energies

Article
Control and EMS of a Grid-Connected Microgrid
with Economical Analysis
Mohamed El-Hendawi 1,2 , Hossam A. Gabbar 1,3, *, Gaber El-Saady 2 and El-Nobi A. Ibrahim 2
1 Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Ontario Institute of Technology,
2000 Simcoe Street North, Oshawa, ON L1H7K4, Canada; enghendawi@aun.edu.eg
2 Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt;
gaber1@yahoo.com (G.E.-S.); nouby60@yahoo.com (E.-N.A.I.)
3 Faculty of Energy Systems and Nuclear Science, University of Ontario Institute of Technology,
2000 Simcoe Street North, Oshawa, ON L1H7K4, Canada
* Correspondence: hossam.gabbar@uoit.ca

Received: 24 November 2017; Accepted: 3 January 2018; Published: 5 January 2018

Abstract: Recently, significant development has occurred in the field of microgrid and renewable
energy systems (RESs). Integrating microgrids and renewable energy sources facilitates a sustainable
energy future. This paper proposes a control algorithm and an optimal energy management
system (EMS) for a grid-connected microgrid to minimize its operating cost. The microgrid includes
photovoltaic (PV), wind turbine (WT), and energy storage systems (ESS). The interior search algorithm
(ISA) optimization technique determines the optimal hour-by-hour scheduling for the microgrid
system, while it meets the required load demand based on 24-h ahead forecast data. The control
system consists of three stages: EMS, supervisory control and local control. EMS is responsible
for providing the control system with the optimum day-ahead scheduling power flow between
the microgrid (MG) sources, batteries, loads and the main grid based on an economic analysis.
The supervisory control stage is responsible for compensating the mismatch between the scheduled
power and the real microgrid power. In addition, this paper presents the local control design to
regulate the local power, current and DC voltage of the microgrid. For verification, the proposed
model was applied on a real case study in Oshawa (Ontario, Canada) with various load conditions.

Keywords: microgrid (MG); energy management system (EMS); interior search algorithm (ISA);
supervisory control; local control

1. Introduction
The main goals of sustainability in the energy system are economic operation, reliability,
and environmental impact. Recently, the concept of microgrid (MG) and its applications have become
important topics. MG is a small grid that can aggregate conventional generators, renewable energy
systems (RESs), and energy storage systems (ESS) along with different loads, to form a self-sufficient
and flexible system [1–3]. MG can operate in grid-connected mode or in islanded mode (i.e., for remote
areas and in case of grid failure) [4]. One of the main advantages of the MG technology is that it can
supply the customers with the electricity demand and guarantee the reliability and intelligence of the
power system.
There are various topologies and designs for MGs in the literature. An AC MG is the standard
choice for MG designers [5–7] due to the flexibility to transform AC voltage level into other levels,
in addition to the majority of the loads being AC type. Nowadays, due to the increase of using
DC loads, DC MGs have been created due to their advantages in terms of efficiency and cost
reduction [8–10]. However, to reduce the amount of multiple conversion stages and to connect the AC

Energies 2018, 11, 129; doi:10.3390/en11010129 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 129 2 of 21

and DC sources and loads in a efficient/economic way, AC/DC MGs have become an ideal choice to
connect the MGs [11].
There are many challenges that face microgrids operation. The first challenge is to minimize the
operational cost of the MG. Secondly, the intermittency of RESs such as photovoltaic (PV) and wind turbine
(WT) because of the weather variation which may cause power imbalance and power-quality problems.
Therefore, the decision makers are focusing on finding a solution to make the MG operate in a stable and
economic way.
To operate the MG in an economic and reliable manner there are two steps to be considered.
The first is to select the best connection to the physical model components, which include RES,
ESS, loads, grid components (i.e., transformers, transmission lines and circuit breakers) and power
converters which connect all the system components together [12]. The second step is to design
the suitable control system to ensure the stability, reliability, and economic operation of the MG.
The proposed control system consists of two parts: scheduling and control.
The energy management system (EMS) plays a key role in controlling the generation and/or flow of
power in microgrids and thus minimizes the operating cost. EMS controls the power flow in the MG based
on optimal cost and provides the scheduled, reference values to the local controller of the MG. The power
scheduling problem to provide reference values to the local controllers has been studied before [12–14].
However, they focused only on the action of the current values, and also did not take into consideration the
cost minimization [15]. Reference [16] suggests that the first priority for load demand is to be supplied from
the MG sources as the utility grid will be the final choice. They did not consider market electricity prices.
Other papers have focused on the off-line scheduling of the power flow of MG. But they do not consider
the mismatch between the scheduled power based on the forecasted data profile and the dynamic operation
of the control devices and the generated power profiles [17–19].
Many optimization algorithms have been proposed to solve the cost minimization problem.
These methods include game theory [20], mixed integer linear programming (MILP) [21], and heuristic
optimization methods [22]. Heuristic optimization algorithms are among the most common techniques
used by researchers due to: simplicity, flexibility, not relying on derivativeness, and the ability
of achieving the near-optimal value for the fitness function. There are several types of heuristic
algorithms that are used in EMS such as genetic algorithm (GA), simulated annealing algorithm (SA),
cuckoo search algorithm (CSA), particle swarm optimization (PSO) and interior search algorithm
(ISA). Ref. [23] offers a comparison among these methods and concludes that ISA is the best heuristic
optimization technique to solve the cost minimization problem.
Several control models consider RES as non-dispatchable resources, and therefore, the ESS is
used to balance the shortage between the generation and the demand [24,25]. They neglect the
feed-in-tariff (FIT) constraint of the main grid which imposes a limit for purchasing power from any
MG. Therefore, if the generated power from the MG is higher than these limits, the RES should reduce
the generated power to keep the system balanced. The proposed control method can work in two
operating strategies: grid interactive mode and grid non-interactive mode to maintain system stability.
The grid non-interactive mode requires that each RES works as a non-dispatchable supply which
is useful if the MG’s generated power is within the main grid constraints. The other mode, grid
interactive is used in large MGs. It considers each RES as a dispatchable supply, which means that the
RES can be controlled depending on the system objectives and constraints. In this paper, a small MG is
proposed, therefore the MG operates in non-interactive mode, although the control system is designed
to work for both operating strategies.
This paper proposes an economic operating strategy of MGs to minimize the operating cost based
on 24-h ahead forecast data. The EMS is responsible for predicting the day ahead generated power
and load demand based on wavelet neural network (WNN) method. In addition, the optimal power
flow is calculated based on economic analysis using heuristic optimization method. It presents a local
control strategy to control the voltage and power of the MG and to enhance the stability of the system
in the dynamic mode. Supervisory control is integrated to the proposed control model to compensate
Energies 2018, 11, 129 3 of 21

