Visoka medicinska i poslovno tehnološka škola strukovnih studija

Šabac

Studijski program: Zdravstvena nega, 2. godina, radni odnos

Predmet: Engleski jezik 2

Tema: Kancer

PROFESOR: STUDENTI:

prof. Ana Matić Marijana Tomić 9-24

Šabac, 2017.
 Table of contents

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................... 3

1. FACTS ON CANCER ......................................................................................................................................... 4

2. HOW CANCER SPREADS ................................................................................................................................. 5

3. CAUSES OF CANCER ....................................................................................................................................... 6

4. GENES-THE DNA TYPE .................................................................................................................................... 6

5. CARCINOGENS ............................................................................................................................................... 7

6. GENES-THE FAMILY TYPE ............................................................................................................................... 7

7. CANCER AND OTHER MEDICAL FACTORS ....................................................................................................... 7

REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................................... 8

TRANSLATION-PREVOD ......................................................................................................................................... 9

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 Introduction

Cancer is a class of diseases characterized by out-of-control cell growth.

There are over 100 different types of cancer, and each is classified by the type of
cell that is initially affected.

Cancer harms the body when altered cells divide uncontrollably to form
lumps or masses of tissue called tumors (except in the case of leukemia where
cancer prohibits normal blood function by abnormal cell division in the blood
stream). Tumors can grow and interfere with the digestive, nervous, and
circulatory systems, and they can release hormones that alter body function.
Tumors that stay in one spot and demonstrate limited growth are generally
considered to be benign.

More dangerous, or malignant, tumors form when two things occur:

 a cancerous cell manages to move throughout the body using the

blood or lymphatic systems, destroying healthy tissue in a process
called invasion,
 that cell manages to divide and grow, making new blood vessels to
feed itself in a process called angiogenesis.

When a tumor successfully spreads to other parts of the body and grows,
invading and destroying other healthy tissues, it is said to have metastasized. This
process itself is called metastasis, and the result is a serious condition that is very
difficult to treat.

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 According to the American Cancer Society, Cancer is the second most
common cause of death in the US and accounts for nearly 1 of every 4 deaths. The
World Health Organisation estimates that, worldwide, there were 14 million new
cancer cases and 8.2 million cancer-related deaths in 2012 (their most recent data).

1. Facts on cancer

Here are some key points about cancer:

 More than 575,000 people die of cancer, and more than 1.5 million
people are diagnosed with cancer per year in the US.
 Cancer is considered to be one of the leading causes of morbidity and
mortality worldwide.
 The financial costs of cancer in the US per year are an estimated
$263.8 billion in medical costs and lost productivity.
 African Americans are more likely to die of cancer than people of any
other race or ethnicity.
 It is believed that cancer risk can be reduced by avoiding tobacco,
limiting alcohol intake, limiting UV ray exposure from the sun and
tanning beds and maintaining a healthy diet, level of fitness and
seeking regular medical care.
 Screening can locate cervical cancer, colorectal cancer and breast
cancer at an early, treatable stage.
 Vaccines such as the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine assists in
preventing some cervical, vaginal, vulvar, and oral cancers. A vaccine
for hepatitis B can reduce liver cancer risk.

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  According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the numbers of
new cancer cases is expected to rise by about 70% over the next 20
years.
 The most common sites of cancer among men are lung, prostate,
colon, rectum, stomach and liver.
 The most common sites of cancer among women are breast, colon,
rectum, lung, cervix and stomach.

2. How cancer spreads

Scientists reported in Nature Communications(October 2012 issue) that they

have discovered an important clue as to why cancer cells spread. It has something
to do with their adhesion (stickiness) properties. Certain molecular interactions
between cells and the scaffolding that holds them in place (extracellular matrix)
cause them to become unstuck at the original tumor site, they become dislodged,
move on and then reattach themselves at a new site.

The researchers say this discovery is important because cancer mortality is

mainly due to metastatic tumors, those that grow from cells that have traveled from
their original site to another part of the body. These are called secondary tumors.
Only 10% of cancer deaths are caused by the primary tumors.

The scientists, from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, say that

finding a way to stop cancer cells from sticking to new sites could interfere with
metastatic disease, and halt the growth of secondary tumors.

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 3. Causes of cancer

Cancer is ultimately the result of cells that uncontrollably grow and do not
die. Normal cells in the body follow an orderly path of growth, division, and death.
Programmed cell death is called apoptosis, and when this process breaks down,
cancer begins to form.

Unlike regular cells, cancer cells do not experience programmatic death and
instead continue to grow and divide. This leads to a mass of abnormal cells that
grows out of control.

4. Genes-the DNA type

Cells can experience uncontrolled growth if there are mutations to DNA, and
therefore, alterations to the genes involved in cell division. Four key types of gene
are responsible for the cell division process: oncogenes tell cells when to divide,
tumor suppressor genes tell cells when not to divide, suicide genes control
apoptosis and tell the cell to kill itself if something goes wrong, and DNA-repair
genes instruct a cell to repair damaged DNA.

