Course: Curriculum Development (8603)

Semester: Autumn, 2017

Level: B. Ed
Assignment No.2

Q 1: Define the concept of curriculum organization. Analyses the principles of

curriculum organization with reference to Pakistan.
Answer:
In the research literature various useful evidences can be found to help to design a good
curriculum organization. However, there are no standard solutions. The effectiveness of
certain ideas depends on the particular context of the curriculum: the discipline, the type of
instruction, the culture in the teachers’ team, the aims etc. (Dearn, 2010). A number of
research-based evidences that are relevant in making decisions about the organization of a
curriculum in higher education are presented below.

1. Berkvens and Van den Akker (2013) have identified six quality criterions which should be
met when (re)designing a curriculum:
a. Relevance: The curriculum is based on state-of-the-art academic knowledge and
understanding of contextual need and wishes
b. Consistency: The structure of the curriculum in logical and coherent

c. Practicality: The curriculum is usable in the context it is designed for

d. Effectiveness: The curriculum leads to the desired outcomes

e. Scalability: The curriculum is successfully implemented scale

f. Sustainability: The curriculum remains successful over extended periods of time

2. An important result of learning research is that mastering the relevant learning objectives
depends on the amount that the students are involved in activities that are likely to result
in their achieving those outcomes. (Dearns 2010 and Shuell, 1998)). Learning in higher
education is considered to be an active learning process. From the research into learning
specific principles are formulated how the teacher can engage the study to study actively
in order to master the learning objectives or aims. (Shuell, ….). In the other posts a
detailed insight is given of the available evidences form the research into learning.

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 For some examples of possible design principles for various types of study programs,
click here and go to Research based evidence.
3. According to Dearn (2010) and Van Merriënboer and Kirschner (2013) complex learning
is a crucial component of the curricula of modern higher education. Professionals have to
learn complex skills and competencies during their studies and they will never stop
learning throughout their careers. The authors stress the importance of a holistic design
approach. ‘Often complex content and tasks are continually reduced to simpler or smaller
elements’. ‘Holistic design approaches attempt to deal with complexity without losing sight
of the separate elements and interrelationships between those elements’. The learning
and testing activities should be focussed on the complex learning of the students.

Besides the professional competencies or complex skills, the metacognitive learning skills
should have a place in the learning process: how to study, how to profit maximal from a
lecture, a working group, a practical, how to prepare a thesis, etcetera.

4. Bovill et al (2011) concludes that in the existing research, the curriculum is identified as a
key driver for improving the students’ engagement, and thereby success from the first
year onwards’. This means that a good designed and described curriculum is an
important condition to realize a good learning process.

5. Gibbs (2003) has formulated an important the principle Constructive alignment that aims,

learning objectives, learning and testing activities should be in line with each other.

6. Dearn, 2010; Diamond, 1998; O’Brian, 2015; Verloop and Lowyck, 2003 and the AACU,
2002 stress that the different courses in a curriculum should build on each other. The
students develop insight in the content and master the main competencies step-by-step in
the consecutive courses. These developments can be described with help of learning
tracks for the main competencies and the main content. The learning track in a curriculum
can be explained with help of a scheme, or another visualization to show the steps in the
learning process in the involves courses. For some examples click here.

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7. Possibilities for personal development are important as well. For example, most students
need half a year or more to learn and work as a student. They need to learn how to plan,
how to study course material (written texts and digital), how to learn from video-
presentations, how to work systematically, and how to learn new study skills because of
blended learning (Bovill et al, 2011). Also, strengthening of the social bonding with the
educational institute is likely to result in better study progress and less dropout (Tinto,
2012).

8. Curriculum models Various curriculum models are introduced in higher education.

Examples of the models are:
a. Problem based education, project education, research based education.

b. Theme oriented, interdisciplinary oriented, disciplinary oriented, competency based.

c. Applying cognitive, constructive, social critical vision

Valcke (2007) and Onstein (2014) describe these models. XXX gives also examples of
models for master program.
Which model(s) will be use ,depends strongly on the vision of the curriculum committee.
There is not one standard solutions. The models showed possible organisations. Often there
are evaluation studies available. How to choose from among the mentioned models and how
to design a good curriculum? For this there is no simple solution. The success of a model
depends strongly on the context in which the curriculum will be used. The curriculum
committee should discuss the possibilities and decide which model or combinations of
models will we used. During the development and the implementation of the education the
quality of the curriculum should be evaluated.