the mismatch between the scheduled power flow and the real power flow by adjusting the reference
power of the ESS.
The paper is organized
Energies 2018, 11, 129 as follows: Section 2 explains the MG structure and operation. 3 of 20 Section 3

describes compensate
the case study. Section 4 provides the simulation results of the proposed model. Section 5
the mismatch between the scheduled power flow and the real power flow by adjusting
summarizes the main outcomes of this paper.
the reference power of the ESS.
The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 explains the MG structure and operation. Section 3
2. Microgrid Structure
describes the caseand Operation
study. Section 4 provides the simulation results of the proposed model. Section 5
summarizes the main outcomes of this paper.
The proposed MG is shown in Figure 1, which consists of a WT, PV generator, battery-based ESS
2. Microgrid
and the load demand. Structure
The MG andworks
Operation
in grid-connected mode.
As mentioned before,MG
The proposed this research
is shown proposes
in Figure anconsists
1, which AC/DC MGPV
of a WT, to generator,
reduce the number of
battery-based ESSconversion
stages. Theand the load
main demand.
grid The MG works
is connected to theinAC
grid-connected
bus, so it mode.
controls the voltage and frequency in the AC
As mentioned before, this research proposes an AC/DC MG to reduce the number of conversion
bus, and manages any unbalance between the generated and consumed power. On the other hand,
stages. The main grid is connected to the AC bus, so it controls the voltage and frequency in the AC
the distributed
bus, andenergy
managesresources (DERs)
any unbalance are connected
between the generatedtoandtheconsumed
DC bus,power.
and because of the
On the other variation of
hand,
the generated power the
the distributed DC resources
energy bus must(DERs)
be regulated by the
are connected local
to the controller.
DC bus, In this
and because case,
of the DC loads
variation of can be
the generated power the DC bus must be regulated by the local controller. In this
connected to the DC bus and AC loads can be connected to the AC bus. The power can be transferred case, DC loads can
be connected to the DC bus and AC loads can be connected to the AC bus. The power can be
between AC and DC buses by a bidirectional converter.
transferred between AC and DC buses by a bidirectional converter.

Figure 1. Basic structure of the proposed microgrid (MG).

Figure 1. Basic structure of the proposed microgrid (MG).
The EMS sends the scheduled reference power to the controllers to control the power flow in the
MG based
The EMS sends on the
theoptimization
scheduledalgorithm.
reference These reference
power values
to the could be defined
controllers by two
to control types
the of
power flow in
operation (grid-interactive or grid non-interactive strategy) [26]. In grid non-interactive mode, the
the MG based on the optimization algorithm. These reference values could be
RESs follow the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithm set point and do not take into
defined by two types
of operation (grid-interactive or grid non-interactive strategy) [26]. In grid non-interactive
consideration the scheduled reference power from the EMS. Otherwise, when in grid-interactive mode,
the RESs follow
mode the the
RES maximum power
will follow the EMS’spoint tracking
reference (MPPT)
power after beingalgorithm setsupervisory
adjusted by the point andcontrol.
do not take into
consideration With respect to Ontario’s
the scheduled FIT power
reference program,from
the utility grid has
the EMS. a power limit
Otherwise, to accept
when power from
in grid-interactive mode
an external MGs. If there is any surplus power from a MG and its transferred power to the main
the RES will follow the EMS’s reference power after being adjusted by the supervisory control.
utility grid has reached its maximum limit, the MG will work in the grid-interactive strategy to
Withbalance
respect thetopower
Ontario’s FIT program,
in the power system. the utility grid has a power limit to accept power from
an external MGs. If there
The MG is any surplus
configuration as shownpower
in Figurefrom a MGofand
2 consists threeits transferred power to the main utility
parts:
grid has reached
(1) EMSits maximum
which limit, thescheduled
gives the day-ahead MG willpower;
work in the grid-interactive strategy to balance the
(2) power
power in the Design of the local control model to control the power and voltage of the entire system to satisfy
system.
the system stability; and
The MG configuration as shown in Figure 2 consists of three parts:

(1) EMS which gives the day-ahead scheduled power;

(2) Design of the local control model to control the power and voltage of the entire system to satisfy
the system stability; and
(3) Adjusting the reference power using the supervisory control.
 Energies 2018, 11, 129 4 of 20
Energies 2018, 11, 129 4 of 21
(3) Adjusting the reference power using the supervisory control.

Power flow

Measured

Figure 2. Energy management system (EMS) and control for the proposed MG. WNN: wavelet neural
Figure 2. Energy
network; management
ISA: interior system (EMS) and control for the proposed MG. WNN: wavelet neural
search algorithm.
network; ISA: interior search algorithm.
2.1. EMS (Day-Ahead Scheduling)
2.1. EMS
This(Day-Ahead Scheduling)
part discusses the EMS strategy that used in the proposed MG. EMS is responsible for
providing the control system with the optimum day-ahead scheduling power flow between the MG
This part discusses the EMS strategy that used in the proposed MG. EMS is responsible for
sources, batteries, loads and the main grid based on an economic analysis. The EMS consisted of two
providing
parts: the the control
hourly system
load and withforecasting
weather the optimum
for theday-ahead scheduling
day-ahead and power
the optimal flow
power flowbetween
in the the MG
sources, batteries, loads and the main grid
MG based on heuristic optimization technique. based on an economic analysis. The EMS consisted of two
parts: the hourly load and weather forecasting for the day-ahead and the optimal power flow in the
MG2.1.1. Weather
based and Loadoptimization
on heuristic Forecasting technique.
The day-ahead forecasting stage provides the optimization stage with the necessary input data.
2.1.1.
The Weather
forecastingand
toolLoad Forecasting
predicts the load demand and the weather conditions (irradiance and wind speed
which are the input parameters to the PV and WT models respectively). The more accurate the
The day-ahead forecasting stage provides the optimization stage with the necessary input data.
forecasting system the more efficient the EMS. There are many techniques have been used in the
The forecasting tool predicts the load demand and the weather conditions (irradiance and wind
speed which are the input parameters to the PV and WT models respectively). The more accurate
the forecasting system the more efficient the EMS. There are many techniques have been used in
the forecasting stage to minimize the forecasting error [27–29].One of the most accurate techniques
is WNN which has been used to predict the day-ahead load demand and weather conditions [30].
Figure 3 illustrates the results from the forecasting model.
 Energies 2018, 11, 129 5 of 20