Cancer occurs when a cell's gene mutations make the cell unable to correct
DNA damage and unable to commit suicide. Similarly, cancer is a result of
mutations that inhibit oncogene and tumor suppressor gene function, leading to
uncontrollable cell growth.

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 5. Carcinogens

Carcinogens are a class of substances that are directly responsible for

damaging DNA, promoting or aiding cancer. Tobacco, asbestos, arsenic, radiation
such as gamma and x-rays, the sun, and compounds in car exhaust fumes are all
examples of carcinogens. When our bodies are exposed to carcinogens, free
radicals are formed that try to steal electrons from other molecules in the body.
Theses free radicals damage cells and affect their ability to function normally.

6. Genes-the family type

Cancer can be the result of a genetic predisposition that is inherited from

family members. It is possible to be born with certain genetic mutations or a fault
in a gene that makes one statistically more likely to develop cancer later in life.

7. Cancer and other medical factors

As we age, there is an increase in the number of possible cancer-causing

mutations in our DNA. This makes age an important risk factor for cancer. Several
viruses have also been linked to cancer such as: human papillomavirus (a cause of
cervical cancer), hepatitis B and C (causes of liver cancer), and Epstein-Barr virus
(a cause of some childhood cancers). Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) - and
anything else that suppresses or weakens the immune system - inhibits the body's
ability to fight infections and increases the chance of developing cancer.

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 References

1. Cancer Research Funding. National Cancer Institute.

http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/NCI/research-funding.
Publication date unavailable. Updated June 6, 2011. Accessed
November 3, 2012.

2. Andre F, Zielinski CC. Optimal strategies for the treatment of

metastatic triple-negative breast cancer with currently approved
agents. Ann Oncol. 2012;23(Suppl 2):vi46-vi51.

3. Gradishar WJ. Taxanes for the treatment of metastatic breast

cancer. Breast Cancer (Auckl.). 2012;6:159-171.

4. Joensuu H, Gligorov J. Adjuvant treatments for triple-negative

breast cancers. Ann Oncol. 2012;Suppl 6:vi40-45.

5. Mita AC, Figlin R, Mita MM. Cabazitaxel: more than a new taxane
for metastatic castrate-resistant prostate cancer? Clin Cancer
Res. 2012;18(24):OF1-OF6.

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 Translation-prevod

Uvod

Rak je klasa bolesti koja se karakteriše izvan kontrole ćelijskog rasta. Postoji
preko 100 različitih vrsta karcinoma, a svaka je klasifikovana po vrsti ćelije koja je
u početku pogođena.

Rak šteti organizmu kada se izmenjene ćelije nekontrolisano razdvajaju da

bi se formirale grudvice ili mase tkiva nazvanih tumori (osim u slučaju leukemije
gde kancer zabranjuje normalnu funkciju krvi pomoću abnormalne ćelijske podele
u krvi).

Tumori mogu rasti i ometati digestivni, nervozni i cirkulatorni sistem, i

mogu oslobađati hormone koji menjaju funkciju tela. Tumori koji ostanu na
jednom mestu i pokazuju ograničeni rast se generalno smatraju benignim.

Opasni ili maligni tumori nastaju kada se dve stvari pojave:

 kancerogena ćelija uspeva da se kreće kroz telo koristeći krv ili limfne
sisteme, uništavajući zdravo tkivo u procesu koji se zove invazija,
 da ćelija uspeva da se podeli i raste, čineći nove krvne sudove da se
hrane samim procesom zvanim angiogenezom.

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 Kada se tumor uspešno širi na druge delove tela i raste, upada i uništava
druga zdrava tkiva, rečeno je da je metastaziran. Ovaj sam proces naziva se
metastazom, a rezultat je ozbiljno stanje koje je veoma teško tretirati.
Prema Američkom društvu za rak, Rak je drugi najčešći uzrok smrti u SAD i
čini skoro 1 od svake 4 smrti. Svetska zdravstvena organizacija procenjuje da je u
svetu u 2012. godini bilo 14 miliona novih slučajeva raka i 8,2 miliona umrlih od
raka u 2012. godini (njihovi najnoviji podaci).

1. Činjenice o raku

Evo nekoliko ključnih tačaka o raku:

 Više od 575.000 ljudi umire od raka, a više od 1,5 miliona ljudi je
dijagnozirano sa rakom godišnje u SAD.
 Rak se smatra jednim od vodećih uzroka morbiditeta i mortaliteta širom
sveta.
 Finansijski troškovi raka u SAD godišnje procenjuju se na 263,8 milijardi
dolara za medicinske troškove i izgubljenu produktivnost.
 Afrički Amerikanci češće umiru od raka nego ljudi bilo koje druge rase ili
etničke pripadnosti.
 Smatra se da se rizik od kancera može smanjiti izbegavanjem duvana,
ograničavanje unosa alkohola, ograničavanje izloženosti UV zraka od sunca
i sunčanja i održavanje zdrave ishrane, nivoa fitnesa i traženja redovne
medicinske zaštite.
 Skrining može locirati rak grlića materice, kolorektalni karcinom i rak dojke
u ranoj fazi lečenja.

