Result and calculation:

Table 1 Percentage of ash content

Component Weight Weight of Weight Weight of Weight of Percentage of ash

of crucible and of dry crucible ash (kg) content (%)
crucible dry sample sample and ash
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
Paper 29.19 29.74 0.55 29.72 0.53 3.6
Garden 26.65 26.73 0.08 26.72 0.07 12.5
trimming
Tin cans 27.22 34.20 6.98 33.94 6.72 3.79
Plastics 42.67 43.3 0.63 43.23 0.56 11.11
Food waste 26.92 28.57 1.65 27.42 0.5 70

The percentage of ash content for each component was calculated by using Equation 1.

1. Food waste (Biscuit)

1.65−0.5
% 𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑋100%
1.65

% 𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 70.0 %

The percentage of fixed carbon for each component was then calculated by using Equation 2.

Component Moisture content Volatile matter Ash content (%) Fixed carbon
(%) content (%) content (%)

Paper 6.78 93.87 3.6 -4.25

Garden trimming 14.20 97.70 12.5 -24.4

Tin cans 0.58 2.04 3.79 93.59

Plastics 69.35 88.98 11.11 -69.44

Food waste 6.37 91.11 70 -67.48

 1. Food waste (biscuit)
% fixed carbon = 100 − (6.37 + 91.11 + 70.0)
% 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 = −67.48%

DISCUSSION

Based on the experiment, for ash content food waste had the highest percentage which was
70%. Meanwhile, paper had the lowest percentage, which was 3.6%.Reffering the table below, the
result inaccurate for food waste to have the highest percentage in ash content as stated in the result.
the table below shows the mixed food has 5.0% of ash content which is higher than mixed plastic and
yard waste but low than paper.

Table 3 Typical proximate Analysis Values (% by weight)

Paper wastes can create a large proportion of MSW and are a distinct resource in
instances where they are collected separately. The paper sludge wastes of paper mills, containing
fibres too short for paper production, are also a potential biomass resource. Paper made from
hardwoods tends to be smoother and therefore easier to write and print on than paper from
softwoods but softwood paper also tends to be weaker. In addition, the ash content of
papers/cardboards can vary significantly. Glossy materials can have particularly high ash
contents. High ash contents and some of the additives in paper may lead to the problems in some
combustion and thermochemical technologies such as pyrolysis.

According to figure 1, tin cans had highest percentage for fixed carbon content which is
93.59.Meanwhile plastics had the lowest percentage in fixed carbon content which is -69.44. The
tin cans (aluminium cans) had highest percentage due to the weld ability of aluminium alloys
varies significantly, depending on the chemical composition of the alloy used. Aluminium alloys
are susceptible to hot cracking, and to combat the problem, welders increase the welding speed
to lower the heat input. Preheating reduces the temperature gradient across the weld zone and
thus helps reduce hot cracking, but it can reduce the mechanical properties of the base material
and should not be used when the base material is restrained. Generally, carbon is the most
important commercial steel alloy. Increasing carbon content increases hardness and strength and
improves hardenability. But carbon also increases brittleness and reduces weld ability because of
its tendency to form marten site. This means carbon content can lend to high content of fixed
carbon in tin cans. (Capudean, 2003).

Mostly, the experimental fixed carbon content showed negative value except tin cans,
which its value was 97.0957%. These negative values of fixed carbon content were due to the
errors from previous experiments and this experiment itself. From the experiment 1, the
experimental moisture content was drastically lower than theoretical moisture content. The
percentage error of moisture content was calculated and it showed a quite large percentage error,
which 67.4578%. The error may be contributed by the temperature of the oven. The temperature
of the oven was set to 105℃, but the temperature did not reach 105℃, where its actual
temperature was 97℃. This may cause the sample may not completely dry after 1 hour as the
boiling point of water is 100℃, where the samples still contained the moisture that lower the
weight of the sample after drying 1 hour. In addition, wet/ incompletely dry samples became
lighter as the moisture they contain evaporates off. After drying in the oven at 105℃, the sample
was weighted before it completely cooled. The same error may also happen in experiment 2 and
3 as the samples were taken out of furnace. Air rises in analytical balance when warmed by a hot
sample and creates convection currents that cause the mass displayed to unreliable. The mass
may be lower than the normal mass.

Furthermore, fixed carbon content can be related to calorific value, especially in bio-
briquette production. Calorific value is defined as the energy contained in a fuel or solid waste,
determined by measuring the heat produced by the complete combustion of a specified quantity
of it. In other words, the calorific value of a material is the amount of heat released by a material
during combustion (Carlo S. Alburo, 2010). It is affected by the ash and moisture contents. This
is now usually expressed in joules per kilogram. The fixed carbon content is derived from
subtraction of volatile materials content and ash content of the fuel. The calorific value is a
property calculated based on contents elemental analysis (C, H, O, N). In this direction, there is a
positive relationship between the carbon content and calorific value. However, the ash content
(that is inserted in the fixed carbon calculation) has a negative effect on the final calorific value.

References

1. Capudean, B. (2003, August 28). thefabricator.com. Retrieved September 23, 2016, from
Metallurgy Matters: Carbon content, steel classifications, and alloy steels:
http://www.thefabricator.com/article/metalsmaterials/carbon-content-steel-classifications-
and-alloy-steels

2. Carlo S. Alburo, R. H. (2010). Calorific Values and Proximate Analysis of Sargassum

spp.

3. Sarakikya, H. Z. (n.d.). Municipal Solid Waste Generation, Characteristics, Composition

and Plastic Potential in Murieti Landfill, Arusha-Tanzania.