{=================}

Q 2: Define the curriculum development evaluation process. Develop a logical strategy

for designing and evaluation of education programme for higher education.

Answer:
The curriculum development process systematically organizes what will be taught, who will

be taught, and how it will be taught. Each component affects and

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interacts with other components. For example, what will be taught is affected by who is being
taught (e.g., their stage of development in age, maturity, and education). Methods of how
content is taught are affected by who is being taught, their characteristics, and the setting. In
considering the above three essential components, the following are widely held to be
essential considerations in experiential education in non-formal settings:

Essential Considerations for Curriculum Development:

1. issue/problem/need is identified (issue ® what),

2. characteristics and needs of learners (target audience ® who),

3. changes intended for learners (intended outcomes/objectives ® what the learners

will be able to do),
4. the important and relevant content ®(what),

5. methods to accomplish intended outcomes ®(how),

6. evaluation strategies for methods, content, and intended outcomes ®(What works?).

The CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT MODEL on the next page (Figure 1) shows how these
components relate to each other and to the curriculum development process. It begins when
an issue, concern, or problem needs to be addressed. If education or training a segment of
the population will help solve the problem, then curriculum to support an educational effort
becomes a priority with human and financial resources allocated.

The next step is to form a curriculum develop-ment team. The team makes systematic
decisions about the target audience (learner characteristics), intended out-comes
(objectives), content, methods, and evaluation strategies. With input from the curriculum
development team, draft curriculum products are developed, tested, evaluated, and
redesigned -if necessary. When the final product is produced, volunteer training is conducted.
The model shows a circular process where volunteer training provides feedback for new
materials or revisions to the existing curriculum.

An Example: 1n the case of population education, a need rural out-of-school youth with
information on how population relates to the total environment as
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 well as their personal lives.
(Insert Curriculum Development Model here)

Figure 1

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Figure 2

PHASES AND STEPS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT (See Figure 2 on the previous

page) further illustrates how the 12 essential steps progress from one to the next. It also
shows the interaction and relationships of the four essential phases of the curriculum
development process: ( I) Planning, (II) Content and Methods, (III) Implementation, and
(IV) Evaluation and Reporting. It is important to acknowledge that things do not always
work exactly as depicted in a model!

Each phase has several steps or tasks to complete in logical sequence. These steps are not
always separate and distinct, but may overlap and occur concurrently. For example, the
curriculum development team is involved in all of the steps. Evaluations should occur in most
of the steps to assess progress. The team learns what works and what does not and
determines the impact of the curriculum on learners after it is implemented. Each step
logically follows the previous. It would make no sense to design learning activities before
learner outcomes and content are described and identified. Similarly, content cannot be
determined before learner outcomes are described.

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In the experience of the author, and confirmed by other curriculum specialists, the following
curriculum development steps are frequently omitted or slighted. These steps are essential to
successful curriculum development and need to be emphasized.

Essential Curriculum Development Steps Needing Emphasis

1. Needs assessment: if not conducted, wonderful curriculum could be developed,

but the appropriate needs of the target audience may not be met.

2. Involving youth: the target audience and volunteers (or staff) who will be the
implementors of the curriculum must be involved (i.e., they participate as full
members of the curriculum development team).

3. Recruiting and training volunteer facilitators: competent and skilled curriculum

implementors are critical (the printed word cannot teach experiential group
process, it doesn't provide feedback).
4. Evaluating and reporting on the impact of the curriculum: is critical for
securing human and financial support from key policy decision makers and for
assessing whether the curriculum has achieved the intended outcome.

Two types of evaluation are included in the Phases and Steps illustration: (1) Formative
provides feedback during the process of developing the curriculum, and (2) Summative
answers questions about changes (impact) that have occurred in learners because of their
learning experiences. Summative evaluation provides evidence for what works, what does
not work, and what needs to be improved.

In every step of the curriculum development process, the most important task is to keep the
learner (in this case, youth) in mind and involve them in process. For example, the curriculum
team members, who have direct knowledge of the target audience, should be involved in
conducting the needs assessment. From the needs assessment process, the problem areas
are identified, gaps between what youth know and what they need to know are identified, and
the scope of the problem is clarified and defined. The results may prompt decision makers to

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allocate resources for a curriculum development team to prepare curriculum materials.