forecasting stage to minimize the forecasting error [27–29].One of the most accurate techniques is
Energies 2018,
WNN11, 129
which has been used to predict the day-ahead load demand and weather conditions [30]. 5 of 21
Figure 3 illustrates the results from the forecasting model.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 3. The output of the forecasting system. (a) Load demand. (b) Irradiance. (c) Wind speed.
Figure 3. The output of the forecasting system. (a) Load demand. (b) Irradiance. (c) Wind speed.
2.1.2. Economic Power Flow Optimization
2.1.2. Economic
To Power Flow
determine Optimization
the optimal output power set points for DERs, an efficient optimization method
has been proposed. The purpose of the EMS is to minimize the operating cost. Thus, it aims to
To determine
purchase thethepower
optimal
fromoutput powerthe
the grid during setoff-peak
pointstime,
for when
DERs, an efficient
electricity prices optimization method has
are at their lowest,
been proposed.
to storeThe purpose
the surplus of the
power EMS
in the ESS. is topower
This minimizecan betheusedoperating cost.
again to cover theThus,
shortageit aims to purchase
from the
the powerMGfromduring the high
the grid peak period.
during On the other
the off-peak time,hand,
when if the load demand
electricity pricesis smaller than the
are at their MG to store
lowest,
generated power, the surplus power from the RES and ESS will be sold to the grid during high peak
the surplus power in the ESS. This power can be used again to cover the shortage from the MG during
periods. The ISA has been used to minimize the operating cost. It chooses the best period to
the high peak period. the
sell/purchase Onpower
the other hand,
to/from if the
the grid andload demand is smaller
to charge/discharge the ESS than the MG generated
to minimize the total power,
the surplus powercost
operating from the the
during RES and ESS will be sold to the grid during high peak periods. The ISA
day.
has been usedAs toshown in Figure
minimize the2,operating
the input parameters to the optimization
cost. It chooses the bestmethod
periodare togenerated power ofthe power
sell/purchase
the PV and WT, load demand, state of charge (SOC) of the battery, the grid tariff and system
to/from the grid and to charge/discharge the ESS to minimize the total operating cost during the day.
constraints. The output variables of the ISA are the scheduled power for the next day based on the
As shown
minimum in Figure
operating2,cost.
the The
input parameters
system constraintsto the
and theoptimization
objectives are asmethod
follows: are generated power of
the PV and WT, load demand, state of charge (SOC) of the battery, the grid tariff and system constraints.
The output variables of the ISA are the scheduled power for the next day based on the minimum
operating cost. The system constraints and the objectives are as follows:

Objective Function
The objective function of the EMS is used to determine the total operating cost of the proposed
MG. ISA has been presented to minimize this cost based on optimal economic power flow. The cost
function can be determined as follows:
T n o
Min f ( x ) = Min ∑ PPV (t)C pv + PWT (t)CWT + PESS (t)CESS + Pgb (t)Cgb (t) − Pgs (t)Cgs (t) (1)
t =1
Energies 2018, 11, 129 6 of 21

The time of the optimization method is T (24-h) with time interval t (i.e., 1 h). The input variables
and parameters of the optimization model is presented in Table 1. In order to minimize the objective
function, ISA optimization choose the optimum set point for the PV, WT and ESS. Also, it decides
when exactly the power will be purchased/sold from/to the grid.

Table 1. Parameters and variables of the model. WT: wind turbine; ESS: energy storage systems;
PV: photovoltaic.

Name Description
PPV Photovoltaic Power
PWT WT power
PESS ESS power
PL Power required by the load
Pgb The purchased power from the grid
Pgs The sold power to the grid
C pv Maintenance cost of PV
CWT Maintenance cost of WT
CESS Maintenance cost of ESS
Cgb Cost of purchasing power from the grid
Cgs Cost of selling power to the grid
x The state variables
SOC State of charge of the battery
T Number of time slots (24 h)
t Duration of interval (1 h)

System Constraints
To solve the optimization problem, the following constraints and limits should be considered
in the optimization process. These technical power limits control the state variables of the
optimization method.

(a) System Power Balance

Power balance equation identify the relationship between the generated power and load power
in the MG at each time interval:

(ΣPL (t)) − PPV (t) − PWG (t) − PESS (t) − Pgb (t) + Pgs (t) = 0 (2)

There are losses on the MG due to converter and transmission lines etc. But these losses are not
considered as the supervisor controller adjusts any mismatch between the output power of the
EMS and the dynamic model.

