The great political changes associated with the rise of the Zulu state set in motion a series of

forced migrations on various Nguni speaking communities. The migrations had to a some extent

many negative consequences on the communities they came in contact with in the 19th century

Zimbabwe who had their economic, social and political structures disrupted. States were

destroyed, lives were lost, communities were weakened and thousands of individuals fled as

destitute refuges. However Eurocentric historians have exaggerated the extent of the damages

caused by Mfecane and presented it as the worst sin committed by Africans against fellow

Africans in a bid to justify colonialism. Therefore it should be noted that there were positive

effects brought about by the Mfecane like new state formation and the development of new

armoury making skills and fighting methods as this essay shall discuss.

The Nguni migration were a disaster to the people of Zimbabwe in many ways. There were many

wars of aggression where thousands were many killed and a considerable amount of property

was destroyed. The Nguni group led by Nyamazana fought fierce battles with the Rozvi army

around 1836. Nyamazana was linked to the death of Changamire Chirisamhuru the last

Changamire.

The Nguni incursions increased violence in the Rozvi state. The Ndebele constantly raided the

various Rozvi communities especially those close to the Ndebele. Beach (1980) cites Ndebele

raiding activities which greatly affected the Chirimuhanzu dystnastly in the 1850’s. They are

cited as having also raided the Kalanga in the 1860-1 drought, Ngezi of Rimuka, the western

Duma, they also raided Chivi to Gutu in 1892 and Mupfure to Chishawasha in 1893.

The Nguni incursions weakened the Rozvi state. According to Beach (1986: 51) The southern

shona became regular tributaries of the Ndebele these included Chirimuhanzu and other Rozvis
in Shurugwi, Zvishavane district.’’ In 1840 Mzilikazi and the Ndebele conquered the Rozvi

empire and in its place set up the now Ndebele kingdom with its capital rear the present

Bulawayo. Tidy and leeming (1979) states that conquest was comparatively easy because of the

superior military methods of the Ndebele and also due to the fact that the Rozvi empire was very

weak following its ravaging by migrant Nguni. Nguni groups like the Ndebele began collecting

tribute from the Shona which is evidence of a weakening of the latter. Tribute was in the form of

cattle, crops and ivory. Those who paid tribute were not subjected to raids as raiding was more of

punitive measures rather than the norm for example the attack by Lobengula on the Gomara of

Masvingo which led to the war of dispossession in 1893.

The Nguni incursions broke the Rozvi state into much smaller and fragmented polities like the

Mutapa state before it, the Rozvi collapsed under the weight of its feudal structures in the face of

growing pressure from the Mfecane groups advancing from the South. From 1826 Rozvi were

subjected to pressure from migrants fleeing from the Mfecane disturbances south of the

Limpopo. By 1838 as many as five groups of the Nguni had settled in the Rozvi or passed

through that region each bombarding the Rozvi state and transforming the way of life of the local

people. The Ndebele and the Gaza having settled in permanently in the Rozvi they subjected the

shona to their rule. They introduced a system of tributary control premised on the threat of

military use.

The news comers not only dismantled the core of the Rozvi ruling elite but also scattered its

varying factions in all directions. Mzilikazi’s Ndebele state thus subjugated and or incorporated

into Ndebele society some Rozvi houses. By 1850s Ndebele rule stretched over the Zambezi, the

Mafungavutsi plateau and Gokwe with Shona chiefs there paying tribute to the Ndebele.
The Nguni incursions resulted in fundamental changes to Rozvi settlement pattens during the

19th century. Many Rozvi abandoned open lawland settlement patterns for hill tops that could be

better defended during Nguni attacks. Archaelogists came to use refuge period to refer to

archaeological sites and artefacts loosely conceived as representing a wide spread movement of

population to walled hilltop sites and hidden refugees as a result of the Mfecane and other

disturbances in the 19th century. Refuge is a term coined by Summers (1958: 125) to describe

settlements of a concealed nature that he identified in the Nyanga area in the Eastern parts of the

Zimbabwean plateau in 1949. It was believed that these places were used as hiding places for

women and children during fairly recent tribal raids whilst the invaders were repelled by men

folk. Another historian who supports the change in settlement pattern is Ranger (1979) who

posits that overtime however, the tremendous efforts at improving either existing or new

structures to be more defendable can be observed on various sites showing that people were

responding to a crisis and this process of response in itself involved a lot of adaptation.