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Q 3: Analyses the curriculum of teacher education programme in Pakistan. Identify

essential communication skill for teacher that should be a part of curriculum
and how?
Answer:
The history of teacher education in Pakistan starts with the establishment of the country.
However, this area has been facing various challenges such as lack of consistent policy,
inconsistency in curriculum, low resources, lack of quality teachers, low quality of teaching
process, lack of standard, etc. Today, a range of public and private institutions are engaged in
preparing school teachers. In Pakistan, like many other countries, public institutions are the
main source for developing teachers through pre-service and in-service programmes.
However, many studies have raised the question on the quality of delivery mechanism of the
institutions while forwarding recommendations for improvement.

Historically, different reforms have been brought to improve the condition of teacher
education in the country. Currently, teacher education in Pakistan is passing through a
transition as an innovation has been initiated by the Government of Pakistan with the support
of USAID through their Pre-Service Teachers Education Programme (STEP) project. This
reform is attempted in order to improve the quality of teacher education by including different
innovations.
In this regard, a new curriculum has been developed for pre-service programmes such as a
two-year Associate Degree in Education (ADE) and a four-year BEd (Hons). Effort has been
made to design the curriculum keeping in view the modern educational principle along with
the contextual relevancy. These programmes are gradually replacing the previous pre-service
and in-service programmes such as Primary Teacher Certificate (PTC), Certificate in
Teaching (CT) and the one-year Ed programme. In addition, an effort is being made for the
accreditation and standardisation of teacher training institutions through this initiative.

The ADE and BEd programme has been initiated in some colleges and will be gradually
implemented in remaining colleges throughout the country in the

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coming years. In addition, to attract the best mind towards the teaching profession a stipend

is also offered to student-teachers for providing them financial support.

The significance of such educational innovation cannot be overlooked for improvement of

teacher education in the country. However, there are areas that need serious considerations
for the effectiveness and sustainability of the new reform initiatives.

Firstly, the new developed curriculum is based on the modern educational principles.
Teachers are provided a course outline with the expectation that they will explore the
teaching learning material for classroom instructions. However, it was observed that some of
the teachers are struggling with identifying teaching resources due to the unavailability of the
reference books and lack of Internet facility in their colleges/institutions. This situation may
affect the teaching-learning process of the ADE courses. Hence there is a need to provide
the reference books and Internet facility to the faculty members in order to make the
teaching-learning process smooth.

Second, Internet is considered as one of the important sources for identifying teaching-
learning material. However, it was observed that some of the faculty members are not literate
in computers and Internet. So they are facing challenges in accessing the teaching-learning
resources that are available on the Internet or in soft version. Therefore, the faculty members
of colleges need to be helped in acquiring workable computer and Internet skills.

Third, the new curriculum demands new teaching strategies such as collaborative, inquiry
and activity-based teaching approach. However, a majority of the faculty in the teacher
institutions are not oriented with the teaching strategies demanded by the ADE and BEd
programme. Therefore, the professional development of the faculty at teacher training
institutions should be given priority along with the curriculum development.

Furthermore, there is a sense of uncertainty about the sustainability of the new initiatives
after completion of the Pre-STEP project. Many educational initiatives in the past died away
with closure of the projects. Therefore there is a dire need to develop a clear road map for
the continuity and sustainability of reforms.

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It was also observed that some school teachers are being deputed in teacher education
colleges due to lack of adequate number of teachers in there. Due to the different approach
of pedagogy and andragogy, these teachers treat the prospective teacher like children, which
demotivates them. Thus when the school teachers are deputed in colleges they should be
oriented with the andragogy of teaching an adult.

Finally, a sense of insecurity can be observed among the student-teachers about their job
prospects after the completion of their ADE or BEd honours. How will they stand apart from
the teacher who has done one year BEd and other courses, is a question to ponder upon. A
clear policy is required about job opportunities for the prospective teachers so that they can
focus their studies.
These issues need to be addressed in order to sustain and maintain the quality of the new
reforms. A vigilant plan and sincere implementation will, of course, be helpful in transforming
the teacher education practices in the country.
In short, the importance of quality teacher education cannot be overlooked for improving the
quality of teaching-learning in the school. The new educational innovation will, definitely, lead
to improve teacher education practices in Pakistan. However, there is a dire need to look
reflectively at how to sustain the initiatives and make it productive.

