Political Thought: (Indian and Western) Western Political Thoughts

1.
POLITICAL THOUGHT
(INDIAN AND WESTERN)
WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHTS
CHAPTER-1
Nature of political thoughts:
Political thoughts are nothing but a history of political ideas given by various political philosophers
over years. They describes about the origin, structure, operations and purpose of various institutions of
the State and Government. Political thoughts are a part of politics, and so Sabine says that “no such
thing as a disinterested political theory”. Political thoughts can also shape future events.
1. Political thoughts are broadest and consist of inclusive terms.
2. It includes all kinds of statements, theories, evaluations and prescriptions on politics.
3. A political thought deals with the study of the development of concepts such as natural
law, democracy, nationalism, socialism, sovereignty and so on.
4. Political thoughts proceed from particular to universal explanations. Eg. The immediate
occasion for Hobbes philosophy was the civil war in England which ends in universal
problem of, How to reconcile authority with liberty?
5. Importance of value: Political thoughts include relations between what is and what ought
to be in Politics? Therefore a political thinker describes and analyses a particular
situation as a scientist, generalizes as a theorist, fixes values as a philosopher and then
goes on to prescribe goals as an ideologist.
6. Hobbes, Plato, Nettle ship, Collingwood, Sabine etc... were the philosophers who
investigated into the matters of political thoughts and its natures.
7. In political thoughts approximation can be reached by Collection of facts and Evaluation.
8. Every political thought must aim at building a model or a new system. (i.e.) giving some
logical arrangements to ideas by perpetual re-establishment of coherence.
Conclusion:
From the above points we can come to a conclusion that a political thought are really broadest
and of inclusive terms and nature and it includes all kind of evaluations, theories and prescriptions on
the politics. It is both science and philosophy. It tries to analyze political phenomenon on the basis of
facts collected, and then attaches values to give it a direction.
POLITICAL THOUGHT AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
The word Philosophy has been derived from the Greek word ‘Sophia’ which means in English
‘love of wisdom’. It refers to search for truth. Philosophy thus refers to study of truths. It is a study
based on knowledge.
1. Political philosophy is a part of political thought because it is more rational and conscious
pursuit of truth to understand political phenomena.
2. But to keep in mind that all political thought is not political philosophy.
3. Leo Strauss says that political philosophy as “the attempt truly to know both the nature of
political things and the right or good political order”.
4. Political philosophy also deals with problems such as political obligation, equality, liberty,
rights and duties as described in political thoughts.
3 POLITICAL THOUGHT
5. Political philosophy includes moral values and assumptions. Moral values cannot be put
to scientific tests; it is because they are based on emotions and attitudes.
6. Political philosophy is of two kinds. They are:
a. Traditional political philosophy and
b. Modern political philosophy. Later the second kind undergoes a great change due
to the impact of positivism.
7. Philosophers like Plato and Aristotle throw a good deal of light on the political philosophy
to understand the historical background of certain institutions and so it is not logical to
ignore history.
8. Reason for the decline of political philosophy given by Easton:
a. Historicism
b. Moral Relativism
c. Confusion between science and theory
d. Hyper factualism
Conclusion:
Aristotle holds that Political philosophy tries to explain,” not something but everything in the
universe”, the macrocosms and the microcosms, like how political thoughts tries to examine not only
what is but what ought to be done or to be approved, in the universe. Therefore political philosophy in
this way function, which the science of politics cannot perform. It also makes ethical evaluation of
institutions to guide future evolution of political goals.
HISTORY OF WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHTS:
The origin of natural laws is to be traced from the ancient Greeks. They believed that the
universe is governed by certain laws. These laws dictate certain principles of human conduct. These
fixed principles constituted the law of nature or natural law. The ancient Greeks distinguished between
the positive law and natural law. The positive law was the creation of human beings while the natural
law was based on the very nature of things. Therefore these laws were called as western political
thoughts as their origin is from Greek
1. Natural Rights
2. Liberalism
3. Socialism and
4. Idealism.
These were the topics under western political thoughts.
Natural Rights:
a. Natural rights shine before the existence of the society.
b. Natural rights are independent of the society and they are inherent in the individual.
c. And so Laski holds that “natural rights are prior to state”.
d. Bentham says that’ Natural’ is vague, meaningless and misleading but Burke described
Natural rights as abstract, absolute and revolutionary.
e. The doctrine of natural rights is a modern one. The Greeks insisted more on duties than
on the rights of the individual
f. Natural rights do not depend upon state-recognition for their validity.
g. Development: It played an important role in the political activity of earlier times. Later in
the 17 and 18th centuries, the theory of natural rights received its best support from
many contractualists.
4 POLITICAL THOUGHT
h. American declaration of independence-1776, French declaration of the rights of man-
1789, and Universal declaration of human rights and Fundamental freedins- 1948 were
inspired by the spirit of Natural rights.
i. At last the doctrine was rejected by modern political science.
Liberalism:
a. It is derived from the Latin word ‘liber which means freedom.
b. Liberalism means freedom from the authority of government.
c. The word liberation came into use around 1839 when Whig party in Great Britain
came to be known as the liberal party.
d. Principles: It puts faith in human, opposes traditionalism, stands for secularism, equality
before law, and protects natural rights.
e. Civil liberty, Fiscal liberty, personal liberty, social liberty, Economic liberty Domestic liberty,
National liberty, International liberty and Political liberty were the essence of liberalism.
f. Classical liberalism and modern liberalism were the two kinds of liberalism.
g. Liberalism is democratic in nature, humanitarian in outlook and rational in approach.
Socialism:
a. The word socialism means common ownership and use of all the vital instruments of
production. It wants to establish social equality by eliminating in equalities.
b. Features: More emphasis on society.
c. Elimination of capitalism.
d. Elimination of competition.
e. Elimination of private property.
f. Social control of means of production and distribution and
g. Establishment of equality.
h. Evolutionary socialism and Revolutionary socialism were the two kinds of socialism.
i. Fabian socialism and Guild Socialism were examples of the first kind.
j. Syndicalism and Marxism were examples of the second kind.
k. Socialism and communism are different from each other. Socialism will come between
capitalisms and communism.
Idealism:
a. The origin of idealism is to be traced from the writings of Plato and Aristotle.
b. The idealist theory of state is also called as Meta physical theory of state and the state is
a divine Idea.
c. State is omnipotent and absolute.
d. It is powerful and supreme.
e. It is indivisible, inalienable, unlimited and illimitable. It is above all citizens and subjects.
f. International law cannot bind the will of the state because its own welfare is its highest law.
g. State is neither immoral, nor unmoral. But it is immoral since it is above morality. In fact,
it is the creator of morality and state never does wrong and unjust.
HISTORY OF INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT:
In ancient India, state was regarded as a sacred political institution. It occupied a pivotal position
in the Hindu society. Raja dharma, Dandaniti, Nitisastra and Arthasastra are the vital sources of Hindu
political thought.
1. Raja dharma deals with the duties of a king.
2. Dandaniti is more or less a code of punishment.
5 POLITICAL THOUGHT
3. Nitisastra explains the things permitted and prohibited for a king.
4. Arthasastra analyses the state craft.
5. Divine origin theory, social contract theory and force theory were the combination of
Hindu state.
6. In early people were peaceful in the Hindu society but gradually they became greedy and
violent. So god appointed a king named ‘Ayonisambhave’ with a code of conduct to
maintain law and order
7. In ancient times Rajasurya yaga and Aswmedha yaga were instrumental in creating and
expanding Hindu state.
8. Stages passed by the Hindu state before the emergence of the Modern Democratic
Republic are as follows:
9. Tribal state, Monarchy, Oligarchy, City-state and Confederate states.
10. Kurupanchalals and lichahnavis are good examples of confederate states Monarchy was
more popular than oligarchy, city states and republics in ancient India.
11. The 7 essential elements of the state were the king, the ministry, the territory, the
resources, the forts, the military and the allies.
12. The Hindu state was basically a welfare state.
Conclusion:
The aim of Hindu state was to protect and promote the four important functions, viz., D h a r m a
, Ardha, Karma and Moksha. The king was the custodian of the state and Government. He was the
sovereign. Law was the command of the sovereign. He was the supreme authority in all matters.
IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF POLITICAL THOUGHTS:

1. Political thought helps to reflect on the distribution of material goods and power among
the individuals and classed in the state.
2. They analyses the problem of liberty, authority, political obligation, revolution and political
change.
3. Political ideas were used to give advice to a prince, to promote one’s own fascination, to
promote class interest.
4. It also used to reconstruct a society on a rational principle or even an ideal.
5. Political thoughts were also used to shape and mould politics.
6. Political thoughts were used to describe the origin, structure, operation and purpose of
the various institutions of state and government.
7. It can also shape future events.
8. It helps to find exact relationship between individual and the society.
9. It helps to analyze political phenomenon on the basis of facts collected.
10. Political philosophy tries us to understand that, what the universe ought to be.
11. It makes ethical evaluation of institutions to guide future evolution of political goals.
12. A political thought in the view of ideologies influences our actions and attitudes.
13. Political thoughts are used in making political science a discipline.
Conclusion:
A political thought in this way serves a function, which the science of politics cannot perform.
6 POLITICAL THOUGHT
CHAPTER - 2
Main currents of Plato in Ancient western political thoughts:
Greek thinkers particularly Plato and Aristotle have made unique contribution to political thought.
Plato was the first Greek writer to have written systematic treatises and a set ideals and principles
constituting an ideal state. He was born about 427BC at Athens. Plato was influenced by Socrates.
The entire philosophy of Plato revolves round the Socratic doctrine: “Virtue is Knowledge”. Plato used
Deductive method at certain points. His works includes apology, Crito, Phaedo, the laws and the
Statesman.
1. THEORY OF JUSTICE:
According to Plato the term justice means morality.
Human Soul - Social Organism
Reason - Ruling Class
Courage - Soldiers
Appetite - Producers
2. IDEALSTATE:
According to Plato Republic is the construction of ideal state.
IDEAL STATE
Theory of Education Theory of Justice
Classification of Society Communism
Functional Principal of Property Family

Specialisation Interference
3. VARIOUS THEORIES OF JUSTICE:

Traditional Theory of Cephalus, Radical Theory of Thrasymachus and Pragmatic Theory of Glaucon.
4. SIGNIFICANCE OF PLATO’S THEORY OF JUSTICE:
(1) His conception of justice was against individualism
(2) Plato’s justice is Universal in character.
(3) His justice can bring organic unity in social life.
(4) It also can make a revolt against political selfishness and it also gave birth to organic
theory of state.
5. CRITICISM OF PLATO’S THEORY OF JUSTICE:
(Reasons) It is moral and not legal. It is too Subjective and hence no justice. It is a system of
duties and not of rights. His justice is based on “one man, one work” principle. There was no any
constitutional safeguard on unlimited power. It gives monopoly of power to the king.
7 POLITICAL THOUGHT
6. FEATURES:
It was a state controlled one, it was a state regulated one, equality of men and women and it was
both intellectual and physical.
7. SCHEMES OF EDUCATION:
Elementary and Higher Education.
8. DEFECTS IN EDUCATION SCHEMES:
No vocational and technical education, it was unjust and too arbitrary and it condemns the
guardians to a life of military monasticism.
9. Theory of communism was criticized due to Plato’s rule of Moral aristocracy which results in
dictatorship.
10. FEATURES OF SUB-IDEAL STATE:
Supremacy of law, Geographical nature of state, Population, Economics and Property, Institution
of family, Political institution of state and Religion.
11. Conclusion:
Plato adhere to “on man, one work” principle, and to him justice was a principle of social service
by which each individual rendered service to the life of society according to his own capacity and
so his creation Republic was known as “a treatise concerning justice”.
MAIN CURRENTS OF ARISTOTLE IN
ANCIENT WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHTS:
Aristotle’s period was about 384 BC. His works were the collection of various constitutional
principles. His treaties on philosophy contain the Aristotelian repudiation of the Platonic doctrine of pre-
existent.
1. THEORY OF ORIGIN OF STATE:
This theory is a unique contribution of political thought. According to him” state is natural to man”.
He regarded the city-state as the highest unit of political organization. The nature of man is political
and is fully seen and realized in the development of the state.
2. NATURE OF STATE:
He considers state as a wider self. His contention is on, that there is no distinction between
individual and state. He believes that state is a product of reason.
3. END OF THE STATE:
According to Aristotle, The State, does not exist merely to satisfy the material requisites of its
citizens but it comes to an end, when it exist for good life.
4. CLASSIFICATION OF GOVERNMENT:
His classification of government is both Qualitative and Quantitative. Aristotle idea on this may be
tabulated as:
Number Pure Degenerated
One Monarchy Tyranny
Few Aristocracy Oligarchies
Much Polity Democracy
According to Aristotle the above classification reveals that polity is the best form of government
and democracy regarded as the worst one.
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5. ARISTOTLE THEORY OF JUSTICE:
He regarded justice as a complex virtue and it does not depend upon fictionalization. A justice
and law-abiding citizen, is one and the same and therefore justice is a great moral virtue. Particular
justice, Distributive justice, Corrective justice were the three types.
6. ARISTOTLE THEORY OF EDUCATION:
According to him man is a harmonious combination of both good and evil and so education
should provide training in the art of citizenship.
7. FEATURES OF IDEAL STATE OF ARISTOTLE:
Production, Territory, Location, Character of the citizens, Parts of state is the features.
8. THEORY OF REVOLUTION:
According to him, when the following four changes had happened in the existing government,
then revolution is said to taken place. They are:
1. When changes affect the constitution itself,
2. Influences men to take government in his own hand,
3. Produces difference of degree,
4. May be against a portion of the constitution only.
9. THEORY OF SLAVERY:
Aristotle strongly justifies the institution of slavery. He supports slavery on grounds of expediency
of naturalness. By slavery he mentioned the domestic service. The slaves will enable master to devote
himself to the higher things of life.
10. CONCEPTION OF LAW AND CITIZENSHIP:
“Law is a dispassionate reason” Law is sovereign because there is no superior power supreme
over it and a citizen is both a legislator and a judge taking part in all functions and a citizen must enjoy
his citizenship.
CHAPTER-3
MAIN CURRENT OF MEDIEVAL WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT INCLUDES