The Nguni incursions also resulted in the cultural and linguistic assimilation of the Rozvi by the

Gaza. The Nguni led by Ngwana Masesenyare and Mpanga raided the Rozvi between 1820s and

1830s before continuing with their journey north wards Beach (1980). In the early 1960s another

Gaza Nguni group established its authority east of the Save River and exacted tribute from the

Rozvi in the area including the Duma.Their power extended down to Mwenezi and Bubi areas.

This enabled them to become masters of the Hlengwe and led to their incorporation into the

Gaza state as shanganis. The name Shangana borrowed from Soshangane’’s name became a

prized title among south eastern Shona and Tsonga speakers.Shangani speakers later receive

higher salaries in the South African mines.The Ndebele converted many of their Shona subjects

so that of their so that by 1893 about 60% of the Ndebele were of Shona origins. Birmingham
(1983: 268) states that “they have completely taken over the languages, costume and custom of

the Ndebele and do not want to know that they are descendents of the Karanga relatives” hence

the Amahole became the largest group within the Ndebele caste system.

The Mutevaidzi of Mberengwa voluntarity adopted the Ndebele language and forged alliance

with the Ndebele and even copied the Nguni practices such as ear piercing. For their part the

Ndebele adopted some of the shona religious practices including the shrine at Matopos (Njelele).

Historian such as Ranger TO (1979) have asserted that cult priests of Njelele had sufficient

authority among the Ndebele to organize resistance to European rule in 1896. Therefore the

Shona influenced Ndebele religion as they adopted the Mwari cult of the Shona.

The Nguni incursions brought considerable progress towards unity people absorbed into various

groups saw them selves as full members of the conquering group. The use of common language

fostered unity. However the process was not complete according to Tidy and leeming (1979) as

Ndebele society remained divided into 3 castes Intermarriges between different caste members

were forbidden. Therefore there was division in the Ndebele society.

The Nguni incursions fostered innovation among the Rozvi especially in the area of weapons

manufacture. The Njanja have been cited as an example of how some Rozvi- Shona responded to

Nguni menace through perfecting skills in gun manufacture and repair. They also perfected their

technology in forging bullets and manufacturing gunpowder from the dropping of rocks rabbits

(Mackenzie 1975: 218). The Madzivire branch of the Rozvi also improved their weapons making

skill. According to Burke (1969: 170) it took them only one night to forge bullets at short notice

of the news of the approach of the Matebele.The defeat of the Matabele at Nyaningwe in
1879 according to Beach had much to do with the rapid accumulation in the Mhari armoury of

such locally manufactured and Venda guns.Beach (1994).

The Mfecane wars did not destroy the basis of the economy or society of the vast majority of

peoples of the plateau.According to Omer Cooper (1988) the crucial fields were tilled and

planted ,the cattle herds continued to be grazed where this was possible .The Shangaanand the

Njanja continued to sell tobacco and hoes and a few gold washers and elephant hunters were still

operating .thus there have been few gross major changesand the previous thousand years.The

Ndebele and Shona traded peacefully.Ndebele cattle were exchanged for Shona grain.The old

shone trading system of exporting gold and ivory for cloth beads and guns imported from the

Portuguese controlled lower Zambezi valley was not disrupted by the Ndebele Tidy (1979).The

Ndebele even slotted into the Shona long distance trade with ivory exports to the east coast

via Mashonaland.

Conclusively the Nguni disturbances largely brought turmoil to the lives of people of the

Zimbabwean plateau .Many people lost their lives ,there was banditry ,destruction of states and

acculturation among others.however there were other positive effects as Shillington (1987)

observes that some newly created statesman were able to provide future European settlers with

their strongest opposition hence the nguni disturbances gave rise to great statesman and new

military methods.
Source methods is an activity oriented method. It is generally used in social studies and history.

Generally sources mean a person, books or documents or picture or actual objects that can

provide information for learning. it is learning directly from the actual sources the use of sources

stimulates enthusiasm’, develop unique historical skills such as empathy, the learners are drawn

closer to real history through the use of both primary and secondary sources and moreover

interest is natured. On the other hand it has its limitation on as a method of teaching history as it

is too complex and technical not easy for the teacher and time consuming as this essay is going

to discuss.

Source method is child centered. The teacher acts more as a facilitator or advisor than the

fountain of knowledge or information. This offers the pupils minds a conception of origins and

beginning. It is child centered as pupils are involved in the interpretation, analysis of the sources

available to them. Accoding to Moyo and Modiba (2013) history should no be viewed as a

finished product that is not open to scrunity by learners. Therefore this method offers pupils with

a lucrative package of education outcomes which are necessary for the pupils future. New

history stresses more people participation and more active learning in the same vein Coltham

and Fines in Dickinson (1978), stresses the participation of pupils. They pointed out that

learners do not come Tabularasa to history, but they have their knowledge and experience.

