a result of
the reduction in artificial lighting using WANDSIM.
TRNSYS was used by Sick and Kummer (1992) to predict
the effects of TI-walls on building energy requirements.
However, both WANDSIM and TRNSYS do not allow
the generation of detailed multi-zone building models.
Table 4
Simulation predictions for TI-systems used in building façade applications
Authors Applications
Wilke and Schmid (1991) 70% south-facing TI-
glazing and TI-wall
Sick and Kummer (1992) TI-wall of an
apartment
Braun et al. (1992) TI-wall
Strachan and Johnstone (1994) TI-wall for low-rise
residential blocks
Manz et al. (1997) Prototype TI-wall
integrated with PCM
Ramadan and Athienitis (1998) Outdoor test room
and Athienitis and Ramadan with TI-wall
(1999) application
Matuska (2000) TIM for trombe wall
application
Heim (2004) TI-wall with PCM
1067
HAUSSIM, a modified TRNSYS version (Type 56
Multi-Zone Building Model), a detailed explicit finite dif-
ference model and ESP-r were used to predict the thermal
performance of multi-zone building models with integrated
TIMs. These programs are able to perform simulations
that include detailed airflow analysis for realistic building
conditions. Table 4 shows the energy performance of build-
ings with integrated TI-systems as reported by various
researchers.
A 278 mm thick external wall system, combining TIM
and phase change material (PCM) as a thermal storage
medium or absorber was simulated in Switzerland (Manz
et al., 1997). The system consisted of a 80 mm thick salt
hydrate PCM filled glass container, a 20 mm thick air
gap and a 4 mm thick low-iron oxide content double-glaz-
ing unit. The double-glazing unit was filled with 120 mm
thick PMMA capillaries with a 50 mm air gap with a roller
blind installation. A total energy flux of 13.3 W/m2 and
system efficiency of 27% were predicted behind the TI-wall
in December (Manz et al., 1997). Heim (2004) performed
simulations of a TI-wall integrated with a PCM, which
consisted of an external glazing, a 100 mm TIM honey-
comb structure, a 250 mm PCM-ceramic composite with
air gaps between each layer in a triple zone building model.
The latent heat stored inside the PCM enabled 5% more
stable temperature on the internal surface to be obtained
during winter (Heim, 2004).
The thermal performance of a 3 m · 3 m · 3 m outdoor
test room with a south-facing TI-wall was predicted using
an explicit finite difference numerical simulation model in
cold sunny days in Canada (Ramadan and Athienitis,
1998; Athienitis and Ramadan, 1999). The TI-wall con-
sisted of an exterior single glazing, lexan honeycomb slab,
Programs Predicted results
WANDSIM Approximately 223.7 kWh/m2 and 231.7 kWh/m2 were predicted for
south-facing TI-wall and TI-glazing per annum
TRNSYS The difference between the measured and predicted absorber and inside
wall temperatures was less than 3 C
TRNSYS, The difference between the measured and predicted absorber and inside
HAUSSIM wall temperatures was less than 5 C. Minimum space heating demand
of 410 kWh/year was predicted with southeast and southwest TIM
facades
ESP-r The difference between the measured and predicted temperatures within
the TI-wall was less than 5 C The simulation results represent the
actual building performance and can be used to investigate design
alternatives
Monte Carlo Predicted temperatures and total energy flux agreed well with
Simulation experimental results. Mean energy flux of 13.3 W/m2 into the room was
predicted
Finite Significant energy savings with no auxiliary heating on cold sunny days
difference under Canadian climates. TI-wall surface temperatures were less than
model 29 C and other room surface temperatures were less than 25 C when
mean outside temperature was 15 C
ESP-r Annual total energy gains of 110–140 kWh/m2 compared to 90 kWh/
m2 for double low-e glazing
ESP-r Latent heat storage allows 5% more stable internal surface temperature
compare to standard material
1068 I.L. Wong et al. / Solar Energy 81 (2007) 1058–1071
200 mm concrete wall slab, interior gypsum board with air
gaps between each layer. When the mean outside tempera-
ture was 15 C, the TI-wall surface temperature was more
than 33 C and approached a maximum of 40 C, when
room air temperature was less than 21 C. To enhance
the transfer of solar energy stored in the concrete mass,
air was circulated through the TI-wall to the room with
blinds shut when TI-wall surface temperature exceeded
29 C. The TI-wall room surface temperature was lowered
to less than 30C with no auxiliary heating required (Ram-
adan and Athienitis, 1998; Athienitis and Ramadan, 1999).