(b) DER Constraints

To maintain the stability of system, the output power of the DER must be within the convenient
limits. Also, the charging or discharging power of the battery and the amount of stored energy
must be limited to prevent any damage and to maximize the lifetime of the battery:

min max
PPV (t) ≤ PPV (t) ≤ PPV (t) (3)

min max
PWT (t) ≤ PWT (t) ≤ PWT (t) (4)
min max
PESS (t) ≤ PESS (t) ≤ PESS (t) (5)

SOCmin < SOC < SOCmax (6)

 Energies 2018, 11, 129 7 of 20
Energies 2018, 11, 129 7 of 21

( )≤ ( )≤ ( ) (5)

(c) Heuristic Optimization Technique < < (6)

(c) Heuristic
Heuristic Optimization
optimization Technique
technique is one of the powerful optimization methods to determine the
optimal power flow.optimization
Heuristic ISA is one technique
of the heuristic
is one of optimization techniques
the powerful optimization whichtocarry
methods out athe
determine trade off
optimal power flow. ISA is one of the heuristic optimization techniques which carry
between accuracy and optimization time range. ISA is a new, fast, reliable, and flexible method givenout a trade off
between
in Ref. [31]. The accuracy and optimization
state variables of ISAtime
arerange. ISA is a new,
the output powerfast,of
reliable,
each andDERflexible
of themethod
MG at given
each time
in Ref. [31]. The state variables of ISA are the output power of each DER of the MG at each time
interval for one day. The flowchart of ISA optimization is illustrated in Figure 4.
interval for one day. The flowchart of ISA optimization is illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4. ISA flowchart.

Figure 4. ISA flowchart.

ISA is described in the following steps [32]:

j
Step 1: generate the initial population of the input variables xi randomly within the given limits.
j
Then calculate the fitness value f ( xi ) for these chosen variables, where j is the iteration number and i
is the population number.
Energies 2018, 11, 129 8 of 21

Step 2: find the minimum fitness value at each iteration and the element which has the minimum
j
fitness value is called the current best (x gb ).
Step 3: The other elements are divided randomly into two groups, composition and mirror group.
The elements go to the composition group when r1 ≥ α, else they go to the mirror group.
Where r1, r2 , r3 and rn between (0,1) and they are a random number, α is a parameter which is
tuned with respect to ref. [30].
Step 4: For the elements in composition group, change the elements randomly within the range of
limited constraint (lower bounds (LB) and upper bounds (UB)):
 
j
xi = LB j + UB j − LB j r2 (7)

Step 5: In the mirror group, put a mirror between each element and the current best element
randomly. Use Equation (8) to evaluate the position of the mirror:

j j −1 j
xm,i = r3 xi + (1 − r3 ) x gb (8)

The new element location depends on the location of the mirror. Use Equation (9) to calculate it:

j j j −1
xi = 2xm,i − xi (9)

Step 6: Search around the current best location using Equation (10) to get a new current
best location:
j j −1
x gb = x gb + λrn (10)

where λ is a scale factor and it is equal 0.01 × (UB − LB).

Step 7: Calculate the fitness function of the new and old element. If the fitness value of the new
element is less than the old one, replace it, else keep the old element.
Step 8: Repeat these steps from 2 to 7 until reach to the maximum number of iterations.

2.2. Local Controllers

The proposed MG is AC/DC hybrid system which works in grid-connected mode as shown
in Figure 2. Therefore, the DC and AC bus voltages must be controlled to protect the loads from
voltage variations. In grid-connected mode, the AC bus voltage and frequency are fixed by the grid as
mentioned earlier. The local controller controls the local power, current and DC voltage of the MG
where the purpose of the local controller is to follow the set point of the supervisory controller.
There are two types of operation for DERs, grid-interactive and non-interactive. The operating
mode depends on the case study and the operating conditions. If the surplus power generated from
the MG is more than the FIT program power limits, the sold power must not exceed the grid active
power constraints. In this case, the MG will operate in the grid-interactive mode. The generated power
from RES does not follow the MPPT algorithms and follows the scheduled power reference by EMS,
to insure the system stability. In the non-interactive operating mode, the generated power from the
RESs follows the MPPT algorithm to ensure extracting the maximum generated power from each RES.
In this paper, the proposed model of RESs is smaller than the active power limits of the grid, therefore,
the RESs operate in non-interactive mode.
There are four converters in the proposed model. Three converters connect the RES and ESS with
the DC bus and a DC/AC bidirectional converter (grid side converter) connects the DC bus to the
AC bus.
The grid side converter is responsible for two tasks: (1) to regulate the DC bus voltage to 500 V
and (2) to synchronize the MG components with the main grid at the point of common coupling
using phase locked loop (PPL) as shown in Figure 5. The other three converters are responsible for:
(1) controlling the power generated from each DER; and (2) connecting the DERs to the DC bus by
Energies 2018, 11, 129 9 of 21

Energies 2018, 11, 129 9 of 20

boosting the DC voltage or converting the AC voltage to DC voltage. Also, the ESS converter is
bidirectional converter
a bidirectional which
converter which controls the
controls thecharging
chargingand
anddischarging
dischargingpower
powerofofthe
thebattery
batteryaccording
according
to
tothe
thepredefined
predefinedreference
reference set
set point.
point.

Energies 2018, 11, 129 9 of 20

bidirectional converter which controls the charging and discharging power of the battery according
to the predefined reference set point.

Control
Figure5.5.Control
Figure design
design of the
of the gridgrid
sideside converter.
converter. PWM:PWM:
pulse pulse
width width modulation;
modulation; PLL:locked
PLL: phase phase
locked loop.
loop.