NATURAL LAW, NATURAL RIGHTS, LIBERALISM, SOCIALISM, AND MARXISM
NATURAL LAW:
1. Natural law is higher than positive law. Natural law is created by god in nature. It is based
on right, reason, justice, morality, and universality.
2. The wisdom of philosopher king is untrammeled by law, custom and stupidity.
3. Aristotle applied reason to distinguish the real from unreal and fact from faith
4. Cicero explained that natural law is a universal law of nature binding all men and all nations.
5. Jean Bodin declared that “sovereign is bound by the law of God and law of nature”
6. Thomas Hobbes declared that natural law prevailed in the state of nature.
7. David Hume’s imperial method, positivism and historicism account for the decline of
natural law.
8. Efforts initiated to reconciling between natural law and positive law.
9. The courts are sometimes authorized to decide cases according to the principles of
natural law whereas positive law had no provisions.
10. International law is based on law of nature.
9 POLITICAL THOUGHT
Conclusion:
Law of nature is historically not true. Also, natural law is no law since its violation is not
punishable by any political authority. Natural law confuses law as it is with law as it should be.
However, natural law contributed significantly for the development of positive law.
NATURAL RIGHTS:
1. Natural rights are closely related to natural law.
2. Laski holds that natural rights are prior to the state.
3. Cicero advocated the rights of equality and universal brother hood as natural rights.
4. Natural rights are abstract, absolute, and revolutionary said by Burke.
5. Natural rights do not depend upon state recognition for their validity.
6. Natural rights are derived from reason, but not from theology.
7. DOCTIRINE OF NATURAL RIGHTS: were playing an important role in the political
activity of earlier times.
8. MEDIEVAL PERIOD: In those periods, the law of nature was largely associated with the
law of god. During that period the concept of individual rights emerged clearly. These
natural rights protect the individuals and so it was approved by god also.
9. MODERNPERIOD: In modern times, the doctrine of natural rights is gradually surviving
and sustaining from the criticism of positivists, that natural law is no ‘law’ at all since its
violation is not punishable by the state.
Conclusion:
Doctrine of natural rights has been rejected by modern political science. Right can exist only
where there is a sovereign authority
LIBERALISM:
1. Liberalism is the theory of liberty. It means freedom from the authority of Government
2. Number of writers had contributed much for this theory.
3. Liberalism has been the outstanding doctrine of the west for nearly four centuries.
4. Liberalism is ante-thesis of conservatism.
5. Principles such as faith in human, stands for secularism, stands for free competition,
advocates for freedom of thoughts, equality of law and faith in human progress were
involved in liberalism.
6. ESSSENCE OF LIBERALISM: Liberties such as civil, fiscal, Personal, social, economic,
domestic, national, international and political liberties form the essence of liberalism.
7. John is rightly regarded as the father of individual liberalism. Adam, the founder of
laissez fair. Liberalism is closely associated with capitalism.
8. Contemporary liberalism did not break the link between democracy and freedom.
Conclusion:
Liberalism is democratic in nature, humanitarian in outlook and “rational” in approach. It
can also recognize the ability of the individuals.
SOCIALISM:
1. The word socialism was first used in the Poor Mans Gardian in 1833. Socialism means
the common ownership of the means of production to remove the injustices and evils of
the capitalist system.
10 POLITICAL THOUGHT
2. It wants to establish social equality by eliminating economic inequalities.
3. It produces wealth according to the needs of the society through economic planning.
4. FEATURES OF SOCIALISM: More emphasis on society, Elimination of capitalism,
Elimination of competition, Elimination of private property, social control of means of
production and distribution and Establishment of equality.
5. It brings about the sense of dignity among the working classes, and brings harmonious
integration.
6. DEMERITS: Divides society, limits freedom, Increases state function etc...
7. KINDS: Evolutionary and Revolutionary socialism. Fabian and Guild socialism are Eg : for
evolutionary socialism while syndicalism and Marxism are Eg for revolutionary socialism.
MARXISM:
1. Marxism means the establishment of classless society by eliminating exploitation.
2. THEORY OF CLASS STRUGGLE : It explains that struggle between the capitalists and
the worker is inevitable and continuous.
3. LABOUR THEORY OF SURPLUS VALUE: It explains that, rights belong to the workers
is wrongly taken by the capitalists since surplus value is created by the workers.
4. THEORY OF CONTRADICTIONS: It shows that decay and destruction of capitalism is
caused by its own contradictions.
5. Marxism asserts that ultimately the state will wither away since in a classless society the
state has no function to perform.
Conclusion:
Socialism and communism are often used as synonymous terms. But they are different from each
other. Socialism will come between capitalism and communism. Thus society will have to pass through a
transitional stage. The socialist society is based on the principle “From each according to this ability, to
each according to his work”, But the communist society is based on the principle “From each according to
his ability, to each according to his needs”. Soviet Union’s is the best example of a socialist state.
CHAPTER-4
MODERN WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHTS
by Herald J. Laski and Jeremy
Bentham Modern western political thoughts by Laski:
Herald Laski is one of the most leading figures of modern political thought. In all his thoughts
there is a visible tendency of gradual development. This tendency is also visible in his ideas about the
sovereignty of state. His ideas about sovereignty and state may be divided into 3 stages, i.e. from
1914to1925; from 1926to1930 and lastly from 1931 to 1935.
1. NATURE OF STATE: State according to Laski is a reality. Every right is recognized because
every one is the citizen of the state. State has established itself as an organization which
governs the conduct of human beings living therein. The state also has an authority through
which it manifests its will, namely the government. Members of a government are responsible
for enforcing laws passed by the legally established authority of the state.
2. SOVEREIGNTY OF STATE FROM (1914-1925): Laski rejected the concept of legal
sovereignty as expounded by Austin as impossible. He attacked this concept on the
following grounds: They are: Impossible, Artificiality, immorality, Dangerous, Unhistorical.
3. FROM (1926-1930): Laski put forth a positive theory about the sovereignty of the state. He
wrote, “It would be of lasting benefit to political science if the whole concept of sovereignty
was surrendered”. He says that state was a key-stone of social equalities, that essential
for the development of the society. Thus Laski was more flexible than what he was prior
to 1925.
4. FROM (1931-1935) : A shift came in Laski’s ideas after 1931. Now he began to feel that the
state was essential for social good though it was an agency which exploited many. During
this period Laski was very much influenced by the way in which Macdonald behaved in
England. For him now a revolution was essential to bring a fundamental change in the
character of state.
5. LIBERTY: Laski rejected the view that liberty consisted in absence of restraints. He
defined liberty as the positive and equal opportunity of self-realization. “Liberty was the
absence of restraints upon the existence of those social conditions which in the modern
civilization are necessary guarantees of individual’s happiness” was said by Laski in his
‘Liberty and Modern State’ publication. Thus Laski has been gradually moving from
negative to the positive meaning of the term Liberty.
6. KINDS OF LIBERTY: Political liberty, Economic liberty, Private liberty.
7. LIBERTY AND EQUALITY: Equality means providing of equal opportunities for rising in life.
Vast economic inequalities could reasonably be great danger to political authority. Too much
economic disparity should be removed so that political institution could work for collective
welfare. Vast economic disparities are dangerous to successful working of political
institutions as well as individual freedom. According to Laski liberty must be preceded by
certain safeguards. Unless those safeguards were granted one could not think of having
proper liberty. The rights should flow from the constitution. They should not be at the mercy
of few people. There should be absence of privileges as far as possible.
8. RIGHTS: Rights were fundamental notion of each age. There was no any absolute
ethics. Rights help us in developing personality. Rights are the conditions of social rights.
Each right should have social utility. According to him there are no rights against society.
It can be claimed within the society.
9. KINDS OF RIGHTS: According to Laski there are three kinds of rights. They are:
Individual rights, Class rights, Rights of association.
10. CONDITIONS FOR RIGHTS: Consultative bodies, Decentralization.
a) Right to work, Right to wages,
b) Right to leisure, Right to education,
c) Right to be elected and to hold office.
11. PROPERTY: Laski felt that the institution of private property was a mixed blessing; He
discussed about evils of property, property and reward, concluding remarks etc.
12. LASKI: (Started Pluralist and ended Marxist)
13. DIFFERENCE FROM MARX: Laski differs from Marx based on the following grounds.
They are:
a) Revolution,
b) Dictatorship of the proletariat,
c) Tribute to Democratic way of life,
d) Appreciation of Humanism,
e) Abolition of state,
f) Economic policy,
g) Nature of society Act..
14. CONTRIBUTION POLITICAL THOUGHT: He was praised by many political
philosophers. England and USA have produced no man of his talent after Montesquieu
and Tocqueville.
15. Views of Admires as follows:
a) Individualism,
b) Challenge to Austin theory of sovereignty,
c) Opposition to Capitalism,
d) Favour of Democracy,
e) Liberalism,
f) Reformative spirit,
g) Industrial principles,
h) Academician and
i) Statesman.
Conclusion:
Laski, on the other hand, succeeded with his factual and realistic approach to the political problems.
MODERN WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT

By Jeremy Bentham
Jeremy Bentham was an English thinker who coined the term utility and extensively used it in his
philosophy. He confessed that he picked up the term from K.Priestley. He was so much impressed when he
read the term ‘greatest happiness of the greatest number of people’ that be got an inner ecstasy.
1. GROSS UTILITARIANISM:
a) Hedonism,
b) Utility,
c) Utility as primary criteria,
d) Calculus of utility,
e) Four sanctions,
f) Simple and Complex Pleasures,
g) Hedonistic calculus.
2. CRITICAL EVALUATION:
a) Over Simplification Materialistic theory,
b) Misunderstanding of Human Nature,
c) Underestimation of Society,
d) Inconsistent Theory,
e) No measuring rod for pleasure,
f) Impracticable Theory,
g) Wrong system of studying political institutions,
h) Unanimity on Pleasure,
i) Ambiguous theory,
j) Ignored Habits,
k) Wrong psychology,
l) Outdated Theory,
m) Stress on Quantity.
3. POLITICAL IMPLICATION ON UTILITARIANISM;
a) Criteria o utility,
b) Blow to social contract,
c) Challenge to state supremacy,
d) Individual freedom, Democracy,
e) Re-examination of institutions,
f) Political Reforms,
g) Middle class social philosophy.
4. BENTHAM’S POLITICAL THOUGHT:
a) Origin of political society,
b) Natural law and rights,
c) Sovereignty,
d) Resistance of government authority,
e) Proper form of government,
f) Punishment,
g) Publicity of law, Reform,
h) Administration of justice,
i) Private property,
j) Education,
k) Church.
5. ESTIMATES OF BENTHAM:
a) As a moral philosopher,
b) As a political philosopher,
c) As a reformer,
d) Practical thinker,
e) As a legal reformer,
f) Founder of utilitarianism,
g) Fore-Runner of Marx,
h) As educational reformer.
Conclusion:
Professor Dunning has rather rightly said, “Among the notable names of this group are these of
David Ricardo, James Mill, George Grote, John Austin and J.s. Mill, who in ethics, economics, historic
jurisprudence made a deep impression on the intellectual life of their time because the system s of all
these men and many others were clearly rooted in that of Bentham..
CHAPTER-5
SOURCES AND FEATURES OF ANCIENT INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHTS:
Ancient Indian political thought is known as Raja Shasta, Raja dharma, Dandaneethi, Nitishastra,
etc. Saletore states that “the history of ancient Indian political thought is the story of great minds that
evolved political institutions and guided Hindu society for nearly three millennium. Ancient Indian
political thought can be conveniently traced in the background of the ancient customs, conventions and
political practices and institutions apart from philosophical traditions.
I. PROMINENT SOURCES: The Vedas, The Mahabharata, The Arthasastra, The Smrithis
were the sources.
II. OTHER WORKS ON ANCIENT INDIAN POLITY: Kamandakeya Neethisastra,
Nitivakyamrutha, in 960 A.D is a brief account of ancient Indian political thoughts. There
are number of books on the science of polity in Sanskrit, and Greek Historians like
Megasthanese who wrote ‘Indica’, Chinese traveler like Hieuntsang also provide valuable
information on Indian polity.
III. INSCRIPTIONS: Inscriptions on stones and copper are another source of information
about the ancient Indian polity.
IV. NUMISMATICS: Numismatics and the legends inscribed on them also serve as sources.
V. FEATURES OF ANCIENT INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT:
a) Ethical and Spiritual,
b) Intimate relation to social organization,
c) No distinction between state and society,
d) Emphasis on practice,
e) Centralization of authority,
f) No importance to individual liberty,
g) Secret diplomacy,
h) Kingship,
i) Positive view of state
j) Whole life.
Political ideas of Kautilya:
Kautilya’s original name was Vishnu Gupta. He is popularly known as Chanakya. He was the
author of Arththa sashta. The subject matter of Arthashastra is very comprehensive. The text has 32
division,15 books or parts and 150 chapters.
SAPTANGA THEORY OF STATE:
There are 7 Elements of the organs of the State:
1) Swami or Lord,
2) The ruler or the king,
3) The Amathay or Minister,
4) The Janapada or territory,
5) The Durga or Fort,
6) Kosa or the treasure,
7) Danda or tha,
8) Army Mitra or the ally.
A. KAUTILYA’S VIEW ON KINGSHIP: According to kautilya a king has to protect the
property, of the peoples and varnas by punishing the guilty.
B. EDUCATION AND QUALITIES OF A KING: A king in the making should observe
celibacy till the age of sixteen. He should be under the aged teachers’ to develop
discipline in himself. He should learn military art. He should know how to exercise control
over the sense and the six great enemies, and too he said that a king must be ready to
give up his wife, if asked to do so by his subjects.
C. SOVEREIGNTY: Kautilya states that the monarch was the sovereign. He had absolute
control over the State Machinery.
D. DANDA: Kautilya assigned a prominent place to Danda in his Arthashastra. According to
Kautilya, danda is not merely means or an instrument of punishment but means of
ensuring security and prosperity of three successes namely, the study of Vedas, the
study of philosophy, and the study of Economics. The worldly affairs had to be conducted
and regulated with the instrument of danda.
E. CIVIL ADMINISTRATION AND MILITARY ADMINSTRATION: A king should be
commander-in-chief of the Armed forces. The king should be resolute and merciless.
When the state provided relief to the people in time of calamities, Kautilya remarked that
the King should show favour like a father to his people when they were in distress.
F. THEORY OF GOVERNMENT: Kautilya’s theories of government involve three aspects.
They are;
a) The king,
b) The officials,
c) The mechanism of administration.
JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION: Darma sastra was the basic of justice. He suggested two-types of
courts. They are:
(i) Dharmasthiya (civil court)
(ii) Kantaka Sodhana (criminal court).
G. He describes about the qualities of judge, the procedure at court, Crimes and
punishment, system of Spies or Espionage, Finances, Union of Administration, Dangers
to the kinship or sovereignty of a king, Enemies act..
H. FOREIGN POLICY: He enumerated six fold policies in the determination of relations of
States relation with one another. They are:
1) Agreement with pledge,
2) Offensive operation,
3) Indifference, neutrality,
4) Making preparation,
5) Protection of one another,
6) Making peace and war with one another.
I. DIPLOMACY: He gave more importance to the Ambassador of ‘duta’, The ambas
sador must be the mouth piece of the king.
J. DOCTRINE OF CIRCLES: It describes about the relation of one king with another.
The spectrum of Mandala and Vijigisu functions as assort of balance of power.
Political ideas of Manu:
A. According to puranas Manu was the father of human race.
B. The law book attributed to him is the “cod of Manu’ which is known as ‘Manu
Smriti’. It contains 12 chapters.
C. VARNA SYSTEM: He had suggested the four fold Classification of the society
which was derived from the vedic hymn. They are Brahman as, Kshatriyas,
Vyshyas and Sudras.
D. ORIGIN OF KINGSHIP: According to him god created the king to protect the people
around him. A king should have divine qualities such as: Indra, Vayu, Yama, Varna,
Agni, Surya, Chandra and Kubera.
E. He explained certain qualities of a king, Function of a state, Dandaneethi- It refers
that a king should act according to dharma.
TAXATION: Manu stated the following taxes should be levied:
i Land revenue,
ii. fees,
iii. fine,
iv. use of river tax,
v. plying of boats,
vi. taxes on animal,
vii. taxes on sale,
viii. taxes on artisans;
F. MINISTERS AND COUNCIL: There were 7 organs of state according to
Manu;They are as follows and are very important. The minister, friend, city, state,
treasury, force, king.
G. He also described about Local governments, appointment of ambassadors,
construction of force, Delimitation of boundaries, Foreign affairs and law.
H. MORALITY AND RELIGION: The ancient Indian polity give most priority to the religious
affairs.
I. JUDICIALSYSTEM: According to Manu there should be a dharma shaba and
Dharmadhyaksha was the head. Manu had debarred lawyers, slaves, enemies,
medicants, lepers ect.
Conclusion:
At last it is concluded as that Manu is the father of Indian polity because he was
profoundlyinfluenced by Hindu tradition and philosophy.
CHAPTER - 6
Classical Hindu concept of state: In ancient India the state had been declared as a highest good
on the earth. The state has been treated as a monarchy.
A. THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF STATE:
(i) Divine origin theory,
(ii) Force theory,
(iii) Social contract theory,
(iv) Evolutionary theory
(v) Organic theory.
B. FEATUES OF HINDU STATE: Monarchy was popular in ancient india, The state was a
welfare state for the well-being of all sections of the people, Varuna the god of rain would
punish the unjust king., Threat of hell was a great deterrent to acorrupt king, State was
regarded as a divine creation.
C. RELATION BETWEEN STATE AND SOCIETY: The term State and Government were
synonymously used. State was a political institution. The state has coercive power but
had to use it only in the interest of the society.
D. FUNCTIONS OF STATE: Its of three kind.. They are Social functions, Economic
functions, Ethico-Religious function.
E. CONCEPT of Danda, Dharma, Dandaneethi, Rajadharma were discussed in the Hindu
concept of state.
F. MATHYANYAYA (LOGIC OF FISH) v. DANDA was elaborately given in the danda
creation.
G. Concept of Dandaneethi is also known as Dandawidhi.
Conclusion:
The ancient Hindu literature does not provide references regarding the aims or ideals of the
State. The fundamental aim of the state was the maintenance of peace and order, security and justice.
State discharged the functions during the ancient India as well.
ISLAMIC CONCEPT OF STATE:
A. ROLE OF MOHAMMED: He was born in Mecca, the home of ka’aba. At the age of 25,
he entered the service of khadiya, he later married a rich widow. He secludes himself in a
cave at Hira, and an angel appeared to him and gave the revelations, which were later
compiled as a book called Quran.
FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM: Islam incorporated the most revered symbols of Arabs. It was
a first attempt in the Arab history.
1. Acknowledgement of Muhammad’s the final messenger;
2. Acceptance of Quran as the ultimate word of god;
3. Namaz five times a day;
4. Zakat for the benefit of Muslim community;
5. Fasting during month of Ramzan.
B. CONCEPT OF STATE: Islamic concept of state is based of unity of god. Islamic shariat
abolished all discrimination and promoted the concept of human equality.
C. ISLAMIC STATE A DEMOCRATIC STATE: It is based on one script, one sovereign, one
nation.
D. FEATURES OF ISLAMIC STATE: It was an institution of king and a court during ancient
period. Military in character, It wa san police state, Its main functions are maintenance of
law and order and collections of revenue.
E. THE SULTAN: (STATE YBDER SULTANATE) : Sultan was the head and he holds court
which abounded in pump and splendor. Sultan ruled with the help of the ministers.
F. POWER of king was well showed and Pan Islamism of Mohammed Iqbal was briefly
discussed.
Conclusion:
The aim of the Islamic concept must be the regulation of spiritual perfection and development of
religious and moral life.
CHAPTER-7
GANDHIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT:
Gandhi was born on October 2 nd, 1869 at porbander in Kathiawar of Gujarat state. He is
remembered by Indians as the ‘father of nation’. His ideas was known as Gandhian political ideas.
A. THE CONCEPT OF AHIMSA: He listed 11 ethical principles for the individual and social
development. They are listed as below. Truth, Non-violence, Non-stealing, Non-Possession,
Celibacy, control over palate, Fearlessness, Bread labour, Removal of Untouchability.
B. Gandhi was not against violence in total. He advocated it in 4 fields: State, Internal
disturbances, External war, Family.
C. He regarded Ahimsa as a policy including five basic principles.
D. DOCTRINE OF PRINCIPLE OF SATYAGRAHA: It consists of two word,
satya which means truth and agraha which means ‘force, request or
strength. Theory of sathyagraha has 2 positive features and 3 purposes. It
was meant to achieve political ends.
E. TECHNIQUES OF SATYAGRAHA: Non-cooperation, civil disobedience,
Hijrat, Fasting, Strike.
F. GANDHIAN VIEW OF STATE: State is Embodiment of power and force. It
is based on violence. His idea of Rama Rajya is based upon one’s
Adherence to Satyanand Ahima.
G. FEATURES OF RAMA RAJYA: Decentralisation, Varna Vyavasthe, Non-
possession, Trusteeship, Bread labour.
H. NON-VIOLENT SOCIETY AND GANDHIAN ECONOMY: Labour is wealth,
Property, State ownership, Industrialization v. cottage industries, Socialist
society.
I. He also discussed about swaraj and freedom at a great phase.
Conclusion:
Gandhi wanted to have a classless society. He had a very soft corner for poor and
downtrodden peoples. He believed in the concept of social equality. He believed in Non-
violence, truth, ahimsa.
SARVODHAYA IN GANDHIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT:
A. Sarvodhaya means the establishment of new social order on the basis of

love and non-violence.
B. It is a powerful Intellectual movement. It implies welfare of all citizens.
C. It believes in social reconstruction. The ideals are as follows:
D. Emphasis on spirit
E. Non-violence
F. Emphasis on moral values
G. Partyless democracy
H. Stateless society
I. Decentralized village communities
J. Bhoodan movement
K. JAYAPRAKASH NARAYAN AND SARVODHAYA MOVEMENT: He was a
leader of freedom movement in India actively following Gandhian
philosophy and ideals; Being a firm believer in sarvodaya philosophy, J.P.
adovcated a thoroughly decentralized
Gram Raj movement in India.
Conclusion:
Sarvodhaya aims towards the creation of a social order from every form of
authority. Sarvodaya aims to replace the politics of power by the politics of co-operation.
SUB CODE : FQG

POLITICAL
THOUGHT
(INDIAN AND WESTERN)
LECTURE NOTES
Page 1 of 1
POLITICAL THOUGHT[FQG]
{Indian and western}
Unit – I Nature Of Political Thought
Political Thought and Political Philosophy
i. Political Thought and Political Philosophy are the mirrors
of the society which reflects the social, political and
economic conditions of the then period.
ii. Political Thought is a broader concept which includes
Political Philosophy of many Thinkers.
iii. The Greeks were undoubtedly the first important political
thinkers, who established that Man was a Social Animal
both by nature and necessity.
The Contributions of Greek Political
Thinkers to the World
i. The Greek Political Thinkers, first time in the history of the
World, discussed many complicated and Political issues.,
i.e.,
ii. What was the relation of an individual with the state?
iii. What should be duties and responsibilities of an ideal ruler?
iv. Whether an individual had the right to hold family

and property?
v. Under what circumstances an individual had the right to
rise an revolt against the state?
Page 2 of 2
Political Philosophy and Significance of State
i. Human beings are Rational as well as a Social Animals.
ii. They have always an inner instinct of understanding
themselves and the world around them.
iii. This inherent feeling had enabled them to discover
and study social and physical sciences.
iv. Gradually the human beings have understood that
obedience to laws is a condition precedent for their
progress and the fullest expression of their Personality
v. Human beings have realised that only by being a
member in society alone they can progress and their
problems can be solved.
vi. Only by being a member in the Society they can learnt
to obey laws and respect feelings of others.
vii. It is also established as a fact by the Political Philosophy
that State is as old as the history of mankind itself though
it might have differed in name, nature, character and
functions.
viii. It is also understood that the society existed prior to state.
Page 3 of 3
Unit – II Main Currents Of Ancient
Western Political Thought –Plato-Aristotle
Plato (427 B.C.to 347 B.C.)
i. Plato the disciple of Socrates and Teacher of Aristotle.
ii. Plato was one of the greatest philosophers produced by
ancient Greece.
iii. He had contributed much but many of them are not
available. Only limited materials are only available.
iv. He had developed a new methodology of expressing
his views –Method of Dialogues
v. He was one of the greatest Logicians and Dialecticians.
Political Philosophy of Plato

i. Plato is considered as one of the wisest and true follower
of the Philosophy of Socrates.
th
ii. He is the most well known philosopher of 5 century
B.C. Greece.
iii. Due to the execution of his teacher by the powerful but
corrupt ‘Thirty’ he lost faith in democracy.
iv. He was so much influenced by this execution of his
teacher, he left Politics and became a political thinker.
v. Though he was born in a noble Athenian family, he turned
as political thinker instead of ruler or administrator.
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Influences on Plato
i. The political philosophy of Plato is having a lot of
influences from his master Socrates
ii. Though he differed from him in details yet on basic
principles more or less he agreed with him in Toto.
iii. Like his master he also followed the same dialectical
methods for his study and many a time even adopted
negative method of explaining.
iv. The ‘Republic’ is his masterpiece and is still considered
as a great treatise on all problems which face us today.
Early Life Experiences of Plato

i. Born in 427.B.C
ii. Noble Aristocratic Athenian Family
iii. Witnessed Troubled period of Athens.
iv. Athens defeated by Spartans. Humiliating defeat in the
Peloponnesian war. Tyrannical rule of the
reactionaries. Execution of his Master Socrates.
v. After his master’s death he left Athens. Travel widely in
Greece, Egypt,Italy etc. and returned Athens in 386 B.c.
vi. Founded “Academy”. The First University of the
World. Discussions. Published many works.
Page 5 of 5
Three Masterpieces of Plato
i. The Republic 386 B.C.
ii. The Statesman 360.B.C.
iii. The Laws 347 B.C
The Method of Plato

i. In the Examination of various Ethical, Political, and
Metaphysical problems Plato adopted the Deductive
Reasoning Method.
ii. Deductive reasoning method in the form of Dialogue.
iii. Dialogue form (Mind at work)vs Narrative form(Finished
Product).
iv. To select his dialectic method he followed his Master
Socrates.
v. By dialogue Truth is discovered by
Exposing Contradictions.
Plato’s Theory of Justice
i. Plato used the term Justice as Morality or Goodness in
general.
ii. Justice means almost the whole of Virtue as shown in

our dealings with others.
iii. Individual can realise their best life only in and through
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membership of civil Society by adopting virtual Justice.
iv. Cephalus “Speaking Truth and Paying one’s Depts”
v. Polemarchus “Doing good to friends and harms to

enemies”
vi. Thrasymachus “Justice as the interest of the stronger”
vii. Glucon “Justice as the interest of the weaker”
viii. Plato gives an analogy between Human soul and Social

organism
Human soulSocial organism

Reason  The Ruling Class
Spirit  The Warrior Class
Appitite  The Producer Class
The Ideal State Of Plato: Features
1. The Philosopher King
2. Restriction of Arts and Literature
3. Equal Treatment for men and Women
4. State Controlled Education System
v. Functional Specialization
6. Proper Administration of Justice
7. The Division of Classes
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8. Qualified Absolutism
9. Communism of wives and Property
10. Totalitarian Outlook
11. Retention of Slavery
12. Bringing up of Children
1.)The Philosopher King

i. Head of the State should be a Philosopher King
ii. Should be a Passionless Person
iii. Seeker of Truth and Wisdom
iv. Above all types of Prejudices
v. High Quality of Head and Heart
vi. Could not be corrupted by power or wealth
vii. Bound by no laws
viii. Passion to look after the welfare of all
ix. Combined in Virtue and Knowledge
x. Commanded respect from all sections of Society
2.)Restriction of Arts and Literature