8. Barriers to the development and implementation of
transparent insulation systems
8.1. Imperfection in manufactured TIMs
Thin-celled plastic TIMs are imperfect and far from the
idealisation often used in simulations due to bulk effects,
such as, tilted cells, broken or irregular cell edges, inhomo-
geneous cell sizes, diameters or thicknesses (Platzer,
1992b). High cutting temperatures result in melting at the
cut edges of plastic TIMs, which affects the transparency
of the TIMs (Lien et al., 1997). Glass honeycombs are frag-
ile and thus not suitable for building applications (Kaush-
ika and Sumathy, 2003).
8.2. Low working temperatures of plastic TIMs
Plastics must have low working temperatures, in general
less than 80 C and thus do not satisfy the higher operating
temperatures requirements of solar collectors, which are in
general between 80 C and 250 C (Rommel and Wagner,
1992; Kaushika and Sumathy, 2003). Plastic TIMs are also
potentially exposed to fire hazards when applied to facades
of high-rise buildings (Twidell et al., 1994).
8.3. High investment cost
High investment cost has been a barrier to commerciali-
sation of TIMs. To date, only a number of TIMs, such as,
PC and PMMA are commercially available for various
applications with most materials still in the small-scale
experimental and at a premature phase for large scale
implementation (Braun et al., 1992; Platzer, 2001; Kaush-
ika and Sumathy, 2003). With increasing fuel costs, how-
ever, initial TIM systems costs may be a less significant
consideration than life-time costs.
8.4. Overheating problem
In previous research, it was reported that problems of
overheating are significant in the summer when too much
solar radiation is absorbed, due to either an excessive area
of TI-systems or wall mass when applied to south-facing
building facades (Lien et al., 1997; Athienitis and Rama-
dan, 1999; Ramadan and Athienitis, 1998; Wilke and Sch-
mid, 1991; Manz et al., 1997). Mechanical shading devices
used to overcome the problem are susceptible to failure and
thus, require frequent and expensive maintenance (Braun
et al., 1992).
9. Limitations in current knowledge evident from previous
studies on transparent insulation applications in buildings
9.1. Potential for commercial building applications
Previous studies have involved either residential, school
or industrial buildings of different geometries. Installation
of a TI-system is costly for private buildings but may be
more acceptable when applied to large scale commercial
building facades (IEA, 1997; Braun et al., 1992; Voss,
2000; Dalenback, 1996; Platzer, 2001). Despite this, no
office buildings have been considered previously with previ-
ous studies limited to domestic applications. To explore the
potential of application in commercial buildings, compara-
tive cost studies were proposed between TI-systems and
other commercial façade materials to enable building
designers to select suitable facade materials for use in
new low-energy building designs (Wong et al., 2005).
9.2. Design guidelines
Previous studies show that TIMs require excellent spec-
ification (such as, ideal TIM parameters) in order to profit
from optimum solar gains and added value with minimum
investment. Most demonstration projects to date have not
achieved such an ideal specifications (Voss, 2000) and thus,
fail to provide useful guidelines for future TI-applications
(Wong et al., 2005). Non-ideal specification resulted due
to the fact that it is time consuming and costly to conduct
optimisation studies using different TIM parameters and
thus, was not performed for previous demonstration pro-
jects. A simulation program therefore is required for use
at the early design stage to enable a time and cost saving
parametric sensitivity analysis to be performed. Critical
TIM parameters can be further analysed and refined in
the design phase to obtain optimum performance of TI-sys-
tems, for particular building applications (Manz et al.,
1997; Lien et al., 1997).
9.3. Suitability for new building applications
The demonstration projects detailed renovation work for
existing buildings with the aim of improving the thermal
and/or daylighting performance (IEA, 1997; Braun et al.,
1992; Voss, 2000; Dalenback, 1996). The TI-systems have
been used to replace old façade materials to reduce heating
demand and electricity and gas consumption (Braun et al.,
1992; Twidell et al., 1994; Lien et al., 1997). With low fuel
prices, most researchers predicted that it would be hard
for TI-systems to compete unless environmental impacts
are taken into account (Braun et al., 1992; Dalenback,
1996; Platzer, 2001). With soaring fuel prices, however, fuel
 I.L. Wong et al. / Solar Energy 81 (2007) 1058–1071
savings have become more significant in recent years. It may
be more feasible and cost effective application of TI-systems
if they are incorporated into the façades of new buildings,
allowing the offset of capital and installation costs for other
façade materials (Wong et al., 2005).