Figure 5. Control design of the grid

Figure
Figure66shows
shows the
the block
block diagram
diagram ofside
of theconverter.
the WT PWM: pulse width
WT generation
generation system
systemmodulation;
using PLL:
using phase locked
aa DC/DC
DC/DC boost
boostconverter
converter
loop.
with
with aa three-phase
three-phase diodediode rectifier
rectifier[33],
[33],which
whichisisused usedtoto connect
connect thethe
WT WT generator
generator withwiththethe
DCDC busbus
and
and to control
to control the power
Figure
the power output
6output
shows the from
block
from the
diagram
the permanent
of the WT
permanent magnet
generation
magnet synchronous
system
synchronous generator
using generator
a DC/DC boost (PMSG).
converter
(PMSG). Using
Using this
this converterwith a three-phase
reduces the diode
cost ofrectifier
the [33],
system which
by is used
reducing to connect
the the
number WT ofgenerator
conversion
converter reduces the cost of the system by reducing the number of conversion stages in addition to the with the DC
stages bus
in addition
and to control the power output from the permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG). Using
to the simplicity
simplicity of of its control.
its control. ThreeThree variables
variables should should be controlled:
be controlled: the DC thebus
DCvoltage,
bus voltage, the generator
the generator active
this converter reduces the cost of the system by reducing the number of conversion stages in addition
active power,
power, andtothe and
the grid the grid
reactive
simplicity reactive
power.Three
of its control. power.
The variables The
DC busshould DC
voltage bus voltage
and the grid
be controlled: and
the DC the
reactive grid reactive
power
bus voltage, are controlledare
the generatorpower by
controlled by the
the inverteractive inverter
power, in
as shown as
andFigureshown in
the grid5.reactiveFigure 5. The
power. Thepower
The generated generated
DC busofvoltage power of the
and theisgrid
the PMSG PMSG is regulating
reactive power
controlled by controlled
are by
the
controlled by the (D)
regulating
duty cycle the
(D) duty boostinverter
of thecycle as shown
of the
converter via ainconverter
boost Figure 5. The
proportional viagenerated power of the
a proportional
integrator PMSG is controlled
integrator
(PI) controller. (PI)[34]
Ref. by
controller.
presents Ref.
the
regulating the duty cycle (D) of the boost converter via a proportional integrator (PI) controller. Ref.
[34] presents the MPPT algorithm
MPPT algorithm for the WT generator. for the WT generator.
[34] presents the MPPT algorithm for the WT generator.

Figure 6. Control design for the wind turbine (WT) generator. PMSG: permanent magnet synchronous
generator; MPPT: maximum power point tracking.
 Energies
Energies 2018, 11, 2018,
129 11, 129 10 of 20 10 of 21
Energies 2018, 11, 129 10 of 20
Figure 6. Control design for the wind turbine (WT) generator. PMSG: permanent magnet synchronous
Figure 6. Control
generator; design
MPPT: for the wind
maximum powerturbine (WT) generator. PMSG: permanent magnet synchronous
point tracking.
Figure 7 illustrates
generator; MPPT:the PV connection
maximum power pointtotracking.
the MG. A DC/DC boost converter of PV system has two
tasks [35]: (1)Figure
changing the DC
7 illustrates thevoltage level and
PV connection to the(2) ensuring
MG. A DC/DC that theconverter
boost PV panel of works at maximum
PV system has
Figure
power point 7 illustrates
(MPP).
two tasks [35]:The the
(1) MPPT PV
changing connection
algorithm to the
determine
the DC voltage MG. A DC/DC
the maximum
level and boost converter
(2) ensuring power
that theand of PV
PV voltagesystem
value
panel works has
at at this
two tasks
maximum
point. The [35]:
outputpower(1) changing
voltagepoint the
of (MPP). DC
the PVThe voltage level
MPPTisalgorithm
system and
regulated (2) ensuring
determine
using athe that
PI maximum the PV
controllerpower panel works
and voltage
and hence at the
control
maximum
output power power
value atbythis point
point.
adjusting (MPP).
The output
the The
duty MPPT
voltage
cycle of algorithm
ofthe
the PV determine
system
pulse theusing
is regulated
width maximum
modulation a(PWM).power and
PI controller and voltage
hence
control
value the
at this output
point. power
The by adjusting
output voltage ofthe
theduty
PV cycle of is
system theregulated
pulse width modulation
using (PWM).and hence
a PI controller
control the output power by adjusting the duty cycle of the pulse width modulation (PWM).

Figure 7. Control
Figure 7. Controldesign
design for PVsystem.
for PV system.

The control design for theFigure

ESS’s7.converter is illustrated
Control design in Figure 8. A bidirectional buck/boost
for PV system.
Theconverter
control is design for the ESS’s converter is illustrated in Figure 8. A bidirectional buck/boost
designed to control the charging/discharging power of the battery. The converter consists
converterofThe
isfour
designed
control
switches to control
design
with afor
PWM the
the charging/discharging
ESS’s
control converter power
is illustrated
circuit. When S1 is off S2of
in Figure
and the8.the
is on, battery. Theworks
A converter
bidirectional converter
buck/boost
in buck consists
of four switches
mode. is
converter with
Indesigned
this a to
case, PWM
power
control control
is circuit.
transferred fromWhen
the DCS1
the charging/discharging busistooff
power and
charge
of S2
thethe is on,The
battery.
battery. the converter
Onconverter
the works in
otherconsists
hand,
when
buckofmode.
four InS1this
switchesis switched
with PWMon and
case,a power is S2
control switched
transferred off,
from
circuit. When the converter
S1the DC
is off and works
bus toon,
S2 is in the
boost
charge mode
the and
battery.
converter works power
On is other
the
in buck
mode.discharged
In this from
case, the
powerbattery
is and transferred
transferred from to the
the DCDC bus.
bus toThere are
charge
hand, when S1 is switched on and S2 switched off, the converter works in boost mode and power is two
the control
battery. loops
On to
the control
other the
hand,
when charging/discharging
S1 is switched on power
and ofswitched
the battery. The reference power, which is mode
obtained from the is
discharged from the battery andS2transferred off, the converter
to the DC bus. There works arein boost
two control and power
loops to control
supervisory controller,
discharged from the battery is regulated by
and transferreda proportional
to theThe integrator
DC bus. (PI)
There are controller.
two control A second PI controller
the charging/discharging
is used to regulate the power
current ofthethebattery
battery. reference power, whichloops to controlfrom
is obtained the the
charging/discharging power of ofthe battery. toTheprotect the battery.
reference power, which is obtained from the
supervisory controller, is regulated by a proportional integrator (PI) controller. A second PI controller
supervisory controller, is regulated by a proportional integrator (PI) controller. A second PI controller
is used to regulate the current of the battery to protect the battery.
is used to regulate the current of the battery to protect the battery.

Battery

Battery

Figure 8. Control design of energy storage system (ESS). PI: Proportional Integrator.