i. There should be restriction on the production of the Art
and Literature
ii. No Cheap, Unpopular and immoral literature should
come before the people
iii. Misleading and ill-informed literature will misguide the
Page 8 of 8
people
iv. Literature of high moral Character should be placed
before the people
v. Permission of state was considered most necessary
before any piece of literature was brought in to market.
vi. He even banned Homer’s Epic for his ideal state
3.)Equal Treatment for men and Women

i. According to Plato’s ideal state, there should be
equal treatment to both men and women in all fields.
ii. Plato severely opposed the Athenian system of Education
in which women were not to be given higher education.
iii. He felt that since both men and women were equally
citizens of a state and were to work for its welfare it was
essential that both should be properly and uniformly
educated.
iv. Women were to be given both mental and
physical training program in par with men
4.)Plato’s Scheme of Education
Department and Head
i. Plato, indeed, was the first to formulate a complete
education system, covering every aspect from its
administration to a detailed curriculum.
ii. In his book “The Laws” Plato describes how
education should be organized and administered.
iii. The whole education system should be headed by
Page 9 of 9
a‘ Supervisor of Education’, ‘far the most important of the
highest offices in the State’, who would supervise all
aspects of education for children of both sexes.
iv. He should be ‘a man of not less than 50 years, and
v. He should be the father of a legitimate family, preferably
of both sexes’
vi. He will have working under him ‘superintendents of
gymnasiums and schools in charge of their seemly
maintenance as well as of the education given and the
supervision of attendances and accommodation for
children of both sexes, together with judges of performers
contending in both musical and athletic competitions’.
vii. These competitions are important because the careers of
the guardians are determined by their results.
viii. The education of the guardians—a lifelong education
that stretches from before birth to retirement age
Life-long Education to the Guardian Class
i. The education of the guardians—a lifelong education
that stretches from before birth to retirement age
ii. Since the health and beauty of both body and mind are
essential goals of Platonic education, it is divided into two
parts: gymnastics and music (i.e. culture).
iii. Physical education begins before birth. Pregnant
women are advised to walk around and move about as
much as possible, for ‘every sort of shaking and stirring
[communicates] health and beauty, to say nothing of
robustness’ to the unborn infant
5.)Morality In the Pre-Schooling Period
Page 10 of 10
i. Pre-school education is the responsibility of parents
(whereas in the Republic infants are raised collectively
and do not know who their parents are)
ii. The teaching of culture begins very early on, through the
stories parents tell their children. Plato attaches the
greatest importance to the content of these stories.
Consequently, such stories must pass the censors’
scrutiny. Plato places a strong and oft-repeated stress on
censorship, not sparing even Homer.
6.)Equality of Education to both Men and Women

i. One of the tasks of education in the Platonic state is to
preserve the status quo. All innovation is taboo. Contrary
to most modern educational principles, education must
stand guard against all change and all forms of
subversion.
ii. Despite his extreme conservatism, however, Plato had
some highly innovative ideas. For example,. In the
Platonic state girls, like boys, do their gymnastics and are
expected to go to war clad in the same amour as the men.
iii. They share the boys’ education, with no discrimination
between them. Moreover, Plato prescribes compulsory
education for all, that is for all members of the guardian
class.
Compulsory Education for Guardian class for both
boys and Girls
i. They share the boys’ education, with no
discrimination between them.
Page 11 of 11
ii. Moreover, Plato prescribes compulsory education for all,
that is for all members of the guardian class.
iii. Compulsory schooling goes far beyond an elementary
education; yet Plato has very little to say about the
education of crafts workers and merchants, which
consists of no more than a simple apprenticeship, and
slaves received no mention at all.
7.)Functional Specialization
i. Plato’s ideal state has three classes of people.
ii. Rulers at the head to govern the state, soldiers to defend,
and peasants and artisans to fight for the betterment of
economic conditions of the people living in it.
iii. Each sections of the society was required to attain
perfection in the particular job attached to it.
iv. According to him it was only in class division that each

class could give security, prosperity and proper
administration to the people.
7.)Proper Administration of Justice

i. Justice was an integral part of state and it kept various
organs and individuals in close harmony with each
other.
Page 12 of 12
ii. Therefore he insisted that Justice should be properly
administered .
iii. According to him it was not to be measured in terms of
courts of law. It was something in which there was
functional specialisation and everybody was required to
remain within his limits.
iv. Justice includes to see that none was to encroach upon
the rights and privileges of others.
Three classes of Plato’s Ideal Society

In the Republic the inhabitants are divided into three
distinct classes:
i. The first group, the ‘sages or ruling class’, watch over the
smooth functioning and harmony of the state. At the head
of the state is a ‘philosopher-king’ (Reason)
ii. The ‘guardians’, who are responsible for the security
and administration of the state. The guardian class is
itself divided into two groups: the ‘auxiliaries’ and the
‘perfect’ guardians, or regents—the first, in principle the
youngest, having responsibility for internal and external
security (including the police and the army)(Spirit)
iii. Lastly, slaves who are the subjects of special provisions in
the Laws, craftsmen and merchants (generally alien
without rights of citizenship)(Appitite)
Page 13 of 13
8.)Qualified Absolutism
i. Ordinarily Plato did not wish to impose any limitations on
the Authority of the Philosopher King.
ii. According to him it was virtue in auction and could not be
corrupted.
iii. The power of the Philosopher king is more or less
equaling to the Hobbesian Leviathan. But still Plato put
certain checks on his authority.
iv. The King should see that the Fundamentals of the
Constitution were not violated and were always kept intact.
v. It was required of him to preserve social order and honour
natural laws to the extent possible.
9.)Plato’s Theory of Communism and Property
i. The ideal state, Plato went on to say, consisted of the
three classes those of the rulers, of the auxiliaries, and of
the producers, each doing its own assigned job.
ii. According to Plato, the guardians class should not be
given the right of property as he considers that property
represents the elements of appetite.
iii. This appetite in the long run will pave the way for
all corruption in the society.
The Communism of Families.
i. “The abolition of family life among the guardians is, thus,
inevitably a corollary of their renunciation of private
property.”(Ernest Barker)
ii. “As private property and family relationships appear to be
Page 14 of 14
the chief sources of dissension in every community,
neither is to have recognition in the perfect
state.”(Dunning)
iii. The first is the prohibition of private property, whether
houses as land or money, to the rulers (and auxiliaries)
and the provision that they shall live in barracks and
have their meals at a common table.(Sabine)
Communism of Wives only for Guardian Class
i. Plato suggested that, “The abolition of a permanent
monogamous sexual relation and the substitution of
regulated breeding at the behest of the rulers for the
purpose of securing the best possible offspring”.
ii. Plato’s argument for communism of property and families

was that the unity of the state demands their abolition. “The
unity of the state is to secure; property and family stand in
the way; therefore, property and marriage must go”
Plato’s reasons for offering his scheme of Communism of
Wives and Property
i. Plato’s reasons for offering his scheme of community of
wives and property were the following: Those who
exercise political power should have no economic motives,
and those who are engaged in economic activities should
have no share in political power.
ii. Barker sums up Plato’s argument in this regard: “Plato’s
scheme has many facets and many purposes. It is a
scheme of eugenics; it is a scheme for the emancipation
of women; it is a scheme for the nationalisation of the
family. It is meant to secure a better stock, greater
Page 15 of 15
freedom for women and for men to develop their highest
capacities, a more complete and living solidarity of the
state or at any rate, of the rulers of the state.”
10.)Totalitarian Outlook
i. Plato’s Ideal state has totalitarian outlook.
ii. People can only develop in the state and state was only
agency through which one’s personality can be reach
its fullest limits.
iii. The people can neither be above nor aside the state but
an integral part of the state.
iv. Since the Philosopher ruled the state and he was above
individual or party consideration, and there was no need
of fear of losing any individual freedom.
11.)Retention of Slavery
i. Plato believed that in the ideal state , it was essential,
that the ruling class should have sufficient leisure,
because without that the rulers shall not be in a position
to devote their time for the development of masses.
ii. It was, therefore, most essential that slavery should be
retained and the slaves should be given hard work , so
that the ruling class should devote their full time in
effective administrative activities.
12.)Bringing up of Children
i. According to Plato Children are national Possession and
as such it was obligatory on the part of the state to bring
them according to their aptitude.
Page 16 of 16
ii. He also believed that ultimately the children should be
under state control.
iii. The state should not only provide them education,
nourishment and development but proper work as well.
Criticisms leveled against Plato’s

Political Philosophy
i. Utopian Theory: Plato’s Philosopher king, Class division
based on Value judgments, Communism of wives etc.
were all only imaginary and can not be materialized.
ii. Ignoring the Producing Class: Plato’s conception
of production and physical labour are only done by
the Producing Class is Injustice.
iii. Totalitarian State: Plato’s ideal state seems to be only a
totalitarian state and no concern about individual rights.
iv. Supporting Slavery: Plato’s concept of retention of
slavery can be called as anti human idea in favour of the
Ruling class
v. Denial of Education to the Lower Class: This Practice will
Page 17 of 17
create class distinction and disparity among the masses.
vi. Anti-Democratic State: Plato’s state seems to be an anti-
democratic state as it does not give any right to express
their opinion against any acts of the Philosopher King.
Merits of Plato’s Political Philosophy

i. Propounding the Communistic Ideology: Though
his Concept of Communism is entirely different from
the modern communistic ideology, he can be called
as profounder of communism.
ii. The Abolition Of Private Property To Ruling Class Is
The Model For Modern Administration: Plato’s idea of
preventing property right and family right to the rulers will
be a model to be followed even at present.
iii. The Effective Education System: Plato’s

compulsory education to the ruling class is to be
very much appreciated.
iv. Censorship: Censorship for worst literature with
demoralizing nature is to be greatly appreciated.
v. Equality Of Men And Women: Plato’s idea of giving
equal treatment to both men and women in education,
public offices, defense work, gymnasium practice is to
be appreciated.
vi. Common Barracks And Common Dining System:
Plato’s idea of providing common food and common
residential facility will paved the way for equality of
feeling among rulers.
Page 18 of 18
Political Philosophy of Aristotle
1. Life, Career and Works of Aristotle
2. Influences on Aristotle’s Political Thought
3. Aristotle’s Conception of Nature of State
4. Classification of Constitutions
5. Justification For Slavery
6. Views on Family and Property
7. Views on Citizenship
8. Views on Causes and Remedies of Revolution
9. Views on Distributive Justice
10.Views on Laws and Sovereignty
11. Critical Evolution about Aristotle
12. An Estimate
1.) Life, Career and Works of Aristotle

i. He was born in 384 B.C. His father was the
Royal Physician of Macedonian king.
ii. Firstly he wants to be a Physician, later he changed
his view and joined in the Academy of Plato.
iii. Later he established a new school known as Lyceum
iv. He followed Inductive Method, instead of his teachers
Deductive method
v. His masterpiece is “Politics”. Other works include On
Page 19 of 19
Monarchy, On Philosophy, On Colonies, Constitutions,
The Categories, On Interpretation
2.) Influences on Aristotle’s Political Thought
i. His long Association with his Master Plato.(State as
a necessary evil, Man is a social animal, Importance of
Education, Slavery, Mixed Constitutions, etc.,)
ii. Hereditary Influences.(Biological outlook and approach)
iii. Conditions of Athens.(Political anarchy prevailed in
Athens, Extreme Idealism without realism in Athens.)
iv. Preconceived Notion about Greek Philosophy.
(Over Superiority complex of Greek culture)
v. Influences of his Birth Place.(His Birth city Stagira,
where prevailed practical, realistic and Scientific
investigation instead of Idealism)
vi. Influences of his Married Life. (He enjoyed happy
joyous and married life, which Plato Could not taste.
Viewed against Communism of wives and Property.)
vii. His Practical Experiences.(His father’s Royal Court visit,
his experience as tutor of Alexander, Journey and Study
of many Royal Courts)
3.) Aristotle’s Conception of Nature of State

i. Authority of state is moral and state is natural. Duty of the
citizens most willingly and obediently accept the authority
of state.
ii. Achieve self sufficiency only in the state.
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iii. Man is not only social animal but also a political animal.
iv. State is always dynamic, continuously growing
and developing. Never static and stagnant.
v. Though chronologically individual comes first but
teleologically the state.
vi. State is supreme association aims at supreme good.
vii. State is functioning for the promotion of highest good for
the people.
viii. State creates essential conditions for mental, moral and
physical development of the people.
ix. State is required to perform positive functions and not
negative functions. Man is essentially good, so his habits
should be transformed into good actions. Encourage and
promote good conditions.
x. State as a necessray institution should provide Security of
life, property or preservation of rights
4.) Aristotle’s Classification of Constitutions

i. Aristotle was the first thinker who distinguished between
state and government in a scientific way.
ii. He Classified state on both quantitative and qualitative
basis
iii. According to Aristotle constitution has not only legal
sanctity but also represents the whole of national life.
iv. He views that constitution represents social, economic,
political and ethical life of the people.
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v. According to him ,Polity as the Best of all types
Classification of constitution
5.) Justification For Slavery

i. Aristotle like his master Plato, believed that slavery
is essential for that household should be properly
maintained.
ii. The slaves are animate instruments(living Possessions)
where as is the in-animate weapons Property(lifeless
Possessions)for running a household.
iii. He justified Slavery in the ground that it is a natural
phenomenon that that the inferior(who is not having
power of reasoning) must subordinate the superior.
iv. Another justification is that slavery is necessary because
it will provide leisure for the virtuous citizens to
concentrate more on welfare of the society
6.) Aristotle’s views on Views on Family
and Property
i. Aristotle believed that family as a natural institution, is
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essential for state. According to him Family is not a
superficial or artificial institution but it is something a holy
institution.
ii. While demarcating between the state and the family,
Aristotle said that while there was threefold relationship in
a family (i)that of the husband and wife,(ii)Parents and
children,(iii)that of master and the slave, there was only
single relationship between the ruler and the citizens.
iii. According to Aristotle, private property was stock of in-
animate instruments necessary both for household as well
as the state.
iv. Property is one of the necessities without which no one
can properly function.
v. Limited Property which are helping for the good and
normal life will be enough for promotion of hospitality,
friendship and will also make good life possible.
vi. Excessive wealth will positively thwart good life.
vii. Institution of private property will make an individual hard
worker, which benefit the society as a whole.
7.) Aristotle’s Views on Citizenship

i. Aristotle did not confer citizenship to all persons. He
conferred citizenship only to the permanent residence
persons who are able to participate in judicial and
deliberative powers.
ii. He excludes aliens and slaves from conferring citizenship.
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iii. The citizens should have the capacity to rule and to be
ruled. One who lacked either of the qualities could not be
a complete and good citizen.
iv. Those who had sufficient leisure and thus should possess
private property and slaves.
v. Active participation in the affairs of the state, and thus
capable of acting both as a legislator as well as juror.
vi. He should possess the right of suing and to be sued.
8.) Views on Meaning, Causes and