9.4. Insufficient/inadequate cost information
The cost of TI-systems is a major concern highlighted by
most authors (Kaushika and Sumathy, 2003; Braun et al.,
1992; Voss, 2000; Platzer, 2001), with high investment cost
a major disincentive to the application of TIM in the build-
ing sector. TI-system cost generally comprises the TIM
cost, shading device cost, mounting cost and glass cover
cost. The shading device used in the TI-wall system com-
prises 20–30% of the total investment costs (Braun et al.,
1992; Voss, 2000). Most TI-systems are custom designed
for specific projects and it is difficult to determine typical
system costs as these vary with each project (Braun et al.,
1992) and type of TI-system installed (Platzer, 2001). Most
case studies have used a combination of solar renovation
concepts, which makes it difficult to isolate the specific
investment required for the TI-systems (IEA, 1997; Voss,
2000). Specific and detailed information relating to LCC
of TI-systems installed on buildings are not yet available.
It is important to increase the efficiency of the whole
system, to deliver high quality products with reasonable
costs (Platzer, 2001). Table 5 details the various specific
TI-system costs, which are between 24 EUR/m2 and
1000 EUR/m2 (Braun et al., 1992; IEA, 1997).
Although the current information on TI-system costs is
limited and incomplete, it is evident that mechanical shad-
ing devices are a major factor contributing to expensive
system costs. Most authors therefore suggest replacement
of mechanical shading devices with cheaper alternatives
to reduce system costs (Braun et al., 1992; Voss, 2000; Plat-
zer, 2001), however, no significantly improved low cost
shading devices have been found to date.
10. Calculation of simple payback period
Payback period is the time taken for the total initial
investment of a product to be recovered by the total accu-
mulated savings. A simple calculation of payback period
for an industrial production hall renovated with TI-glazing
in Salzgitter, Germany was assessed using Eq. (3). Design
details and energy saving features for this particular case
Table 5
Summary of costs for a range of transparent insulation systems
Types of TI-system
Sealed TI-glazing
Prefabricated TI-wall with absorber (with solar gain control)
TI-wall and mounting
TI-compound (no solar gain control)
Cast-glass facades (no solar gain control)
Transom-mullion with massive wall (with solar gain control)
1069
study are available from the IEA SHC Programme, Task
20 (IEA, 1997). TIM was sandwiched between 7500 m2
U-shaped cast glass elements to form a self-supporting day-
light wall that allowed penetration of daylight with good
thermal insulation properties, no shading device was
installed in the system (Voss, 2000). The equivalent energy
cost and annual energy savings have been estimated at
0.03 EUR/kWh and 72 kWh per gross floor area (m2),
whereas, the investment cost of the TI-system was
24 EUR/m2. The yearly maintenance and the expected
life-time were assumed to be 4% of the initial investment
and 20 years, respectively (IEA, 1997). The gross floor area
and total TI-glazing areas for the industrial production hall
are 43,000 m2 and 7500 m2, respectively (IEA, 1997). The
total energy saving (3,096,000 kWh/year or 92,880 EUR/
year) was calculated by multiplying 72 kWh/m2year by
the area, 43,000 m2, whereas, the initial investment (EUR
180,000) was calculated by multiplying 24 EUR/m2 by
the TI-glazing area of 7500 m2.
Initial investment & Maintenance costs
Payback period ¼
Expected returns per year
ð3Þ
It was assumed that the initial investment (EUR 180,000)
was paid off either in the first year or over the system
life-time, and the yearly maintenance costs (EUR 7200)
over the rest of the system life-time. The annual benefit
of the TI-system installation to the building is given in
terms of the total energy savings (kWh/year) and also in
a monetary value, the total energy cost savings (EUR/
year). The total energy cost savings and total maintenance
costs are reduced to their present value (PV) using the pres-
ent worth factor (PWF) at assumed discount rates of 10%,
8% and 6% (Kreider et al., 1989). In economics, money has
a time value and a given amount of money will be worth
less in the future than it is today. Thus, the relation be-
tween present and future cash flows is embodied in the dis-
count rate (Kreider et al., 1989). The PWF is used to reduce
a single payment or cash flow in the future (for examples,
maintenance costs) to present values. As shown in Table
6, 3–4-year payback periods were calculated at different
discount rates using Eq. (3), if the initial investment was
paid off in the first year.