2.3. Supervisory Controller

The main
Figure 8. purpose
Figure Control of
8. Control the
design supervisory
design energycontroller
ofofenergy is to compensate
storage system
storage system (ESS).
(ESS).PI:PI: the mismatch
Proportional between the main
Integrator.
Proportional Integrator.
power transferred from/to the grid ( ) and scheduled power obtained from EMS ( ).
2.3. Therefore, modifies incremental values ( ∆
SupervisoryitController ,∆ ) to the scheduled power from the EMS
2.3. Supervisory Controller
( ). Figure 9 shows the schematic diagram of the supervisor control. In non-interactive
The main purpose of the supervisory controller is to compensate the mismatch between the main
Themode,
main each RES of
purpose employs its respective
the supervisory
power transferred from/to the grid (
MPPT algorithm,
controller thus the the
is to compensate supervisory
mismatch controller
) and scheduled power obtained from EMS ( between only
the main ).
power transferred from/toincremental Mes ) and scheduled power obtained from EMS (Psch ). Therefore,
the grid (Pgrid
Therefore, it modifies values ( ∆ ,∆ ) to the scheduled power fromgrid
the EMS
it modifies
( incremental
values
). Figure (∆Pthe
9 shows , ∆Pbat ) todiagram
RESschematic the scheduled power from
of the supervisor theInEMS
control. sch Psch Psch ).
(PPV
non-interactive
WT bat
mode,
Figure each the
9 shows RESschematic
employs its respective
diagram MPPT
of the algorithm,
supervisor thus In
control. thenon-interactive
supervisory controller only RES
mode, each
employs its respective MPPT algorithm, thus the supervisory controller only modifies the reference set
point for the battery. On the other hand, in grid-interactive mode, the supervisory controller dictates
the reference set points for each RES and ESS.
 Energies 2018, 11, 129 11 of 20

Energies 2018, 11,the

modifies 129reference set point for the battery. On the other hand, in grid-interactive mode, the11 of 21
supervisory controller dictates the reference set points for each RES and ESS.

ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
EMS

ℎ Supervisory controller

+
-
+
+

+
+

ℎ
_+
10% < SOC < 90%

MG

Figure 9. Supervisory controller design. SOC: state of charge; MG: microgrid.

Figure 9. Supervisory controller design. SOC: state of charge; MG: microgrid.
The input values to the supervisory controller are the scheduled power from the EMS
(The input
values
) and the measured
to the values
supervisory controller are (the scheduled
from the MG ). The output
powervalues
fromarethe
the EMS
sch reference
sch PschsetPpoints
PWT sch for the MG which are in case ofMes
grid-interactive mode and
(PPV bat grid ) and the measured values from the MG (Pgrid SOC). The output values are
in case of grid non-interactive mode. re f re f re f re f
the reference set pointsbetween
The difference for the MG which PPV PWT Pthe
and are represents in case ofbetween
bat deviation grid-interactive mode
the scheduled and Pbat
power
in case
andofMG
grid non-interactive mode.
power:
The difference between Pgrid Mes and Psch represents the deviation between the scheduled power and
grid = − (11)
MG power:
When is positive this means thatε the Mes schpower from the grid is greater than the
= Ppurchased
grid − Pgrid (11)
scheduled power therefore, the charging of the battery should be minimized and the generated power
Wheneach
from ε is RES
positive thisbemeans
should thattothe
increased purchased
regulate power from
this increase in thethe grid
grid is greater
power. thanisthe
This error scheduled
divided
power therefore,
between the and
all RESs charging of the battery
ESS according should bepower
to the maximum minimized
limit forand the generated
the RESs and SOC ofpower from each
the battery.
RES should be increased to regulate this increase in the grid power. This error is divided between all
If the SOC of the battery exceeds the battery constraints, there will not be any change in the battery
RESsreference
and ESSset point. Into
according this
theway, the supervisory
maximum controller
power limit for theis used
RESstoandconnect
SOC EMSof thewith the MG
battery. by SOC
If the
regulating any mismatch between the scheduled power and the MG power flow by
of the battery exceeds the battery constraints, there will not be any change in the battery reference set adjusting the
point.reference powerthe
In this way, of the DERs.
supervisory controller is used to connect EMS with the MG by regulating any
mismatch between the scheduled power and the MG power flow by adjusting the reference power of
3. Case Study
the DERs.
The selected MG is applied to a variable load which is a real case study of a set of homes located
in Oshawa
3. Case Study (Ontario, Canada) as shown in Figure 3a. The historical data which is required for
forecasting is real data from Ontario’s independent electricity system operator (IESO) [36]. As
The selected
discussed in theMG is applied
previous section,tothea proposed
variable MG loadconsists
whichofisPV, a real caseESS.
WT and study
The of a set
rating andofthehomes
located in Oshawa (Ontario, Canada) as shown in Figure 3a. The historical data which
operational & maintenance cost (O&M) of each RES unit is illustrated in Table 2. Also, the electricity is required
for forecasting is real
time of use during data from
a typical weekdayOntario’s independent
in the winter electricity
season in Oshawa system
is given operator
in Table 3 [37]. The(IESO)
initial [36].
conditions,
As discussed inlower and upper
the previous limits ofthe
section, SOC (%) of theMG
proposed battery are setofasPV,
consists 50%,WT10%,
andand 90%,
ESS. respectively.
The rating and the
operational & maintenance cost (O&M) of each RES unit is illustrated in Table 2. Also, the electricity
Table 2. Parameters of RESs.
time of use during a typical weekday in the winter season in Oshawa is given in Table 3 [37]. The initial
conditions, lower and upper limits Type
of SOC (%) of the battery arePV Windand 90%, respectively.
set as 50%, 10%,
Min limit (kW) 0 0
Max limit (kW) 100 60
Table 2. Parameters of RESs.
O&M Cost ($/kW) [2] 0.01 0.01

Type PV Wind
Min limit (kW) 0 0
Max limit (kW) 100 60
O&M Cost ($/kW) [2] 0.01 0.01
Energies 2018, 11, 129 12 of 21

Table 3. Ontario Electricity Tariff Periods.