Remedies of Revolution
(a)Meaning of Revolution
i. According to Aristotle revolution has two-fold meaning—
firstly when there occurred any major or minor change in
the nature of the constitution, e.g. a change from
monarchy to oligarchy and so on.
ii. Secondly, a revolution is supposed to have occurred,
when there is change in the ruling authority, though there
might not be any change in the constitution as such
(b) Causes of Revolution

i. Injustice and Ill-will: Discontentment among the
substantial sections of the society on denial of justice.
ii. Unequal Distribution of offices: Unequal and irrational
distribution of offices in which a particular class of people
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is favoured with honours with the cost of other classes.
iii. Misuse of Authority
iv. Unwanted Expenditure
v. Desire by few to have Absolute power
vi. Conquest by a nation of another nation
vii. Undue Prominence for few.
viii. No restriction on Immigration
ix. Irrational use of force
x. Fraud by those in power
xi. Attempt to concealing misdeeds.
(c)Remedies of Revolution
i. By gaining confidence of the people
ii. Proper selection of people for offices
iii. Check and exercise the authority
iv. Outsiders should be avoided
v. No sudden promotion to anybody
vi. Checking the lawless habits
vii. No drastic changes in the state
viii. No neglect of minor events
ix. Proper care of all sections of the society
x. No deceiving of people
xi. Careful reaction to changes
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9.)Aristotle’s Views on Distributive and
corrective Justice
i. Justice was one of the most outstanding and important
features of state.
ii. Distributive Justice lay in proportionate allocation of
offices, honour and good things.
iii. Corrective Justice is the process of preventing people
from encroaching upon the rights of his fellowmen.
iv. Corrective justice is also mainly concerned with
commercial transactions of hire, sale and furnishing of
security, etc.
10.) Aristotle’s Views on Laws and Sovereignty
i. Aristotle gave very important place for laws. According to
him laws were needed not only for common man but also
for the philosopher king because without laws even the
most disciplined person could become undisciplined.
ii. The main aim and purpose of law is to promote spiritual
life of the citizens. There is no supreme power in the state
over law.
iii. Aristotle wants to give sovereignty only in the hands of
laws alone. It should not be given in the hands of poor,
rich, tyrant, Intellectuals etc., only in the hands of laws.
11.) A critical Evaluation on Aristotle’s
Political Philosophy
i. His ideas on liberty and Authority: liberty meant
subjection to constitutional authority
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ii. Command of Law: Accepted the Supremacy of Law. Law
should have command over every other individual. So, he
can be rightly called as Father of all Constitutionalists.
iii. Respect for Public Opinion: The knowledge of
multiple people is always better than the knowledge of
few individuals.
iv. Forerunner of Utilitarian Philosophy: Maximum
Happiness to maximum number of people.
v. Positive Functions of the State: Promotion of moral
development of the citizens by providing them virtuous
happy.
vi. Defense of Private Property: Inculcating Work culture
and initiation among masses.
vii. Forerunner of Theory of Separation of power:
Deliberative, judicial and legislative organs should do their
functions.
ix. Origin of Theory of Checks and Balances
x. Love for realism
xi. Father of Individualism
xii Retention of Slavery
12.) An Estimate on Aristotle

i. Aristotle is one of the outstanding figures of Political
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Philosophy.
ii. A practical thinkers Best practicable ideologies .
iii. He did not follow blindly his teacher and arrived at
decisions after studying the problem analytically with a
great insight and by following deductive methods.
iv. By his systematic treatment of the subject he gave the
politics the character of science.
v. His theories put forth clear cut dogmas with rational
conclusions.
……………………………………………………………………….
UNIT-III Main Currents Medieval Western Political
Thought-Natural Law-Natural Right-Liberalism-
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Socialism-Marxism
Meaning of Natural Law
i. Natural Law is a moral theory of jurisprudence, which

maintains that law should be based on morality and ethics.
ii. Natural Law holds that the law is based on what’s “correct.”
Natural Law is “discovered” by humans through the use of
reason and choosing between good and evil.
iii. Therefore, Natural Law finds its power in discovering
certain universal standards in morality and ethics.
Universal Feature of Natural Law
i. Natural law (lat.,lex naturalis) is a philosophy that certain
rights or values are inherent by virtue of human nature and
can be universally understood through human reason.
ii. Historically, natural law refers to the use of reason to
analyze both social and personal human nature to
deduce binding rules of moral behavior. The law of
nature, as it is determined by nature, is universal
Natural Law Compared With Other Common Laws
i. In Western culture, the conception of natural law first
appears in Ancient Greek philosophy.
ii. Although natural law is often conflated with common law,
the two are distinct. Common law is not based on inherent
rights, but is the legal tradition whereby certain rights or
values are legally recognized by virtue of already having
judicial recognition or articulation.
iii. Natural law is often contrasted with the human-made laws
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(positive law) of a given political community, society, or
state
iv. In legal theory, the interpretation of a human-made law
requires some reference to natural law. On this
understanding of natural law, natural law can be invoked
to criticize judicial decisions about what the law says, but
not to criticize the best interpretation of the law itself.
Some jurists and scholars use natural law synonymously
with natural justice or natural right,
v. While others distinguish between natural law and natural
right. Natural law theories have exercised a profound
influence on the development of English common law.
Declarationism of the Natural Law
i. In USA constitution: Declarationism, a legal philosophy,
argues that the founding of the United States is based on
natural law. Because of the intersection between natural
law and natural rights, natural law has been cited as a
component in the United States Declaration of
Independence
ii. In other Political Thought: The natural law, in its spirit
replaced the older doctrine of the Divine right of kings. This
Natural law influenced the Social Contract Theories such
as John Locke. The natural law can also be found in
Roman law, Greek philosophy and ancient Buddhist texts.
Thinkers who contributed for the

Concept of Natural Law:-
1. Thomas Aquinas
2. Thomas Hobbes
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3. Alberico Gentili
4. Francisco Suárez
5. Richard Hooker
6. Thomas Hobbes
7. Hugo Grotius
8. Samuel von Pufendorf,
9. Matthew Hale,
10. John Locke
11. Francis Hutcheson
12 .Burlamaqui
13. Jean Jacques Rousseau
14. Emmerich de Vattel
15. Cesare Beccaria
16. Francesco Mario Pagano.
Natural law and Natural Rights

i. Natural law and natural rights follow from the nature of
man and the world. We have the right to defend
ourselves and our property, because of the kind of
animals that we are. True law derives from this right,
not from the arbitrary power of the omnipotent state.
ii. Natural law has objective, external existence. It follows

from the ESS (Evolutionary Stable Strategy) for the use
of force that is natural for humans and similar animals.
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The ability to make moral judgments, the capacity to
know good and evil, has immediate evolutionary
benefits
Illogical feature of Natural law
i. The opponents of natural rights often complain that the
advocates of natural rights are not logically consistent,
because we continually shift between in-equivalent
definitions of natural law. They gleefully manufacture long
lists of “logical contradictions”.
ii. Indeed, the definitions we use are not logically equivalent,
but because of the nature of man and the nature of the
world, they are substantially equivalent in practice.
Liberalism
i. Liberalism as a specifically named ideology begins in the
late 18th century as a movement towards self-government
and away from aristocracy.
ii. It included the ideas of self-determination, the primacy of
the individual and the nation, as opposed to the state
and religion, as being the fundamental units of law,
politics and economy.
iii. Individual contributors to classical liberalism and political
liberalism are associated with philosophers of the
Enlightenment
Meaning of liberalism
i. Liberalism means freedom from the authority of the
government in the affairs of the individual.
ii. In other words liberalism means absence of government
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authority in matters relating to the welfare and fullest
development of the personality of the individual.
iii. Liberal theory is based on the principles of democracy
such as equality, liberty, fraternity, secularism,
toleration and constitutional methods.
Scholars of Liberalism
i. Since then liberalism has broadened to include a wide
range of approaches from Americans Ronald Dworkin,
Richard Rorty, John Rawls and Francis Fukuyama as
well as the Indian Amartya Sen and the Peruvian
Hernando de Soto.
ii. Some of these people moved away from liberalism, while
others espoused other ideologies before turning to
liberalism.
iii. There are many different views of what constitutes
liberalism, and some liberals would feel that some of the
people on this list were not true liberals. It is intended to
be suggestive rather than exhaustive
Implications of Liberalism
Social Implications
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i. Liberalism is opposed to all artificial pressures from the
society, as well as inflicted regulations on individual
freedom and conscience of the individual.
ii. It believes that certain irrelevant traditions and certain
problematic institutions being outdated will have no
relevance in the individual’s prosperity, happyness
and development.
Economical Implications
i. In Economic sphere, liberalism supports free trade
and production by the individuals.
ii. It vigorously opposes any state imposed restriction on
imports and exports.
iii. It advocates that the citizens should be allowed freely to
exploit the available natural resources and to distribute
economic dividends as he desires.
Political Implications
i. Initially liberalism had advocated the total restriction of
state interference in the freedom of man.
ii. Presently liberalism advocates the strict application of the
theory of separation of powers, judicial review,
parliamentary control over the executive, protection of
minority interests, prevention of the concentration of
power in the hands of few.
iii. The government must be accountable to the people
through periodic elections.
iv. It maintains Equality of individual before law
v. It ensures Freedom of thought and expression
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vi. It stands for secularism that the state should not impose
any religion.
Classical or Negative Concept of

Liberalism (i) Classical Liberty
i. Classical liberalism is also called as Negative liberalism,
th th
which originated in 17 and 18 centuries.
ii. Adam Smith, John Locke, Jeremy Bentham, David
Ricardo and Thomas Malthus have laid the foundations of
classical liberalism.
iii. Principles of classical liberalism, includes Civil Liberty,
Fiscal Liberty, Personal Liberty, Social Liberty,
Economic Liberty, Domestic Freedom, Administrative,
geographical and racial liberty.
Modern Concept of Liberalism or
Contemporary Liberalism
(ii) Modern or positive concept of Liberty
i. Jeremy Bentham, J.S.Mill, C.D.H.Cole,
T.H.Green, H.J.Laski, Mac Iver etc., propounded
th
the Modern Liberalism in the 19 Century.
ii. Modern liberalism aims at emancipation of the personality
of the individual and social groups.
iii. It also lays greatest faith in the value of free expression of
individual personality.
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iv. It also emphasizes equality of opportunities for all citizens.
v. It further insists for maintaining equilibrium to secure the
principles of distributive justice.
Conclusion
i. The theory of Liberalism has undergone many
changes from time to time.
ii. Prof Andrew Hacker classified liberalism into four kinds, (i)
Free market Liberalism, (ii) Reformist Liberalism, (iii)
Utopian Liberalism, (iv) Democratic Liberalism.
iii. With the advent of Socialism, presently the liberalism
has lost its validity as a doctrine and thus began to
vanish its importance as a political concept.
Meaning of Socialism
i. Socialism is a controversial term that has different
meanings to different people.
ii. Socialism is an economic philosophy that stresses public
ownership of the means of production rather than private
ownership.
iii. Underlying this philosophy is the belief that this system is
morally better because it reduces the gap between the
rich and poor.
iv. This more equitable distribution of the wealth should
result in a better society for all.
Three Types of Socialism
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i. Socialism can be divided into the categories
a. Utopian socialism
b. Revolutionary socialism or Communism
c. Evolutionary socialism or democratic Socialism
ii. However one defines socialism, it is a philosophy that
sprang up as a reaction to the abuses of the Industrial
Revolution.
The Industrial Revolution
i. The advances, both scientific and technological, during
the Industrial Revolution led people to believe that the
problems of poverty, starvation, and suffering could be
solved.
ii. John Stuart Mill observed, although the problems or
production had been solved, those of distribution had not.
iii. The motivation of self-interest and competition did not
always benefit society
Bad Impacts of Industrial Revolution
i. It became obvious to some that when individuals were
freed from all control and regulation, abuses did occur.
ii. The factory system during the industrial revolution led to
many abuses, such as low pay, long hours of work, and
hazardous working conditions.
Utopian Socialism
i. The Enlightenment was a movement that grew out of a
concern for people and their environment.
ii. Followers of the Enlightenment believed that a perfect
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person could be created if one could create the perfect
environment.
iii. Thus ideal political, economic, and social institutions were
needed to create perfect people. (Utopian Socialism)
iv. When the French Revolution did not achieve all the
goals that some people felt it should have, there was a
call for radical change.
v. A number of French Intellectuals examined
the possibilities of creating perfect people
Revolutionary Socialism
i. Karl Marx rejected Utopian Socialism in favor of what
he called Scientific Socialism.
ii. Marx felt that there would be not hope for the workers
unless capitalism was overthrown through revolution. The
Scientific Socialism is the only mans to solve the existing
problems created by the Capitalism.
Karl Marx and Revolutionary Socialism
i. Marx was born in Germany in 1818 into a large
and prosperous family.
ii. In 1835 he entered university to study law.
iii. Upon completing his degree, Marx abandoned his
career in favor of journalism.
iv. Marx became the editor of a radical newspaper in Berlin
v. After moving to Paris, Marx met and became friends with
a young German economist Friedrich Engels.
vi. It was in Paris that the two became actively involved in the
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socialism movement.
vii. In 1848, at the request of the Communist League, the
two went to London to present a paper outlining the aims
of the League.
viii. The Communist Manifesto lit a revolutionary fire that was
to fuel the development of revolutionary socialism
(Communism)
ix. Marx lived his remaining years in London, often in
poverty and failing health.
x. Marx continued to write, completing the first volume of
‘Das Capital’ and contributing to the subsequent two
volumes.
xi. Marx died in 1883.
Marxism: Meaning, Nature, Features And Criticism