{=================}

Q 4: Compare approaches to curriculum development adopted in Canada, UK, USA.

Also evaluate the curriculum development process in Pakistan. Suggest
necessary changes required for quality education at primary level in Pakistan.

Answer:
Curriculum development in Canada has gone from teaching survival skills, both practical and
cultural, to emphasizing self-fulfillment and standards-based achievements. This evolution
mirrors that which has occurred in other developed countries, namely in Europe.

The term curriculum comes from the Latin currere, which means to run or proceed and refers
to the experiences that shape children as they grow to mature adults. In modern times,
curriculum includes statements of desired pupil outcomes (currently referred to as
“standards”), descriptions of materials, and the
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planned sequence that will be used to help students attain specified educational objectives.
Curricula are embodied in official documents (typically curriculum "guidelines" for teachers)
and made mandatory by provincial and territorial ministries of education.

The primary focus of a curriculum is on what content should be taught and when it should be
taught during the school or academic year. Teachers have traditionally possessed a
considerable amount of discretion in deciding how this should be done. Learning objectives
— not the instructional approaches — were mandated by provinces and territories. In
practice, however, there has been no clear distinction between curriculum content and
pedagogy since the manner in which a topic is taught often determines what is taught. For
this reason, and for others, there is need to distinguish the official or planned curriculum —
the formally approved program of study — from the de facto or lived (sometimes called
hidden) curriculum — the norms, values, and beliefs that are often learned within classrooms
and the broader social environment.

Attempts to change education by revising its mandated curriculum have often failed. This is
likely due to the fact that touted curricular innovations are not always implemented in
classrooms in an extensive or effective manner that would sustain such improvement.
Because of a widespread reliance on textbooks as a basic teaching resource, textbooks often
constitute the de facto content of the curriculum. In such cases, publishers hold a powerful
role in curriculum development and implementation.

The federal government does not determine what students should know and be able to do in
any subject at any level of schooling. Rather, the implementations of standards for students'
performance have been left to state and local authorities. Within the United States, there are
16,000 school districts, each of which is administered and financed by a local community,
and 50 state departments of education. In fact, local control has been the defining
characteristic of American education since the construction of the first one-room
schoolhouse. As a result, the level of standards of schools tends to reflect the socioeconomic
status of the communities in which they are located: the wealthier the community, the higher
the expectations and the higher the academic standards.

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The impetus for the general movement towards higher standards in the area of education can
be traced to the increasing importance in the American economy of information as opposed
to industry. This movement has created the need for a work force with higher-level skills and
knowledge than in the past. The perception that this need is not being met has resulted in
persistent and severe criticism of the quality of America's public schools and dismay about
international comparisons that consistently rank American students at or near the bottom in
academic achievement. Added to these criticisms is the allegation that schools are partly to
blame for the steady erosion of the United States' position as the world's preeminent
economic superpower. (A Nation at Risk 1983) All of these require, the critics maintain, that
academic standards be raised.

One of the driving forces behind the movement for higher standards, as mentioned, is the
poor performance of American students on international studies of academic achievement
compared to their peers in other industrialized countries. In a 1991 International Assessment
of Educational Progress, 13-year-olds in the United States ranked near the bottom of the list
with an average of 55 percent and 67 percent correct answers on the math and science
assessments. Only two countries in the comparisons turned in worse performances, while a
wide variety of countries scored significantly better. For example, 13-year-olds in Hungary,
Korea, the former Soviet Union, and Switzerland posted average scores ranging from 70-78
percent. Germany and Japan were not represented in this survey, but results of the Second
International Math and Science Study put students from both Germany and Japan well ahead
of U.S. students in both science and math.

These international comparisons and pressure from the business sector in the United States
have focused attention on ways in which public education can be improved. As a result, the
discussion of standards for learning and teaching has grown in magnitude in the United
States in recent years as policymakers, legislators, educators, parents, and community
leaders have all grown increasingly concerned with students' achievement levels.

Developing a well-thought-through, challenging school curriculum is central to the running of

any school, and this is a topic I am always keen to discuss.