History is not dull but full of drama and adventure as argued by Ferguson (1969). Therefore the
source based approach develops vividness and reality to the learners. More interesting about

source method is the fact that learners will be working much more in the style of historian.

Chitate (2005: 239) says that pupils are required to mirror the image of a professional historian

when handling primary and secondary sources. It is certain therefore that learners are able to

exercise in an elementary way the skills that the historian has to apply.

It is not deniable that history develops a wide range of skill and it is not disputable that the use of

sources develops critical thinking. The use of a variety of sources particularly primary sources

sharpen skills such as weighing evidence and detection of bias. The child is expected to critically

examine the evidence and whilst examining or interrogating the sources the child is also involved

in the process of acquiring skills. Steele (1976) confirmed that learners may well be able to

acquire and develop such important skills as the detection of prejudice or bias or the

establishment of the veracity of authenticity of documents.

The source method of teaching history develops critical thinking by using the sources and the

weighing of historical evidence. Mays (1964: 59) concurs that sources, “ they bring the child

into contact with first hand historical materials, and this in turn helps to develop a historical

sense.” She further explained that the pupils would be able to weigh evidence and make

judgments about people and events, hence the developing of skills. The most interesting part of it

is that the pupils will be involved whilst the teachers role is that of a facilitator. Therefore

sources method enhances pupils skills of interpretation, evaluation, analysis and judgment.

Source method tends to develop the skill of empathy the pupils being able to place themselves

empathetically is very important in the learning of history because the students would be able to

view the past as a whole.

The source method satisfies curiosity of students on the question of how do we know this and the

sense of reality is brought about. Steele (1976) argued that a critical examination of sources

convey the reality of the past vividly for example for a pupil to see the signature of a great man

who might other wise remain but a name to them such an experience has a great impact on the

pupils. The school child is drawn back into the past almost as if she were actually present on the

event. Pupils will be able to remember more of what they see than what they hear.Brooks (1993)

argued that effective history teaching at all levels draw learners into contact with primary

evidence.

Source method helps to promote interest in the study of history in the right perspective.It is

important to note that interest is a vital factor in education because it is the source of efforts and

awards efforts its value. Gosden and Sylvester (1968:10) premise that one of the elements which

are present in all worth while learning is quality of absorption and of interest on the part of the

person involved. Thus the history teacher should strive to instil enthusiasm and foster interest

which appears to be a difficult task to a teacher employing the lecture method.

Brooks (1993) confirmed that the introduction of sources was also meant to create critical

interest in the subject. Sources stimulate interest, working with them offer learners an enjoyable

opportunity to study the very building blocks of the past. Many people argue that it is not easy to

create interest in history. Similarly they claim that it is difficult to arouse a real desire for

knowledge for its own in sake. This argument does not holds water. Mercier of the girls high

school, Manchester in Ferguson (1967) indicated that with modern methods it is comparatively

easy to interest learners in their lessons. Hence one can argue that the use of source method

suits well in creating interest and a spirit of enquiry which according to Mays (1964) is an

excellent and healthy situation. Therefore primary and secondary sources essential in the
teaching of history as they enhance the pupils skills of interpretation, evaluation, analysis to

mention and a few hence sharpening skills of weighing evidence and detection of bias.

There are several factors that hinder the use of the source based approach in teaching history. It

is a fact that the amount of time allocated for the study of history in most secondary schools is in

adequate. In most schools, history lesson is allocated four periods per week with each lasting

35 minutes. Hence it becomes difficult to employ modern methods of teaching. The method

tends to demand more time. The time allocated to history in schools is far too short and sources

are far too long IAAS (1956: 59) because of this challenge, teachers shun sources.

The approach is very much involving for the teacher. The teacher is expected to prepare the

documents and the activities that suit the ages and abilities of the class. It is certain that “within a

class, there is likely to be considerable variation in thinking levels of its members”. Steele (1976:

15). Therefore the history teacher needs to select documents that accommodate all abilities.

Since accuracy, readability and usability are criteria that can be used to select documentary

materials the teacher must make preparation for the lesson well advance, Brooks(1993: 103)

source material demands intensive preparation on the part of the teacher and appropriate

intergration into the general teaching scheme.

The method is too complex and technical for the teacher. History teaching should be the work of

specialists Dickinson and Lee (1978: 22). However some teachers who teach history are not

specialists thus they lack the required the knowledge in how to use the source material.