i. Marxism is an economic system in which goods and
services are provided through a central system of
cooperative and/or government ownership rather than
through competition and a free market system.
Who was Karl Marx?
i. Karl Marx was the Father of Marxist Theory of Political
Philosophy
ii. Karl Marx was born on 5th May 1818.
iii. Marx is widely referred to as a Philosopher,
Political-Economist and a Journalist.
iv. Marx was married to Jenny von Westphalen.
v. Marx`s close friend and fellow scholar was Friedrich
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Engels.
vi. Karl Marx died on 14th March, 1883.
vii. The message carved on his symmetry was written as
“WORKERS OF ALL LANDS, UNITE”
What is Marxism
i. Dictatorship would rule working class-become central
planners- making all economic decisions.
ii. Through socialism people’s material and spiritual well-
being would improve. A true classless society would
come into existence.
iii. All property would be owned collectively
iv. All people would work to the best of their abilities to
produce goods and services.
v. People would consume only what they need
vi. People would worship the government.
Summary Command
i. Relatively small amount of personal freedom-
very restricted.
ii. Lower standard of living for all except political leaders.
iii. Only one political party runs government
iv. Production and distribution of goods in hands of
government
v. Change through revolution (often bloody-Russia, China)
vi. Private business can exist- state controlled
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vii. Master plan of government is key to economic success.If
plan fails, economy fails.
Key concepts of Marxism Theory
i. Capitalism: Marx believed that capitalism is not only
an economic system but it is also a political system.
ii. Class Struggles: Marx believed that conflict produces
class and inherently class produces conflict.
iii. Exploitation: Marx believed that Capitalism can only
thrive exploitation of the working class.
iv. Alienation: The workers are forced to sell their labour
to the Capitalists in order to survive.
In brief – the most important ideas of Karl Marx:

i. All societies are made up of classes, and in modern,
industrial societies there are two main classes – the
capitalists and the proletariat.
ii. These two classes must always be in conflict, and in

capitalist societies the state – or machinery of
government – it used to control the workers.
iii. The workers must use revolutionary force to overthrow the

capitalists.
iv. The revolution will be successful only when the masses of

workers become class-conscious – that is, realise how
they are cheated by the capitalists.
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v. After the revolution the workers will create a classless
society in which all men will be equal. As it will no longer
be needed, the state or machinery of government, will
wither away.
Stages in History…
…the inevitable progress of history = historical determinism
Primitive communism
P
↓Evolution A
Feudalism S
S
↓Violent revolution A
Capitalism G
Fe E
↓ Violent revolution O
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Socialism F
↓
↓Violent Revolution
Capitalism
↓Violent Revolution
Socialism
Some Important Key Ideologies

i. Capitalist society is divided into two classes:
The Bourgeoisie(wealthier ones) and the
Proletariat(poor ones).
ii. The bourgeoisie increase their wealth by exploiting
the proletariat: The richer ones exploit and make the
poor more weaker to gain wealth and power.
iii. Ideological Control: Marx argued that the ruling classes
used their control of social institutions to gain ideological
dominance. Thus, the proletariats accepted this and didn’t
fight back.
iv. The result of the above is false class consciousness:
The end result of ideological control is false consciousness –
where the masses, or proletariat are deluded into thinking
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that everything is fine and that the appalling in which they
live and work are inevitable.
Types of Marxism
i. Communism: is the end state of having key means of
production owned in common (communally) without class
ii. Socialism: is an intermediate transition state where a
social revolution (that is, of the workers, the vast majority
of society) is required to get to communism.
Criticisms Of Marxist Ideas

i. Criticisms of Marxism have come from various political
ideologies which include ethical and economical
criticisms
ii. Democratic socialists and social democrats reject the
idea that socialism can be accomplished through class
conflict and a proletarian revolution.
iii. Some thinkers have rejected the fundamentals of Marxist
theory, such as historical materialism and the labour
theory of value, and gone on to criticise capitalism - and
support socialism - using other arguments.
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iv. Some contemporary supporters of Marxism argue that
many aspects of Marxist thought are viable, but that the
↓corpus is incomplete or somewhat out-dated in regards
to certain aspects of economic, political or social theory.
Contributions Of Marxism In The Modern
World System
i. Elaboration of the conflict model of society, specifically
his theory of social change based on antagonisms
between classes.
ii. The idea that power originates primarily in economic
production.
iii. Concern with the social origins of alienation.
iv. Understanding of modern capitalism.
v. Need for establishment of Welfare State.
UNIT-IV Modern Western Political

Thought-Herald J. Laski-Jeremy
Bentham A Brief Note on H.J.Laski
i. Harold Joseph Laski
ii. Born on 30 June 1893 at Manchester, UK
iii. Died on 24 March 1950 at his age of 56 at London, UK
iv. Nationality--British
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v. Fields--Political science, political philosophy, political
economy, jurisprudence
vi. Institutions-London School of Economics(LSE)
vii. Alma mater-New College, Oxford
viii. Notable students--V. K. Krishna Menon, Joseph
P. Kennedy, Jr.,K. R. Narayanan, Pierre Trudeau
ix. Influenced by Robert Dahl
Laski was Britain's most influential intellectual spokesman for
Socialism
His teaching greatly influenced men such as Jawaharlal
Nehru who later became leaders of new nations in Asia and
Africa as the British Empire was dissolved
Laski Quotes:
i. Those who know the normal life of the poor... will realize
well enough that without economic security, liberty is not
worth having.
ii. Without quality, I say, there cannot be liberty
Political career of H.J.Laski

i. Harold Joseph Laski (30 June 1893 – 24 March 1950)
was a British political theorist, economist, author, and
lecturer.
ii. He was active in politics and served as the chairman of
the British Labour Party during 1945–1946, and was a
professor at the London School of Economics from 1926
to 1950.
iii. He first promoted pluralism, emphasising the importance
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of local voluntary communities such as labour unions.
Second Phase of Laski’s Political Role

i. After 1930 he shifted to a Marxist emphasis on class
conflict and the need for a workers' revolution, which he
hinted might be violent.
ii. Laski's position angered Labour leaders who promised
a nonviolent democratic transformation.
iii. Laski's position on democracy came under further attack
from Winston Churchill in the 1945 general election, and
the Labour party had to dethrone Laski, its chairman.
Herald Laski as a Pluralist
i. Laski's early work promoted pluralism, especially in the
essays Collected in Studies in the Problem of
Sovereignty (1917), Authority in the Modern State (1919),
and The Foundations of Sovereignty (1921).
ii. He argued that the state should not be considered
supreme, because people could and should have
loyalties to local organisations, clubs, labour unions and
societies. The state should respect these allegiances and
promote pluralism and decentralisation
The Pluralist Theory of Herald Laski
i. Pluralism is a powerful protest against the monistic theory
of sovereignty which endows the state with supreme and
unlimited power.
ii. Harold Laski, J.N. Figgis, Ernest Barker, G. D.H. Cole, A.
D. Lindsay, Duguit, MacIver and others are the
exponents of Pluralism.
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iii. According to Pluralists, sovereignty resides not with the
state but it resides with many other institutions.
iv. There exist many social, political, cultural and economic
institutions in society and many of these institutions are
prior to the State. For example, Family and Church are
prior to the State.
Nature of Pluralist State as Propounded by Herald Laski
i. The Pluralistic state is, therefore, “simply a state in which

there exists no single source of authority”. According to
Pluralists, sovereignty is not “indivisible and exclusive”.
One the contrary it is a multiplicity in its essence and
manifestation, it is divisible in two parts and should be
divided”.
ii. Professor Laski is of the opinion that “it is impossible to
make the legal theory of sovereignty valid for political
philosophy”.
iii. He believed that “it would be lasting benefit to political
science if the whole concept of sovereign was
surrendered”
Laski and Co-operative Commonwealth

i. Laski became a proponent of Marxism and believed in
a planned economy based on the public ownership of
the means of production.
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ii. Instead of a coercive state, Laski believed in the evolution
of co-operative states that were internationally bound and
stressed social welfare.
iii. He also believed since the capitalist class would not
acquiesce in its own liquidation, the cooperative
commonwealth was not likely to be attained without
violence.
iv. But he also had a commitment to civil liberties, free
speech and association, and representative democracy.
Laski’s Political Career

i. Laski's main political role came as a writer and lecturer on
every topic of concern to the left, including socialism,
capitalism, working conditions, eugenics, woman suffrage,
imperialism, decolonisation, disarmament, human rights,
worker education, and Zionism.
ii. He was tireless in his speeches and pamphleteering, and
was always on call to help a Labour candidate. In
between he served on scores of committees and carried a
full load as a professor and advisor to students.
Five Distinct Phases Of Laski's Thought
i. Deane has identified five distinct phases of Laski's
thought that he never integrated:
ii. Pluralist (1914–1924),
iii. Fabian (1925–1931),
iv. Marxian (1932–1939).
v. There followed a 'popular-front' approach (1940–1945),
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vi. In the last years (1946–1950) near-incoherence and
multiple contradictions.
vii. Laski's long-term impact on Britain is hard to quantify.
Herald Laski as a Zionist

i. Laski was always a Zionist at heart and always felt himself
a part of the Jewish nation, although he viewed traditional
Jewish religion as restrictive.
ii. In 1946, he said in a radio address that the Catholic
Church opposed democracy, for which he was criticized.
iii. He thought that "it is impossible to make peace with the
Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the permanent
enemies of all that is decent in the human spirit”.
Herald Laski as a Teacher
i. As a lecturer, Laski was brilliant, but he would alienate
his audience by humiliating people who asked questions.
However he was popular amongst his students, and was
especially influential among Asian and African students
who attended LSE.
ii. Describing Laski's popularity, Kingsley Martin wrote in
1968:“He was still in his late twenties and looked like a
schoolboy. His lectures on the history of political ideas
were brilliant, eloquent, and delivered without a note;
he often referred to current controversies, even when
the subject was Hobbes's theory of sovereignty.”
Conclusion
i. Laski was a serious thinker and a charismatic personality
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whose views have been distorted because he refused
to accept Cold War orthodoxies.
ii. Laski had a major long-term impact on support for
socialism in India and other countries in Asia and Africa.
He taught generations of future leaders at the LSE,
most famously, his prize student, V.K. Krishna Menon.
According to John Kenneth Galbraith, "the center of
Nehru's thinking was Laski" and "India the country most
influenced by Laski's ideas".
iii. He was steady in his unremitting advocacy of the
independence of India.
Jeremy Bentham and the Theory of Utilitarianism
i. Principle of utility:Maximize good
ii. Bentham defined as the "fundamental axiom" of his
philosophy the principle that "it is the greatest
happiness of the greatest number that is the
measure of right and wrong"
iii. Jeremy Bentham
iv. Born on15 February 1748,London, England
v. Died,6 June 1832,(aged 84),London, England
vi. Alma mater-The Queen's College, Oxford
vii. School-Utilitarianism, legal positivism, liberalism
viii. Main interests-Political philosophy, philosophy of law,
ethics, economics
ix. Notable ideas-Greatest happiness principle
“... the greatest happiness of the whole community, ought to be
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the end or object of pursuit. . . . The right and proper end of
government in every political community, is the greatest
happiness of all the individuals of which it is composed, say, in
other words, the greatest happiness of the greatest number.
Contributions of Jeremy Bentham
i. Individual and economic freedom,
ii. The separation of church and state,
iii. Freedom of expression,
iv. Equal rights for women,
v. The right to divorce, and
vi. The decriminalising of homosexual acts.
vii. The abolition of slavery,
viii. The abolition of the death penalty,
ix. The abolition of physical punishment,
x. Rights of children,
xi. Advocate of animal rights.
xii. Favour of the extension of individual legal rights,
xiii. Opposed the idea of natural law and natural rights,
calling them "nonsense upon stilts".
Motives, Intentions, Character, Person and Society
i. Utilitarians treat what comes before the act as relevant,
but only because of consequences
ii. An intention is good if it tends to lead to good actions.
iii. A motive is good if it tends to lead to good intentions.
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iv. A character trait is good if it tends to lead to good motives.
v. A person is good if he/she tends to have good character
traits.
vi. A society is good if it tends to have good people.
Abstracts of Bentham's Principles of Morals

and Legislation
i. Nature has placed mankind under the governance of
two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure.
ii. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as
well as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand
the standard of right and wrong, on the other hand the
chain of causes and effects, are fastened to their throne.
They govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think.
iii. In words, a man may pretend to avoid their empire: but
in reality he will remain subject to it all the while. The
principle of utility recognises this subjection
iv. System which attempt to question it, deal in sounds
instead of sense, in caprice instead of reason, in
darkness instead of light.
Bentham’s Utilitarianism
Good Act, Bad Act, Best Act
i. A good act increases the balance of pleasure over pain
in the community
ii. A bad act decreases it
iii. The best acts maximize the balance of pleasure over pain
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Bentham's argument for the principle of UTILITY
i. The good of a society is the sum of happiness of the
individuals in that society.
ii. The purpose of morality is promotion of the good of
society.
iii. A moral principle is ideal if and only if universal conformity
to it would maximize the good of society.
iv. Universal conformity to the principle of UTILITY ("Act
always so as to maximize total net balance of pleasures
and pains") would maximize the good of society.
v. Therefore the principle of UTILITY is the ideal
moral principle.
Value of a Lot of Pleasure or Pain, How to
be Measured?
i. Pleasures and pains are the instruments he has to work
with: it behooves him therefore to understand their force,
which is again their value.
ii. To a person considered by himself, the value of a
pleasure or pain, will be greater or less, according to the
four following circumstances:
(1) Its Intensity.
(2) Its Duration.
(3)Its Certainty or Uncertainty.
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(4)Its propinquity(Nearness) or Remoteness.
Two other Circumstances of deciding

pleasure or pain
• When the value of any pleasure or pain is considered for
the purpose of estimating the tendency of any act by
which it is produced, there are two other circumstances to
be taken into account, these are,
• Its fecundity, or the chance it has of being followed by
sensations of the same kind: that is, pleasures, if it be
a pleasure: pains, if it be a pain.
• Its purity, or the chance it has of not being followed by
sensations of opposite kind: that is: pains, if it be a
pleasure, pleasures, if it be a pain
How Value of Pleasure and Pain are to be decided?
i. Circumstances to be taken into the account in estimating
the value of a pleasure or pain considered with reference
to a single person, and by itself. To a person considered
by himself, the value of a pleasure or pain considered by
itself, will be greater or less, according to the four
following circumstances: 1) Food 2)Wealth 3)Equal
Property Rights 4)Security
Bentham’s Utilitarianism
i. We must consider, not just ourselves, but everyone
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affected
ii. Individualism: effect on community is sum of affects on
members
Bentham against conscience

i. “Principle of sympathy and antipathy” tends to severity or
leniency
ii. Capricious: people’s reactions differ
iii. Confuses motive with justification
iv. Public Utility is justification, not motive
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Unit-V Main Currents Of Indian Political Thought-
Sources And Features Of Ancient Indian Political
Thought-Political Ideas Of Kautilya-Manu
Seven Important Sources of Ancient