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Schools are making significant changes to their curriculum to prepare for new examinations.
Next month, primary pupils will for the first time sit tests assessing them on the new national
curriculum. New GCSEs in maths and English are already being taught, and will be examined
for the first time next year. And this September, secondary schools will see the first teaching
of 20 new GCSEs, and 11 new A levels.
=

The subject of school curriculum is also timely from a historical perspective. This year marks
the 40th anniversary of Jim Callaghan’s ‘Ruskin speech’, a landmark speech in which
Callaghan in many ways set the direction of reform for the next 4 decades.

Back in 1976, Callaghan alluded to the significant concerns that existed amongst parents and
employers about the form many school curriculum had taken during the ‘experimental’
atmosphere of the mid-1970s. He suggested that there is, I quote, a “strong case for the so-
called ‘core curriculum’ of basic knowledge” in schools.

In doing so, Callaghan was making a bold foray into an area of school life which had been
dubbed the ‘secret garden’, to which educationists had previously been granted exclusive
access, and politicians and the public had never seen fit to tread.

But, as Callaghan said at the time, £6 billion is spent every year on education, so in his view
public interest in how this money is spent was, I quote, “strong and legitimate”. I believe the
same is true today, though the figure of overall expenditure rather higher.

The government’s curriculum reforms, which began in 2010, have been a lengthy and
thoroughgoing process, but necessarily so. Many changes which began 6 years ago are only
now hitting the ground in schools. With that in mind, today is an opportune moment to revisit
the original justification for these reforms.
{=================} Q 5:

Write short notes on the following?

i. Effective Curriculum planning

Answer:

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Often, schools find that the intended curriculum is not the same thing as the implemented
curriculum. Highly functioning PLCs, through collaboration and sharing, ensure that all
teachers are effectively addressing state and local standards. Students benefit when
teachers work collaboratively to make sure that what goes on in the classroom is closely
aligned with these standards.
Within the area of developing curriculum planning, ask yourself the relevant process
question, which is: What do students need to know? This is the main process question in the
area of developing curriculum.
To learn more about this topic, watch the following PD 360 video segment (A Working PLC:
Curriculum). Use your PD 360 log in and password to access the segment. If you do not have
a log in, you can follow the same link for access.
{=================}

ii. Elements of curriculum

Answer:
ELEMENTS OF THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

Community knowledge

Perspectives developed in school learning materials often so not often reflect knowledge that
has direct local relevance. The school curriculum can be enriched with local stories, history
and community experiences of change and how people lived in the area in earlier times.
Programmes that enable students to interact with local people and to find out about early
history and change are essential to successful education processes. Children often have an
intuitive capacity to distinguish between fact and fiction when listening to the stories of older
people. This critical capacity can be enhanced through teaching with stories in ways that
reveal and yet respect local cultural traditions as valuable sources of rich ideas for
sustainable living. Teaching processes that include local and indigenous knowledge are also
useful ways of contextualising the school in community.

Interdisciplinary learning

Education for Sustainable Development can be taught in all school subjects in such a way
that the learning objectives of the subject are achieved whilst keeping students talking about
and planning ways of living sustainably as citizens in a

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local and a global community. This can be done either through infusion into each subject area
or through interdisciplinary modules.
Democratic practices

Democracy cannot be taught as a set of rights and responsibilities. Democracy has to be

practices in all aspects of school life, ranging from the way students are encouraged to care
for each other, the ways teachers care for students, the ways rules are made and enforced,
and how decisions are made.
Knowledge and values

The knowledge explosion means that it is not possible for everything that people have
discovered to be taught in schools. Rather, the curriculum is a selection of this knowledge.
The values that are used to select the knowledge that is taught in lessons should take
account of student learning needs, local community interests and ways of learning to live
sustainably.
Action projects

Action projects in the school grounds and local community by a class or club can provide
valuable learning experiences. Projects can include: caring for a garden, visiting and helping
senior citizens, working in a child centre or orphanage, monitoring local air or water quality,
and so on. One of the many educational benefits of action projects is the self-esteem that
young people feel from being successful in planning and conducting a project that benefits
others.
Resource use

Schools can undertake environmental audits of resources such as water and energy used
and the amount of waste produced in the school. If environmental auditing is done carefully
and methodically reliable information can be gathered about problem areas and the
associated costs. Auditing and the consequent saving of resources can save your school
money by reducing the cost of resources such as water and electricity. Your school can also
save by re-using and recycling resources such as paper.