Energies 2018, 11, 129 12 of 20
Off-Peak On-Peak Medium-Peak On-Peak Off-Peak
Time of Use (Hour)
00:00–07:00 07:00–11:00
Table 3. Ontario 11:00–17:00
Electricity Tariff Periods. 17:00–19:00 19:00–23:59
Purchasing price ($/kWh) 0.087
Off-Peak 0.18
On-Peak 0.132
Medium-Peak On-Peak 0.18 Off-Peak0.087
SellingTime
priceof Use (Hour)
($/kWh) 0.0435
00:00–07:00 0.09
07:00–11:00 0.066
11:00–17:00 0.09
17:00–19:00 0.0435
19:00–23:59
Purchasing price ($/kWh) 0.087 0.18 0.132 0.18 0.087
Selling price ($/kWh) 0.0435 0.09 0.066 0.09 0.0435
In this paper, there are two case studies which have been selected to illustrate the objectives of using
EMS and supervisory
In this paper,controller in regulating
there are two case studiesthe power
which haveflow
beeninselected
economic way. Also,
to illustrate these case
the objectives ofstudies
using are
prepared
EMSwith and without
and supervisory the EMSintoregulating
controller show thetheadvantage
power flowof in
EMS in saving
economic way.the operating
Also, cost.
these case studies
are prepared with and without the EMS to show the advantage of EMS in saving the operating cost.
3.1. Case 1. Low Demand Profile
3.1. Case 1. Low Demand Profile
In this case, the load demand is less than or equal to the generated power from the DERs of the
In thisthere
MG, therefore case, the load demand
is enough power is less than or the
to supply equal to the
load. generated
The power
main grid mayfrom the DERs of the
sell/purchase power
MG,the
to/from therefore there is enough
MG depending on thepower to supply
operating the load.
strategy of theThe main grid
system (withmay sell/purchase
or without EMS).power
Without
to/from
EMS all the MG power
the surplus depending
willon
be the operating
sold strategy
to the main grid,ofbut
the with
system (with
EMS theorMG
without EMS). Without
participates in the open
EMS all the surplus power will be sold to the main grid, but with EMS the MG participates in the
market, purchasing/selling power from/to the utility grid depending on the cost minimization.
open market, purchasing/selling power from/to the utility grid depending on the cost minimization.
3.2. Case 2. High Demand Profile
3.2. Case 2. High Demand Profile
In this case, the load demand is higher than the generated power from DERs of the MG during
In this case, the load demand is higher than the generated power from DERs of the MG during
somesome
periods of the
periods of day. So,So,
the day. thethe
power
powershortage
shortageisissupplied fromthe
supplied from themain
main grid.
grid. TheThe difference
difference between
between
working with or without EMS is the time of purchasing the power and the charging/discharging
working with or without EMS is the time of purchasing the power and the charging/discharging period
periodof of
thethe battery
battery to reduce
to reduce the operating
the operating cost. cost.

4. Results
4. Results
In this
In this section
section thethe resultsof
results of the
the proposed
proposedsystem
systemareare
presented. To ensure
presented. the accuracy
To ensure of the of
the accuracy
proposed model, the generated power curves for the RESs in the scheduling
the proposed model, the generated power curves for the RESs in the scheduling stage have stage have beenbeen
determined based on a powerful forecasting tool. Figure 10 presents the generated power profileofof PV
determined based on a powerful forecasting tool. Figure 10 presents the generated power profile
PV and WT from the MG and the scheduled power from the EMS. The objectives of the proposed
and WT from the MG and the scheduled power from the EMS. The objectives of the proposed model
model are presented using these two case studies by comparing the results with and without the
are presented using these two case studies by comparing the results with and without the EMS.
EMS.

(a)

(b)

Figure
Figure 10. (a,b)
10. (a,b) TheThe scheduledand
scheduled andmeasured
measured generation
generation profiles
profilesforfor
PVPV
and WT,WT,
and respectively.
respectively.
Energies 2018, 11, 129 13 of 21

4.1. Results for Case 1

Figure 11 shows the output results from the proposed MG with and without EMS in the scheduling
stage. In addition, it shows the purchased and sold power from/to the main grid during the day.
In the operation without EMS, the demand is supplied from the RESs, and the residual power
charges the battery until it reaches its maximum limit. Any surplus power will be sold to the main
grid to maintain system stability. Also, if the generated power from the RESs is lower than the load
demand, the battery will supply this shortage as shown in Figure 11 (right side). In case of EMS,
all the DERs and the main grid are participating in supplying the load, according to an optimization
technique. This mean that the MG purchases/sells the power from/to the main grid depending on the
cost function as shown in Figure 11 (left side).
Figure 12 represents the final output results from the proposed MG with and without EMS.
In addition to comparing the scheduled power obtained by the EMS and the measured power obtained
from the MG system. Curves were arranged as follows: grid power, battery power, load power and
DC bus voltage.
The output results obtained by the first strategy (without EMS) are shown in Figure 12 (right side).
In the period (00:00–9:00) the demand is higher than the generated power from the RESs, therefore
the battery discharges the power to cover this shortage to prevent purchasing power from the grid.
From 09:00 to15:00, the RESs generate more power than the load consumption, so the surplus power
is stored in the battery until reaching the maximum limit. Any residual power is sold to the grid.
In the period (15:00–20:00), the load increased so the power shortage is covered by the battery. Finally,
the period from (20:00 to 22:00) and from (22:00 to 23:00) there is a variation on the wind speed,
thus a variation in the WT generated power. Therefore, the battery charges and then discharges again
to cover the demand. This means that the priority for this strategy is to reduce the amount of power
purchased from the grid.
On the other hand, the results obtained by the proposed strategy (with EMS) show that the MG
purchases power from the grid during off-peak period (00:00–07:00 and 19:00–23:59) to supply the
load and store the generated power from RESs in the battery. During on-peak and medium-peak
periods, all the stored power and the surplus power is sold to the grid as shown in Figure 12 (left side).
Table 4 shows the operating cost and the electricity trade for both strategies. From the obtained results,
the operating cost with the EMS shows the best results.
The results also show the mismatch between the scheduled grid power and MG grid power,
as well as the task of supervisory control in adjusting the battery reference power to reduce purchased
power from the grid. The obtained results show the power of the local control system in following the
reference set points at any time and in regulating the DC bus voltage at a fixed value.