Indian Political Thought
Nature of Sources:-
i. It is, in fact, very difficult to obtain a particular book or a
piece of literature that describes the various sources of
the ancient Indian political thought, which are scattered all
over India.
ii. However, some dedicated scholars have made efforts to
gather all the scattered information and arrange them in a
comprehensive manner for better understanding of the
subject.
iii. Another difficulty in proper comprehension of the subject
is the usage of certain terms and concepts. Some of the
widely available sources of classical Indian political
thought are ancient monuments, religious works, epics
and political system that were practiced during those
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times.
List of Seven Sources

1. The Vedhas
2. The Mahabharata
3. The Arthashastra
4. Works of Thinkers
5. Inscriptions
6. Accounts of Foreign Travellers
7. Other Sources:
a. Brihapati Sutra
b. Neeti Vakya Niritha of Somadeva
c. Rajaneethi Ratnakara
The Vedhas
i. The Vedas are regarded as the authentic works of Gods
at the time of the creation of the world and so are
considered the original source of information.
ii. Though Vedas do not describe the political system that
existed, information can be drawn from the concepts like
King, Kingship, Saints or Rishis, etc., and their duties
towards the subjects.
iii. It is interesting to note that institutions like Sabha and
Samithi that are prevalent even in the modern days
have their roots in the Vedic period.
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The Mahabharata
i. This Indian epic is considered a classic work on the art of
politics.
ii. Certain episodes like Shanti Parva provide outstanding
information related to political philosophy and
administrative system and the political system of the time.
iii. The entire art of statecraft, diplomacy, war ethics and
strategies, state relations and the like can be very well
under¬stood by making a reference to the Mahabharata.
The Arthashastra
i. This work authored by Kautilya is again a masterpiece
on polity.
ii. According to Prof Altekar, it is mainly concerned with the
practical problems of governance and describes its
machinery and functions both in times of war and peace.
iii. This work of Kautilya also highlights issues like taxation,
diplomacy, war strategies and revolution. It is also a
handbook of economics as well as administration for the
kings.
Works of Thinkers
i. Some of the great works that act as major sources of the
political thought of ancient India are the Smrithis,
Kamandakeya Neethisaara, Sukraneetisara and the like.
ii. Smrithis advocated that a king was the servant of the
subjects and that it was not wrong to kill a tyrant.
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iii. A king was expected to be virtuous, gracious and helpful.
Similarly, Kamandakeya Neethisaara was also a source
of ancient Indian political thought. It was, in fact, a
summary of Kautilya’s Arthashastra.
iv. The work highlights on king and his family and the
monarchical form of government. Sukraneetisara was
supposed to have been written sometime between 1200
and 1600 BC.
v. Though that is not available now, the work enlightens
about the position held by high officials of the state and
their functions, administrative system, monarchy and the
political life of the people at large.
Inscriptions
i. Stone carvings,
ii. Archeological Monuments,
iii. Things from Excavations and
iv. Copper Inscriptions throw light on the contemporary

political life of the people and the administrative system
of those days.
Accounts of Foreign Travellers

The writings of foreign travellers to India like
1. Megesthanes,
2. Fahien,
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3. Huang Tsang and others provide great information about
the ancient Indian society, administration, trade and
industry and the like.
Other Sources
Apart from the above sources on the ancient Indian political
thought, the following books give an extensive knowledge:
1. Brihapati Sutra
2. Neeti Vakya Niritha of Somadeva
3. Rajaneethi Ratnakara
The Significance of Kautilya’s Political Thought

i. Political thought in ancient India is considered to be most
effusively developed in Kautilya’s Arthashashtra – a
treatise on the art of governing.
ii. In this work, Kautilya has somewhat successfully rescued
politics from the domain of religion and morality.
iii. He has provided a pragmatic approach for the art of
governing.
iv. His Saptanga theory of state and Mandal theory are
perfect examples of the primacy of politics in Kautilya’s
thought.
Saptanga Theory of State
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As per the Saptanga theory of state, Kautilya envisaged,
seven integral elements of the state –
i. Swamin (King),
ii. Amatya (Ministers),
iii. Janapada (People and Territory),
iv. Durga (Forts),
v. Kosha (Treasury),
vi. Dhanda (Army or the Force),
vii. Mithra (Allies)
Mandala theory
i. Mandala theory was a guide for the ruler (Vijigishu Raja)
to maintain the relationship with the neighbouring rulers.
ii. A King, according to Kautilya, has to determine the status
of its neighbours as friends or enemies depending upon
the geographical position and the power of the states.
Other Texts of Sources regarding Ancient

Indian Politics
i. Besides, Arthashastra, there are also texts about ancient
Indian Politics available from the Nitishastra and
Dharmashastra.
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ii. Traditions also indicate the richness of political thinking in
ancient India. Manu’s Manavdharmashastra or
Manusmritis and Shantiparva of the Mahabaharata are
rich sources for the understanding of the political thought
in ancient India.
iii. These texts propounded not only the monarchical form of
the state but also linked politics intricately with religion or
more clearly with the notion of Dharma.
iv. Even the whole purpose of politics and the state was seen,
as not only to maintain Dharma but also to uphold it and to
punish those who transgress the dictates of Dharma
Politics Mixed with the Metaphysical Notions

i. There were multiple traditions of thought in ancient India,
which to a great extent still remains relatively less
explored.
ii. This is precisely because the major source of information
about the thought in ancient India is mostly texts –
Shastras, Puranas, Vedas, Upanishads and epics like
Ramayana and Mahabharta.
iii. However, these texts are not exclusively about the politics
and the state. These are concerned more with the
metaphysical notions and concerns like athma,
paramathma, ideal life and society etc.,and hence, are
highly idealistic in nature
Features of Kautilya’s State
1. Both Security and Welfare Functions should be done
by the state.
2. State should levy more taxes based on the capacity of the
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people to strengthen .
3. Functions of Moral: State should have proper control over
the sale of Liquor, gambling clubs, Prostitution centers .
4. Sudras who were the fourth Varna of the society should
also be included in the Armed Forces.(Manu
completely refused to give any posts to Sudras)
5. In trade and commerce the state should carefully watch
and prevent the production and sale of low-quality
commodities.
6. The state should watch the prevent the sale of
commodities in less quantity than the required measure.
7. The state should prevent the sale of goods which were
harmful to the society.
Kautiya’s Views on Slavery
i. Kautilya also supported the system of slavery as in the
case of Plato.
ii. A slave should not be asked to die by anybody.
iii. A slave should not be asked to clean worst wastages
and human excrement.
iv. A male owner of the women slave should not asked to do
some privacy related functions.
v. A women slave should be given enough personal security
Kautilya on Law and Justice

i. Analogy of Fish and Water: One can not able to find that
a fish living inside water whether it drink water or not.
Likewise a public servant who is always having public
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resource with his hand whether he had utilised that public
money for his own use or not.
ii. But at the same time if any public servant found involved
in corruption, there should be severe punishment.
iii. The corrupted bureaucrats should be exiled from the
country
Judicial System (As explained by Kautilya)
i. In the lower level there should be Village courts
ii. There should be both Civil and Criminal divisions of Courts.
Kandagasothana
Dharmasthiya
All criminal casesshould be
All civil casesshould be conducted
conducted . Judges should be
. Judges should be qualified in
qualified in
Dharmasastra Dhandaneethi
Law
Law
Law was considered as Supreme.Nobody is above law.

The King was called as Swamin and he was the Chief-
Justice of all the final judicial decision. Punishments
based on Manu Dharma Principles.
Politics as Game of Cunning Diplomacy

i. Politics is always a cunning game to be carefully dealt
with.
ii. One can use any method to defeat his enemy. No need
of following any Dharma in retaining and keeping power
iii. But he insisted some morality on the part of the King in
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dealing with people.
iv. The king should be advised by Brahmin prohithas.
v. The Ministers and High level Public servants should
be selected only from Brahmins.
Kautilya’s Views on War
i. Wars are Common in Ancient India. Ramayana
war between Rama and Raavana. In
Mahabharatha war between Brothers.
ii. In Arthasastra war was permitted to increase the strength
of the nation.
iii. But after war, the winner should not confiscate the lands,
wife and sons of the loser.
iv. On Five Conditions a king should wage war. 1)To
increase security 2) to prevent the enemy from invading
3)To help the allied nation 4)To increase wealth by
looting the defeated nation 5)When the Spies gave a
favourable report about definite success.
How can a king can keep Power always?
i. King as the Embodiment of God on the earth.
ii. The King can keep his power in by adopting six ways.
iii. By conclude peace with the enemies
iv. By waging war with enemies
v. By keeping idle stand in situations
vi. By marching armed forces to terrify enemies.
vii. By surrendering before enemies if conditions warranted a
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definite defeat.
MANUSMIRUTHI
(The Code of Manu)
The Political Ideas found in the Ancient Indian
Hindu Literature: Manudharma
Political Philosophy of Manu
i. Manusmiriti is an ancient Hindu literature which depicts
many details about ceremonies, traditions, rules and
regulations about Hinduistic way of life.
ii. Manusmiriti was written by the Early Vedic Hindu saint
‘Suyambu’ also called as ‘Manu’.
iii. Manusmiriti contains 3 parts, 12 chapters and 2685
verses in Sanskrit language.
iv. It was translated into English,by the Calcutta
H.C.Judge Hon.ble Sir.William Jones
v. It was translated into Tamil by Thiriloga Sitharam.
vi. Before IPC, almost all the Kings of ancient India,
both Hindus and Muslims, followed this.
Power and Superiority of the King

i. King is the creation of God to save the human beings from
their sufferings.
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ii. God created the King by unifying Indiran, Vayu, Eman,
agni, varunan, and kuberan.
iii. Manu says that Fire will kill only one person whom
nearing it, but the king gets angry the whole family will be
demolished.
iv. The king should punish the offenders as an act of Dharma.
If king felt laziness in punishing offenders that gradually
swallow the state as big fish swallowed the small fish.
Duties of the Kings

i. Rise early from bed and worship Brahmin priests and
got the advice from them.
ii. The king always should accompany with aged Brahmins.
iii. The king should learn obedience from the Brahmins.
iv. The king should learn to controlling of all five senses of
pleasure.
v. Vedhas, sastras and Brahmins were the top priorities
of the Kings
Ten Pleasure to be avoided by the kings.
i. Hunting
ii. Gambling
iii. Sleeping in Days
iv. Finding fault in others
v. Excessive sexual pleasure
vi. Intoxication
vii. Over involvement in Dancing,
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viii. Singing,
ix. Music and
x. Always travelling
Eight Bad Habits should be avoided by the King

i. Talebearer(Telltale)ே கா
ii. Atrocitiesெ கா ை ம
iii. Cheatingஏமாத
iv. Jealousyெ பாறாை ம

v. Revile த
vi. Confiscating others’
properties.அ தவ ெ சா ை தஅபகாி த
vii. Scolding others without reasonsகாரணமி ற க த viii.

Beating others personally.அ த
Qualification for Ministers

i. Experience in government service for many generations
ii. Learning in Vedas, Sastras, Warfare,

iii. Good physical health
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iv. Good racial and family background.
v. Passed in all tests regarding public services
vi. Born in the Brahmin caste
vii. The king should consult every government matters with
these ministers. These ministers should be entrusted with
the power taking decision in all matters.
Varnashramadharma: As the Basic for
Political Guidelines
i. All political and Legal Problems should be decided
only based on the Varnashramadharma.
ii. The Varnashramadharma was prepared and granted to
kings only the God Almighty and it should be violated
at any cost and for any reasons.
iii. In legal matters the Precedencies of the legal decisions
should be taken into consideration.
iv. The Dhandaneethi practiced by the Kings should be
considered as a sword of double-side edged one. If the
king do not used it carefully, it will be demolish the entire
kingdom
The Legal System Revealed by Manu: 18 types

of legal issues in a state to be dealt with.
i. Non-paying of Debts
2. Things left to someone’s care not given security
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3. Sale of goods which are not owned by the seller
4. Fraud in Co-operatives
5. Gifts for political gains
6. Cheating without salary
7. Violation of Contracts
8. Illegal Purchase and Sales
9. Conflict between Boss and his servants.
10. Dispute regarding Territory
11. Whacking between people
12. Traduce on others
13. Theft
14. Looting after making wounds
15. Illegal sexual relationship
16. Problems between Husband and wife
regarding negligence of duties
17. Conflict in dividing Property
18. Gambling issues
Manu’s Idea on Trial and Evidences

i. Manu also explains about both civil and criminal divisions
in the legal system.
ii. The Trial should be conducted by the person who is doing
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same profession as the accused doing.
iii. The evidence given by the lower varna people against
the higher varna people should be taken as evidence.
iv. Women, Children, Government Servants, Handicapped
Persons, criminals can not give evidence to any trials.
v. Brahmins should be given only mild punishment, one can
even give false evidence to save an accused Brahmin.
Internal Administration as
revealed in Manudharma
i. A king should not reveal his weakness in front of his
enemies and at same time he should know the
weaknesses of his enemies.
ii. As a Tortoise a king should hide all of his
weaknesses with in himself.
iii. As a Crane a king should wait for a proper opportunity
to involve into action.
iv. As a Lion he should prove his strength in times.
v. As a Wolf a king should catch-hold his enemies.
vi. As a Rabbit he should escape from the
dangerous enemies
vii. A King should use all the four techniques of Sama,
Thana, Betha, Thandam to deal with his enemies.
Taxation Policy as Revealed in Manudharma

i. Tax should be levied gradually from the people without
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making pain among people.
ii. Tax should be collected as Leech eating blood,
Calf feeding milk from cow, beetles swallowing
leaves gradually.
iii. Collection of Taxes varying from 1/50 to 1/6, depending
upon the nature of income.
iv. Even in very worst economic condition a king should
not collect tax from the educated brahmin.
v. If any Brahmin happened to suffered of poverty then the
whole country will perish.
vi. The Brahmins should be guarded by the king as a
father guarding his children.
vii. The Street-vendors should be asked to pay taxes annually
viii. The physical labourers from Sudhra should be

paid onedays labour every month as taxes.
ix. A king should not uproot himself by not levying taxes and
should not uproot people by overtaxind.
Unit-VI Classical Hindu Concept Of State –