In some cases, it is common to convert the initial invest-
ment to a uniform series of payments made over the life
span of the system. When this occurs, it involves repayment
of a loan or mortgage for purchase of the system, with, a
TIM thickness (mm) EUR/m2(year) References
40 (acrylic glass capillaries) 24 (1997) IEA (1997)
80–140 400–600 (1997) IEA (1997)
100 51 and 51 (1991) Braun et al. (1992)
80, 100, 120 or 140 (PC capillaries) 220–250 (1997) IEA (1997) and Voss (2000)
120 150–250 (1997) IEA (1997)
Variable 600–1000 (1997) IEA (1997)
1070 I.L. Wong et al. / Solar Energy 81 (2007) 1058–1071

Table 6 schools, industrial buildings and residential houses. These

Cost parameters for TI-glazing installed in the industrial hall in Salzgitter
Assumed discount rates 10% 8%
(a) Initial investment paid off in the first year
Initial investment (EUR) 180,000 180,000
Total maintenance costs in PV 61,296 70,402
(EUR/20 years)
Total system costs (EUR/20 years) 241,296 250,402
Total energy cost savings in PV 73,603 75,976
(EUR/year)
Payback period 3.28 years 3.30 years
(b) Initial investment paid off in 20 year
Initial investment (EUR) 422,856 366,660
Total maintenance costs in PV 61,296 70,402
(EUR/20 years)
Total system costs (EUR/20 years) 484,152 437,062
Total energy cost savings in PV 61,938 68,551
(EUR/year)
Payback period 7.82 years 6.38 years
fixed or level payment is made each year to pay off the ini-
tial investment (Kreider et al., 1989). The calculation was
repeated taking into consideration the arrangement of ser-
ies payments over the life span of the TI-glazing using a
capital recovery factor (CRF) (Kreider et al., 1989). In this
case, five to eight year payback periods were calculated for
different discount rates. For a TI-system with an expected
life of 20 years without a shading device for this installa-
tion, it is clearly economically viable. Detailed studies are
required to fully assess the potential of TI-systems with
changing fuel prices and the installation cost.
11. Discussion and conclusions
Various types of TIM made of different materials have
been discussed; each has unique characteristics and physi-
cal properties. TIMs have been used extensively for flat-
plate solar collectors prior to building applications and
experiments show that a (sae) value of more than 60%
can be achieved at angles between 0 and 60. TIMs can
also be integrated into the roof or facades of buildings to
provide space heating to the buildings during the winter
period. Approximately 100–200 kWh/m2 year of solar
energy gains have been measured or predicted for various
buildings using different types of TI-systems. It is con-
cluded that TI-systems with optimum design parameters
(area and thickness) can provide significant solar energy
gains that are required by buildings, without increasing
investment cost and leading to overheating problem. Build-
ing simulation programs have been identified as an effective
tool for simulating the energy performance of buildings
integrated with TI-systems. Changes to the design parame-
ters of a system can be easily undertaken, allowing design
optimisation of systems to be performed.
The potential for application of TI-systems to buildings
however has not yet been fully investigated, especially for
new office and other types of commercial buildings. Previ-
ous projects involved only renovation work to existing
projects failed to conform to the optimum design parame-
6% ters and thus fail to allow robust design guidelines for
future TI-system implementations to be developed. At
180,000 present, no parametric sensitivity studies can be performed
82,584 readily in real buildings. Current cost information relating
262,584
to TI-systems is inadequate and neither payback period nor
80,460 the LCC implications for TI-systems are available. The
simple payback period calculation for a selected installa-
3.26 years tion indicates a less than 8-year payback period, for a dis-
count rate of 10%. Research is required to develop design
313,848 guidelines to enable the determination of optimum and
82,584 effective TI-system designs for implementation in office
buildings to be developed.
396,432
76,121
Acknowledgement
5.21 years
A University of Ulster research studentship is hereby
acknowledged by the first author.
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