Despite all these challenges credit should be given to the use of sources. New approaches

emerged and sources provide a sense of reality, functional knowledge power of critical thinking

and mental maturity as this essay has presented.

One of the unique projects of apartheid was the establishment of African Bantustans also known

as homelands. The Bantustan settlements had negative impact on the South African blacks from

their creation to independence in 1994 as this essay shall examine the socio-economic and

political effects of these settlements.

A Bantustan or black homeland was a territory set aside for black inhabitants of South Africa and

southwest Africa present day Namibia as part of the policy of apartheid.They were the brainchild

of Verwoed who became prime Minister in 1958. They were created for the purpose of

concentrating the members of designated ethnic groups, thus making each of these territories

ethnically homogenous as the basis for creating autonomous nation states for South Africa;s

different black ethnic groups. The creation of the homeland or Bantustan was a central element

of this strategy as the long term goal was to make the Bantustan independent. As a result the

blacks would lose their South Africa citizenship and voting rights allowing members to remain

control of South Africa. According to Moodie (1994), the homelands creation turned out that

they were meant for divide the blacks of South Africa through reinforcement of the concept of

tribalism and they were meant to contain nationalism through promoting divisions through

tribalism. Bantustans were created in Transkei, Bophutatswana, Venda,Ciskei, lebowa ,Northern

Transvaal, Ndebele, Gazankulu, and Kwazulu.

The Bantustan creation had negative political effects on the black South Africans. The Black

South Africans lost their independence. The Bantustan were to be some form of self government

under traditional leaders. This meant that local chiefdoms were transformed in tribal authorities

and chiefs were made directly accountable to white Bantu Affairs commissioner. The

bureaucratization of chieftaincy meant that the chiefs lost a great deal of the autonomy they

previsiouly enjoyed and now assumed various un popular tasks on behalf of government. They
collected taxes, issued available plots and controlled dipping and grazing operations. The

governments of the Bantustans used different political constitutions and legal practices and

methods to achieves disintegration. The gradual disintegration and dislocation of the institution

of traditional leadership according to Deborah (1991)

However it must be noted that despite the fact that the political leadership of the traditional

Bantustan states promised traditional leaders bread and butter before they could attain

independence from South Africa, it was the same political leadership which eroded and

undermined the powers and roles of the traditional leaders exploited them to the fullest while

they were exploited by the successive apartheid governments Moodie (1994) .More often than

not these traditional institutions were more of puppet institutions operating on behalf of the

Bantustan government and to curb possible anti apartheid and anti Bantustan system

revolutionary activity within traditional areas.

The Bantustan governments were used by the apartheid regime and they were longer accountable

to their communities but to the apartheid regime. There was disintegration in the Bantustan

settlement as the government used different political constitutions and legal practices and

methods to achieve disintegration.

The political climate failed to achieves legitimacy or even credibility with the majority of its

people of South Africa. This climate made it impossible to develop strong participatory political

institutions in the homeland of Bophuthatswana. Political parties were banned and the opposition

was severely punished, repressed and intimidated. Beside this the South African government

was still in control of the homeland with no independence whatsoever according to Gallie etal

(1997) homeland leaders could pass their own legislation with the permission of the South
African government.This demonstrates the fact that the South African government never

intended to make Bantu stans independent hence they never had armies and could never pursue

their own independent foreign policies. The people in the Bantustans lost their right to vote and

citizenship.

The Black South Africans in the homelands could not develop their local economies, industries

and social amneties were limited. The total land allocated to Bantustan settlement were 15% of

the total South African land. Land was allocated by officials at Bantu Affairs commissioner and

they allocated available plots to a few households assuming that the others could possibly

subsists from agriculture hence they assumed others could work at nearby plantation. The

Bantustans settlers were allowed to keep only ten herds of cattle to combat erosion. There were

problems of unemployment in the Bantustan settlements. The total Bantustan settlements

according to Freut (1999) became dumping grounds for the elderly and the unemployed. Due to

the restrictions in movements a few men could get employment. Moodie( 1994 )asserts that

government only allowed that men who had obtained passes from labour bureaus inside the

Bantustans take up temporary residents at their urban work places. One can safely say that the

economies of Bantustans were under the tutelage of the South African government.

In Baphutatswana the economy was characterized by corruption and patronage jobs, land and

trading licenses were pieces of patronage distributed in ways that aimed to mantain and sustain

political support. According to Nacy and Werger (2011) Boputhatswana instead became

ridiculed as a casinostan and a source of cheap labour. Hence the black South Africans lived in

poverty and they were poorly paid in the plantations and whites industries.
Laws were passed by the apartheid government which was controlling every aspect of African

life. The aim was to ensure the continuation of the white supremacy while at the same time

suppressing the pace of African nationalism. It was also intended to guarantee the

competitiveness of the South african economy by the means of an exploited docile reserve of african

workers. Cheap labour was stimula ted by the unavailability of land in the Bantustans.