Classical Islamic Concept Of State
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Classical Hindu Concept of State
Five Basic Concepts of Ancient Hindu States
Rajadharma- Duties and Guidelines to the Kings
Rajasastra-Monarchical Forms and
Administrative Techniques
Dhandaneethi- Social,political and,economical
relationships in a state
Neethisastra-1)Eligibility
2) Practicalism
3) SpiritualismMulti-Dimensional Development
Arthasastra- Making the State strong by means of Strong

EconomyTechniques
Six Types of States In Ancient India
1. The Tribal State: The firstly prevailed States which

emerged before the Vedic Period. They let a life of
Nomadic. Settled in some areas periodically.
2. The Monarchy: Emerged during the later Vedic Period.
There were Kings and Emperors based on their
seconomic Strength and large territory.
3. The City State: From Greek sources the existence of
City states in India were known. Nyasa, Pimprama,
Singala were city staes. Ujjaini, Varanaasi were the
states which had Coins in use.
4. Confederate States: Guru Panchalas was a confederate
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state existed during the later vedic period.
Kshudrakas, Malavas, were also confedrate states
mentioned in Mahabharatha.
5. The Oligarchy: There were also oligarchy in ancient
India, dominated by the higher caste people and they
played a major role in the selection of the kings.
6. The Republic: There was also a republic state existed
in India,named Ghana . In the Ghana state authority
existed in the Council of People.
The Nature of the State
There were Seven Elements in the States in Ancient India.
Kautilya also says about the Saptanga Theory of State.
1. The King
2. The Ministers
3. The Territory
4. The Forts
5. The Armed Forces
6. The Treasury
7. The Friendly States
The Objectives of the Hindu States
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i. During Vedic period Peace, Discipline and Security
were considered as main objectives of the state.
ii. Later the functions of maintaining Law and Order,
Developing the religion and morality in the state
were also included.
iii. During later Vedic Period the duties of Dharma,
Artha, kama, mokhsha were considered as Important
objectives. Dharma means having pity and piety.
Artha means developing commerce, industries,
agriculture etc., Kama means maintaining peace and
discipline. Moksha means developing godly affairs.
Functions of State
Constituent Functions
(Police Functions)
1) Securing the state from foreign invasion .
2) Securing the life and property of the People.
3) Maintenance of Law and Order.
Ministerial Functions
(Social Welfare Functions)
1) Based on the religion Morality, Ethics and Justice
should be established.
2) Development Arts, Education and literature
3) Establishment of Rest houses, Hospitals
4) Relief Measures from the natural calamities like
Earthquakes, Floods, Famines, Infectious Diseases etc.,
5) Abolition of Immoral activities like Gambling, Prostitution,
etc.
6) Improving the Fertility of the soil
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Islamic State Under Delhi Sultanate
i. Islamic state was also called as ‘Theocratic State’
ii. King of Sultanate state was considered as embodiment of

God on earth.
iii. Among the Delhi Sultans, from various Dynasties i.e, Slave
Dynasty, Gilgi Dynasty, Tuqluck Dynasty, Lodi Dynasty, Ala
-Ud-Deen Gilgi was considered as the most efficient king.
iv. He used to said that, “ I am the State”
Ten Basic Functions of the Delhi Sultanate

1) Winning the Confidence of the People.
2) Safeguarding the lands of Islamic State.
3) Protection Territories from Foreign Invasion
4) Waging war against the Enemies of Islam
5) Implementation of Criminal Procedure Code
6) Proper Maintenance of Law and Order
7) Collection and Distribution of Revenues
8) Establishing Efficient Administration
9) Provision of Effective Judicial System.
10)Supervision and Controlling of Public Affairs
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Some Important Kings of Mughal Empire
i. Babar, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, ShahJahan,
Aurangajeeb, etc., were some of the important Mughal
Kings.
ii. Among the Mughal Kings Akbar was considered as ‘the
great’, because of his efficient administration, religious
toleration, development of arts, literature, architecture,
land reforms, multi-dimensional development of India.
The Nature of Mughal Islamic State

1) The Kingship is the Divine Right of Mughal Rulers
2) King is to be considered as the Shadow of God
3) People should obey the Kings in par with God
4) The Kings were the Guardians of the people
5) The Kings can exercise all authorities on people
6) King is the pivotal round by which all political institutions

are revolving
7) All Human Rights were to be given only by the Kings
8) The life and Property of the people were under the Trust
of the State.
9) The King will be in charge of Administration, Justice and
Chief Priesthood.
10) The king should obey only God and Kur-on.
11) No law can control kings
12) People should not oppose kings and should obey them
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without question
Unit-VII Gandhian Political Thought – Neo-

Gandhian Political Thought-Sarvodaya In Indian
Political Thought
Gandhi’s Sarvodhaya Principles
Meaning of Sarvodhaya
Sarvam=All Udhayam=Developement
i. Sarvodhaya is a system of making egalitarian and equality

oriented society by which there will be no rich and poor,
no educated and uneducated, no lower caste and higher
caste, no economic exploitation, no inequality among
people, no racial and lingual discrimination.
ii. According to J.C. Kumarappa, “A sarvodhaya society is
one, in which there will be no king and hermit, no
touchable and untouchable, no Whiteman and Blackman,
no saint and sinner. All are same and all for the welfare of
all.”
Means for Attaining Sarvodhaya

[14 Points Programme for Survodhaya]
1.Morality and Ethics: In all human life activities there should

be only moral and ethical means.
2.Abolision of Discrimination among People: The prevailing
discrimination among people in the name of caste, religion,
race, language, colour etc.,should be abolished.
3.All should Work for the Welfare of All: Everybody should
Page 80 of 80
respect the dignity of human lobour and everybody should
contribute their lobour for the social development.
4. Special Attention for the Upliftment of the Lower strata
of the Society: The government should give some social
justice measures in the name of subsidies, grants, reservations,
etc., to the weaker sections of the society.
5. Co-Operative Commonwealth: Co-Operative common
efforts should be done by all sections of the people by
allocation of tasks properly to attain the Sarvodhaya Society.
6. Eradication of Superstitious Beliefs: The prevailing
superstitious beliefs among the people which are making
barriers in the process of scientific development should be
eradicated.
7. Multi-Dimensional development: All sectors of the society
should be developed simultaneously. Social, Economical,
Cultural, Political and Administrative developments.
8.Means and Ends: There is a need for Synchronizing the
means and ends. No wrong means even if it yields right ends.
9. Party less Democracy: Instead of political parties with
conflicting ideologies the Panchayat Raj Institutions should be
promoted for smooth running of society.
10. Prevention of Accumulation of Wealth in the Hands of
Few: The Government should take necessary steps to prevent
the accumulation of wealth in the hands of few privileged and
influential people .
11. Promotion of Swedheshi Economy: People should be
educated to purchase and use only swedheshi products
Page 81 of 81
instead of purchasing and using the foreign goods.
12. Improvement of Small-Scale Industries: The

government should develop the cottage industries to promote
the small scale industries instead of large-scale industries with
heavy machines.
13. Use of Ahimsa in dealing all Situations: There should not
be any non-violence means for dealing any situation. People
should follow only Ahimsa Principle.
14. Rural Development: Rural based industrials should be given
more concentration and also should be given subsides and
grants by the governments in order to develop the villages. As
villages are the back-bone of the Indian Economy, village based
industries should be promoted. Based on the particular raw
materials available in the respective regions the rural industries
should be established. Gramrajya is the base for sarvodhaya.
Gandhian Technique of Satyagraha

i. Ahimsa is the basis for the Satyagraha Principles of
Gandhi.
ii. There should not be the policy of tooth for tooth and eye
for eye for dealing with enemies.
iii. To fight against one’s enemies, a person has to follow
peaceful resistance by means of self-suffering and fasting.
iv. A Satyagrahi is always against the likes and dislikes on a
particular issue and approach any issue objectively.
v. Self-confidence and toleration are the basic tenets of
Satyagraha.
Page 82 of 82
Some Agitations of Gandhi by Means of
Satyagraha
i. Non-Co-operation Movement (1919)
ii. Announcement of Non-Paying of Taxes (1930)
iii. Celebration of Poorna Swarajya (Jan.26,1930)
iv. Dandi March(Salt Satyagraha)(Mar.30,1930)
v. Law Refusing Movement(Dharshana) Under Sarojini

Naidu.(1930)Gandhi(1932),(1931)
vi. Fasting until death agitation at Eravada prison-Gandhi-
Irwin Pact-(1933)
vii. Quit-India Movement (1942)
Page 83 of 83
Bhoodan Movement (or) Neo Gandhian Movement
i. Father of Boomidhan Movement was Acharya Vinobhave
ii. He was a full pledged Gandhian in all aspects.
iii. Two important aspects of Boomidhan movement is

Construction and Trusteeship as two sides of the same
coin.
iv. Two important paths of this Boomidhan Movement are (i)
Boomidhan and (ii) Gramdan.
v. Acharya Vinobhave created one organisation this
movement by the name, ‘ALL INDIA
SARVODHAYA SAMAJAM’
Basic Work of the Boomidan Movement

i. This Movement planned to receive 50 Million acres of land
as Boomidan out of 300 million acres of agricultural lands
in India.
ii. After received free contribution of lands from the rich land
owners, this movement planned to distribute it to the
landless farmers throughout India.
iii. Thus this movement aimed to make the Indian Landless
farmers as owners of land, and further aimed to make
them to get the self-sufficiency and self-confidence
Achievements of Boomidan Movement

i. In April 18, 1951 this movement was able to get its first
Boomidan at Poochampalli in Telungana,Andra
Page 84 of 84
Pradesh[Shri Vedre Ramachadra Reddy]
ii. Within three months period, Vinobhave was able to receive

12,200 acres of Lands from 200 villages as Boomidan.
iii. Gradually this Movement spread from South-India to
North -India and got momentum.
iv. By 1956 March, it received four million acres as Boomidan.
Gramdan Movement
i. The Gramdan Movement was started in 1955 in Orissa.
ii. By the end of 1960, there were 4,500 villages

were received as Dan.
iii. From 1950 to 1960 both these Gramdan and Boomidan
movements got very great appreciation and support from
the people.
iv. A statistics conducted in 1957 shows that there were only
two lakhs agricultural families received lands by this
Boomidan Movement.
Weakness of this Boomidan Movement

i. After 1960s this Movement began to lost its importance in
the Indian society.
ii. The following were the causes for the failure of this
movement:-
1. The Political Parties and Political leaders were not
properly supported.
2. This movement was not supported by the government
Page 85 of 85
through legislation.
3. The lands received by this movements were mainly

waste and uncultivable nature and were not useful
for the farmers.

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1.

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF POLITICAL THOUGHTS:

Theory of Education Theory of Justice

Classification of Society Communism

Functional Principal of Property Family

3. VARIOUS THEORIES OF JUSTICE:

MAIN CURRENT OF MEDIEVAL WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT INCLUDES

MODERN WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT

SARVODHAYA IN GANDHIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT:

A. Sarvodhaya means the establishment of new social order on the basis of

SUB CODE : FQG

iv. Whether an individual had the right to hold family

Political Philosophy of Plato

Early Life Experiences of Plato

The Method of Plato

ii. Justice means almost the whole of Virtue as shown in

iv. Cephalus “Speaking Truth and Paying one’s Depts”

v. Polemarchus “Doing good to friends and harms to

vi. Thrasymachus “Justice as the interest of the stronger”

vii. Glucon “Justice as the interest of the weaker”

viii. Plato gives an analogy between Human soul and Social

Human soulSocial organism

2. Restriction of Arts and Literature

3. Equal Treatment for men and Women

4. State Controlled Education System

6. Proper Administration of Justice

7. The Division of Classes

9. Communism of wives and Property

10. Totalitarian Outlook

11. Retention of Slavery

12. Bringing up of Children

1.)The Philosopher King

2.)Restriction of Arts and Literature

3.)Equal Treatment for men and Women

6.)Equality of Education to both Men and Women

iv. According to him it was only in class division that each

7.)Proper Administration of Justice

Three classes of Plato’s Ideal Society

ii. Plato’s argument for communism of property and families

Criticisms leveled against Plato’s

Merits of Plato’s Political Philosophy

iii. The Effective Education System: Plato’s

1.) Life, Career and Works of Aristotle

3.) Aristotle’s Conception of Nature of State

4.) Aristotle’s Classification of Constitutions

5.) Justification For Slavery

7.) Aristotle’s Views on Citizenship

8.) Views on Meaning, Causes and

(b) Causes of Revolution

12.) An Estimate on Aristotle

UNIT-III Main Currents Medieval Western Political

Thought-Natural Law-Natural Right-Liberalism-

Meaning of Natural Law

i. Natural Law is a moral theory of jurisprudence, which

Thinkers who contributed for the

Natural law and Natural Rights

ii. Natural law has objective, external existence. It follows

Classical or Negative Concept of

Marxism: Meaning, Nature, Features And Criticism

vi. Private business can exist- state controlled

In brief – the most important ideas of Karl Marx:

ii. These two classes must always be in conflict, and in

iii. The workers must use revolutionary force to overthrow the

iv. The revolution will be successful only when the masses of

Some Important Key Ideologies

Criticisms Of Marxist Ideas