4.2. Results for Case 2

In this case, the demanded load is higher than the generated power of the MG, thus it is required
to purchase power from the main grid during some periods of the day. The variable profiles shown in
Figure 13 are like the variables used in case 1. Based on the results obtained from the MG with and
without EMS, there is a significant difference between the two strategies in purchasing and selling
the power from the grid during the day. The purchased power from the grid in the first strategy
(without EMS) depends on the load demand, but in the proposed strategy (with EMS) it depends on
the electricity price during the day.
The output power from the scheduling stage is presented in Figure 14 with and without EMS.
It illustrates the purchased/sold power from/to the main grid during the day. In the first strategy,
the MG uses the battery and the RESs to supply the load and any shortage is supplied from the grid.
After the SOC of the battery reaches the minimum limit, the battery starts to charge so more power will
be purchased from the grid, until battery can be charged from the RESs. Therefore, the MG absorbs
power from the grid without taking into consideration the electricity price during the day.
 Energies
Energies 2018,
2018, 11,11,
129129 14 14 of 20
of 21

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 11. (a,b) Microgrid scheduled power flow with and without EMS respectively in case 1. (c,d) The purchased/sold power from the grid during the day with
Figure 11. (a,b) Microgrid scheduled power flow with and without EMS respectively in case 1. (c,d) The purchased/sold power from the grid during the day with
and without EMS.
and without EMS.

Table 4. Electricity trade results for different case studies with and without EMS.
Table 4. Electricity trade results for different case studies with and without EMS.
Case 1 Case 2
Electricity
Case 1 Trade Electricity
Case 2 Trade
Purchased Power Sold Power Purchase
Electricity Trade Cost Sell Cost Total Cost Purchased Power SoldElectricity
Power Purchase Cost
Trade Sell Cost Total Cost
(kWh) (kWh) ($) ($) ($) (kWh) (kWh) ($) ($) ($)
Purchased Power Sold Power Purchase Cost Sell Cost Total Cost Purchased Power Sold Power Purchase Cost Sell Cost Total Cost
Main Grid only 567 0 73.27 0 73.27 756 0 97.7 0 195.4
Without EMS (kWh)
0 (kWh)87 ($) 0 ($)5.57 ($)0.96 (kWh)880 (kWh) 0 ($) 124.58 ($) 0 ($) 130.9
Main
WithGrid
EMSonly 567
237 0
487.7 73.27
24.07 0 34.8 73.27−2.6 756794.85 0 100.64 97.7 89.96 0 6.68 195.4 91.44
Without EMS 0 87 0 5.57 0.96 880 0 124.58 0 130.9
With EMS 237 487.7 24.07 34.8 −2.6 794.85 100.64 89.96 6.68 91.44
Energies 2018,
Energies 11,129
2018,11, 129 15 of
15 of 20
21

Figure 12. The output variables of the proposed MG with (left side) and without (right side) EMS in case 1.
Figure 12. The output variables of the proposed MG with (left side) and without (right side) EMS in case 1.
Energies 2018,
Energies 11,11,
2018, 129129 16 16
of of
20 21

Figure 13. The output variables of the proposed MG with (left side) and without (right side) EMS in case 2.
Figure 13. The output variables of the proposed MG with (left side) and without (right side) EMS in case 2.
 Energies 2018, 11, 129 17 of 21
Energies 2018, 11, 129 17 of 20

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 14. (a,b) Microgrid
Figure 14. (a,b) scheduled power flow
Microgrid scheduled powerwith
flow and without
with and EMS
without EMSrespectively
respectively inincase
case 2. (c,d)
2. (c,d) The The purchased/sold
purchased/sold power
power from the from the grid
grid during during
the day with the day with
and without EMS.
and without EMS.
Energies 2018, 11, 129 18 of 21

In the proposed strategy (with EMS) the battery is charged by the RESs during low price periods
and discharges during the high price periods. This means that the MG purchases more power from the
grid during the off-peak periods than the on-peak periods to reduce the operating cost. Also, if there is
any surplus of generated power that is not required to serve the load demand, it will be sold to the
grid with high price as shown in Figure 13 (left side).
In the same time, the results show the advantages of supervisory controller in adjusting the
battery reference set point depending on the mismatch between the measured power from the grid
and the grid scheduled power as illustrated in Figure 13. In addition, Figure 13 shows that the DC
bus voltage is fixed at a certain value because of the powerful of the local controller. Table 4 gives the
electricity trade results for both case studies, with and without EMS, and the advantages of using EMS.
In this way, the EMS uses an optimization method to reduce the operational cost by controlling
the charging/discharging periods of the battery to manage the unbalance between the RES generated
power and the load demand, based on the electricity price. Also, the results show how the supervisory
controller adjusts the mismatch between the main grid power and the grid scheduled power by
adjusting the reference set point for the battery in case of non-interactive operation. In case of
grid-interactive operation, the supervisory control adjusts the reference set points for both RESs
and battery as shown in Figure 9.

5. Conclusions
Using the EMS as part of the control design of a grid-connected microgrid can minimize the total
operating cost. The proposed EMS has been implemented to ensure the best management of power for
the MG sources based on a powerful heuristic optimization method (ISA). The optimization model is
flexible so that different DGs can be added to the MG system. Supervisory control has been added to
the control model to adjust any deviation between the main grid power and the scheduled reference
power by modifying the reference set-point of the battery power given by the EMS. This paper presents
a full local control design for the proposed system. The local controller controls the local power,
current and DC voltage of the MG where the purpose of the local controller is to follow the setting
point of the supervisor controller. The developed methodology is applied to a real case study of
a set of homes located in Oshawa, Ontario, Canada. All the data required such as load demand,
weather conditions for the day-ahead scheduling is forecasted using WNN which is not in the scope of
this paper. Two cases of operating strategies have been used to verify the objectives of the proposed
model. The operation of MG is tested with and without EMS to verify the advantages of using EMS
in the control method. The proposed Control design solves the problem that faces the stockholders
which is how to design a microgrid in a reliable and economical manner.

Author Contributions: The literature review and manuscript preparation, as well as the simulations, were carried
out by Mohamed El-Hendawi. Final review of manuscript corrections was done by Hossam A. Gabbar,
Gaber El-Saady and El-Nobi A. Ibrahim.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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