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  Vakcine poput humanog papiloma virusa (HPV) vakcine pomažu u
sprečavanju nekih grlića materice, vaginalnog, vulgarnog i oralnog raka.
 Vakcina protiv hepatitisa B može smanjiti rizik od karcinoma jetre.
 Prema podacima Svetske zdravstvene organizacije (VHO), očekuje se
povećanje broja novih slučajeva raka za oko 70% u narednih 20 godina.
 Najčešći nalazi raka među muškarcima su pluća, prostata, debelog creva,
rektuma, želuca i jetre.
 Najčešća mesta raka među ženama su dojke, debelo crevo, rektum, pluća,
grlić materice i stomak.

2. Kako se rak širi

Naučnici su prijavili u Prirodnim komunikacijama (oktobar 2012.) da su

otkrili važan pokazatelj zašto se rak ćelije širile. To ima veze sa svojstvima
adhezije (lepljivosti). Određene molekularne interakcije između ćelija i skela koja
ih drže na mestu (ekstracelularna matrica) prouzrokuju ih da se otkažu na
prvobitnom mestu tumora, postaju iskorišćeni, da se kreću, a zatim ponovo unose
na novu lokaciju.

Istraživači kažu da je ovo otkriće važno zato što je smrtnost od raka

uglavnom zahvaljujući metastatskim tumorima, onima koji raste iz ćelija koje su
putovale sa svog prvobitnog mesta u drugi deo tela. Ovi se nazivaju sekundarni
tumori. Samo 10% smrtnih slučajeva raka uzrokuju primarni tumori.

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 Naučnici, iz Tehnološkog instituta u Massachusettsu, kažu da pronalazak
načina za zaustavljanje ćelija kancera da se drže novih mesta mogu ometati
metastatske bolesti i zaustaviti rast sekundarnih tumora.

3. Uzroci raka

Rak je na kraju rezultat ćelija koje se nekontrolisano raste i ne umiru.

Normalne ćelije u telu prate uredni put rasta, podele i smrti. Programirana ćelijska
smrt naziva se apoptoza, a kada se ovaj proces sruši, rak počinje da se formira.
Za razliku od regularnih ćelija, ćelije raka ne dožive programsku smrt i umesto
toga nastavljaju da rastu i podele. To dovodi do mase abnormalnih ćelija koje raste
van kontrole.

4. Geni-tip DNK

Ć elije mogu doživeti nekontrolisan rast ako postoje mutacije za DNK, a

samim tim i izmene gena uključenih u ćelijsku podelu. Četiri ključna tipa gena su
odgovorni za proces razdvajanja ćelija: onkogeni kažu ćeliji kada se deliti, geni
supresora tumora govore ćelijama kada se ne deliti, samoubistveni geni kontrolišu
apoptozu i kažu ćeliji da se ubije ako nešto pođe naopako i popravi-DNK geni
instruiraju ćeliju da popravi oštećenu DNK.

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 Rak se javlja kada ćelijska mutacija ćelije čini ćeliju nesposobnim da ispravi
oštećenje DNK i ne može da izvrši samoubistvo. Slično tome, rak je rezultat
mutacija koje inhibiraju onkogensku i tumorsku supresorsku genu funkciju, što
dovodi do nekontroliranog rasta ćelija.

5. Karcinogeni

Karcinogeni su klasa supstanci koja su direktno odgovorna za oštećenje

DNK, promovisanje ili pomoć kod raka. Duvan, azbest, arsen, zračenje kao što su
gama i rendgen, sunce i jedinjenja u izduvnim gasovima automobila su svi primeri
kancerogena. Kada su naša tela izložena karcinogenima, formirani su slobodni
radikali koji pokušavaju ukrasti elektrone iz drugih molekula u telu. Teži slobodni
radikali oštećuju ćelije i utiču na njihovu funkcionalnost normalno.

6. Geni-vrsta porodice

Rak može biti rezultat genetske predispozicije koja je nasledjena od članova

porodice. Moguće je biti rođen sa određenim genetskim mutacijama ili greškom u
genu koji čini statističkom veću verovatnoću da će kasnije u životu razviti rak.

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7. Rak i drugi medicinski faktori

Kako starimo, postoji povećanje broja mogućih mutacija uzroka raka u našoj
DNK. To čini uzrast važnim faktorom rizika za rak. Nekoliko virusa takođe je
povezano sa rakom kao što su: ljudski papiloma virus (uzrok raka grlića materice),
hepatitis B i C (uzroci raka jetre) i Epstein-Barr virus (uzrok nekog raka u
detinjstvu). Virus humane imunodeficijencije (HIV) - i sve drugo što potiskuje ili
slabi imunološki sistem - sprečava sposobnost tela da se bori protiv infekcija i
povećava šansu za razvoj kancera.

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