Teaching and learning methods

How students learn is often more important that what they learn. This is because of the

‘medium’ is as important as the ‘message’. Teacher-oriented expository

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approaches are effective for covering a large amount of information and, if done well, can be
very exciting and motivating for students. Student-centered interactive approaches can help
students feel responsible for their own learning, developing thinking skills, and foster
independent social and group processes.
School grounds

School grounds and the local environment can be an important resource for many learning
experiences. The school grounds can be used in a number of different ways, including local
studies of plant and animal life found in the school grounds. This could lead to local action
projects such as permaculture gardening or recycling project in the school.

School Calendar

Many national and international ‘days of celebration’ relate to aspects of social, ecological,
political and economic sustainability. It is possible to celebrate these days through special
events, such as displays, guest speakers and concerts, or through relevant teaching units
and/or field trips integrated into the school curriculum. Such activities can promote thinking
about sustainable futures by teachers, students and the wider community.

Student Clubs

Many extra-curricular activities can be organised by/for students at lunch time, after school,
at weekends, and during vacations. Student clubs (e.g. Environment Clubs, Junior Amnesty
International, Scouts, Guides, etc.) are an ideal way of integrating sustainable development
issues into young people’s thinking and activities.

Team projects

It is very easy to integrate team projects into the formal curriculum. Projects that start off as
small classroom tasks can be presented to the whole school, and maybe even entered into a
competition. Competitions can provide public recognition for the work students are doing.
They are also opportunities to share work and ideas, and to learn from others about what
they are doing. Increasingly, competitions are being seen less as competitive interactions,
and more as opportunities for young people to learn and work together. Team entries

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encourage group work amongst learners, and often the emphasis is on sharing rather than
competing.
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iii. Objective movement in education

Answer:

The first behavioral approach to instructional design was the objectives movement. Objective
means the pedagogic intentions of a particular course of study to be achieved within the
period of that course and in principle measurable by some assessment device at the end of
the course. "An objective is a description of a performance you want learners to be able to
exhibit before you consider them competent. An objective describes an intended result of
instruction, rather than the process of instruction itself". Valette and Disick suggest that
"objectives should stress output rather than input and that such output should be specified in
terms of performance". It was the objectives movement that introduced a behavioral
approach to education. This movement has been very influential and highly disputatious both
in general and language education. In the scope of general education the works of Mager
(1962, 1984) were quite influential. "Robert Mager is considered by many to be the father of
modern-day behavioral objectives" His 1962 book, Preparing Instructional Objectives, has
had a major influence on the development of learning and training programs. Mager argued
for the use of specific, measurable behavioral and performance objectives that both guide
designers during courseware development and aid students in learning process. To Mager,
the behavioral objectives should have three major components: behavior, condition, and
standards. ") [Behavioral objectives] must unambiguously describe the behavior to be
performed, optimally in terms of an action word or verb of observable behavior, 2) they must
describe the conditions under which the performance will be expected to occur, and 3) they
must state a standard of acceptable performance (the criterion)" [15]. To sum it up, the
behavior should be specific and observable in conditions under which the behavior is
completed and the standard is the level of desirable performance, including an acceptable
range of correct answers. The following statement illustrates three-part objectives:

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 iv. Amis of curriculum evaluation

Answer:

The term “evaluation” generally applies to the process of making a value judgment. In
education, the term “evaluation” is used in reference to operations associated with curricula,
programs, interventions, methods of teaching and organizational factors. Curriculum
evaluation aims to examine the impact of implemented curriculum on student (learning)
achievement so that the official curriculum can be revised if necessary and to review teaching
and learning processes in the classroom. Curriculum evaluation establishes:

 Specific strengths and weaknesses of a curriculum and its implementation;

 Critical information for strategic changes and policy decisions;

 Inputs needed for improved learning and teaching;

 Indicators for monitoring.

Curriculum evaluation may be an internal activity and process conducted by the various units
within the education system for their own respective purposes. These units may include
national Ministries of Education, regional education authorities, institutional supervision and
reporting systems, departments of education, schools and communities.

Curriculum evaluation may also be external or commissioned review processes. These may
be undertaken regularly by special committees or task forces on the curriculum, or they may
be research-based studies on the state and effectiveness of various aspects of the
curriculum and its implementation. These processes might examine, for example, the
effectiveness of curriculum content, existing pedagogies and instructional approaches,
teacher training and textbooks and instructional materials.

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