The Bantustans settlers also faced several social problems. There was restriction of movements. Africans

in the urban areas were regulated by the Bantu abolitian of passes and co-ordination of documents act.

This law required the africans to remain in urban areas under very strict conditions and did not allow are

to be removed from the urban areas if the labour requirements of a white person were satisfied or if an

african was considered idle or undesitable by the minister of Bantu adminstration according to Nacy

and Werger (2011)

Wives and other dependants needed permission to visit their husband in the urban areas if the visit was

to last more than seventy-two hours. Similarly, unauthorised whites might not visit an african area

without permission. All this was made possible by provision of the pass law which was one of the

iniquitous pieces of legislation created by apartheid.

The black South africans were denied access to good health and education facilities. Black children were

not exposed to quality education, resulting in their inability to enter the skilled labour force and govern

the country. Unfortunately, because of the great inequality between the whites and blacks, the black

schools did not have the capabilities to policies of the aparheid system, the government went so far as

to send police and armed troops to occupy schools and townships in which people where living to make

certain that the black living conditions were inferior to those of the white people. Freut (1999 ;103) says

the government, obsessed with policy and focused on white interest, “neglected the larger task of

creating a culture of learning, particularly at schools for Black students, which were typically
overcrowded and marked by insufficient resources as well as curricular that were irrelevent to the lives

and aspirations of learners South Africa’s Black schools have reamined disadvantaged, while its schools

for whites have continued to grow and thrive.” The Bantu education act confirmed that Black education

would continue to exist primarily to service white interests. According to the minister of Native affairs at

the time, Hendrik Verwoerd, “The school must equip the Bantu to meet the demands which the

economic life at South Africa will umpose on him. There is no place for him in the European community

above certain forms of labour” in Jansen (2014 :22). Therefore the Bantu education in their homelands

was limited and it was only to serve the white South african not to the benefit of the black south

africans. The education act for Bantu prevented native people from getting satisfactory education in

order to limit them and ensure white population could control it. Hence the education system was

meant to gain social, economic and political control over Blacks.

Political parties were banned in the Bantustans under the suppression of communism act. The ANC and

PAC and comminist party were banned under the provisions of the suppression of communism act. The

people banned were restricted to a particular district and forced to repart to the police at fived times.

They were prohibited from attending gatherings with a common purpose such as a church service, a

wedding or a political meeting. House arrest was usually added to the ban.

Africans were arrested and jailed for typing to resist apartheid. In 1967 the terrorism act was enacted

and soon came to be used to detain suspects without trial. Acc to Deborah (1991) torture was liberally

applied on detainees. Such torture ranged from beatings, application of electric shock, driving steel nails

through genitals and so on.

Due to competitions for scarce resources, expieriances of social confirement in closed communities and

relative deprivation there grew a problem of witch craft in the Bantustan settlements Nacy and Werger

(2011). Confinements in concentrated village settlement brought about distrust and tensions between
neighbours and also escalating fears of witchcraft. The other reasons that brought about witch craft

prblems were competitions for residential space, sexual jelousies which ultimatley led to witchcraft

accusations. Some traditional leaders in the Bantstans were linked to witch craft however the Venda

Bantustan was the worst affected by this witchcraft problem. This caused divisions and disraught

amongst villagers implemented the suppression of witch craft Act and inturn villagers took justise into

their own hand.

The conditions of living in the Bantustans led to the rise of comrades in other Bantustans who advocated

for change and unity among South Africans and its growth was fuelled by the appression of the various

apartheid la hence the Bantustan settlement did affect Black South Africans in a negative manner.
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Ferguson; S (1967) Projects in History for the Secondary School. London: Batsford

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Ednburg

IAAS Inco-operated Association of Assistant Masters in secondary schools (1956) .The teaching of history
2nd Edition. The syndics of the Cambridge University Press London. Steele’s, 1 (1976) Development in
History teaching West Compton, Samerset.

Moyo M and Modiba, N. (2013) “Who does this History curriculum want to be?” Presentation, School
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Beach, DN (1980) The Shona and Zimbabwe 900-1850, Heinneman; London

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Mackenzie, J.M 91975) A precolonial Industry: The Nyanga and the Iron trade, NADA XI,XII,200-20

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