AAADWDM Principles

WM_000_E1 DWDM Basic Principles
Course Objectives:
 Grasping the significance and application

environment of the DWDM networks
 Grasping the DWDM principles and the key
technology for implementing the DWDM
References:
 Optical Wavelength Division Multiplexing

System
 Modern Communication Base and Technology
 Principle and Test of DWDM Transmission
System
Contents
1 DWDM Overview.........................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background of DWDM Technology...................................................................................................1
1.1.1 Development of Multiplexing Technology in Optical Network..............................................1
1.1.2 PDH, SDH and DWDM...........................................................................................................2
1.2 DWDM Technology Overview...........................................................................................................5
1.2.1 Different between DWDM Technology and Other Multiplexing Technologies......................5
1.2.2 Relationship between DWDM and SDH.................................................................................7
1.2.3 Operation Wavelength Range.................................................................................................10
1.3 DWDM Features and Advantages.....................................................................................................12
1.4 DWDM Development Trend.............................................................................................................13
2 Overview of Optical Fiber Communication.............................................................................................15
2.1 Basic Knowledge of Optical Fibers...................................................................................................15
2.1.1 Brief Introduction to Optical Fibers.......................................................................................15
2.1.2 Usage Overview of Applicable Frequencies of Optical Fiber...............................................18
2.1.3 Types and Features of Common SMFs..................................................................................19
2.2 Working Wavelength of DWDM System..........................................................................................20
2.2.1 Introduction to Working Wavelength Area.............................................................................20
2.2.2 Wavelength Allocation............................................................................................................21
2.3 Fiber Transmission Features..............................................................................................................25
2.3.1 Fiber Loss...............................................................................................................................25
2.3.2 Dispersion...............................................................................................................................26
2.3.3 Non-Linear Effect of Fiber.....................................................................................................29
2.4 New Optical Fiber Types...................................................................................................................33
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3 Key Technologies of DWDM System........................................................................................................35
3.1 Basic Structure of DWDM System...................................................................................................35
3.2 Light Source Technology...................................................................................................................36
3.3 Optical Wavelength Division Multiplexing and De-Multiplexing Technologies.............................39
3.3.1 Overview.................................................................................................................................39
3.3.2 Introduction to OM.................................................................................................................39
3.3.3 Key Performance Indices.......................................................................................................42
3.4 OTU Technology...............................................................................................................................44
3.4.1 Overview.................................................................................................................................44
3.4.2 Working Principle and Performance Indices..........................................................................45
3.4.3 Classification and Applications of OTU................................................................................48
3.5 Optical Amplifying Technology........................................................................................................49
3.5.1 EDFA Technology...................................................................................................................49
3.5.2 Raman Amplifying Technology.............................................................................................55
3.6 Supervision Technology....................................................................................................................56
3.6.1 Functions of Optical Supervision Channel (OSC).................................................................57
3.6.2 Requirements for OSC...........................................................................................................57
3.6.3 Implementation of OSC..........................................................................................................58
4 Protection Principle of DWDM System....................................................................................................61
4.1 Brief Introduction to DWDM System Hierarchy..............................................................................61
4.2 1+1 Protection....................................................................................................................................62
4.2.1 Link 1+1 Protection................................................................................................................62
4.2.2 Ring 1+1 Protection................................................................................................................64
4.2.3 Features of 1+1 Protection.....................................................................................................65
4.3 1: N Protection...................................................................................................................................65
4.3.1 Working Principle...................................................................................................................65
4.3.2 Protection Implementation.....................................................................................................66

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4.3.3 Features of 1:N Protection......................................................................................................66
4.4 Bidirectional Optical Channel Protection..........................................................................................67
4.5 Bidirectional OMS Protection...........................................................................................................69
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1 DWDM Overview
 Highlights:
 DWDM definitions and generation background.
 DWDM development trend.
1.1 Background of DWDM Technology

Prior to the introduction to DWDM technology, we should know about the
development of the optical network. This section will introduce the background of the
DWDM technology in terms of multiplexing technology and transmission technology.
1.1.1 Development of Multiplexing Technology in Optical Network
The communication network covers diversified transmission media, such as twisted

pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber and wireless transmission. Among them, the optical
fiber transmission features large transmission capacity, good quality, small attenuation,
strict security and large trunk distance.
Since the broadband high-speed service ceaselessly develops in the information age,
the optical transmission system is not only expected to have larger capacity and longer
distance, but also expected to be interactive, fast and convenient. Therefore, the
multiplexing technology is introduced in the optical transmission system. The
multiplexing technology means to use the broadband and large-capacity features of the
optical fiber to simultaneously transmit multiple channels of signals on one optical
fiber or cable. In the multi-channel signal transmission system, the multiplexing mode
of signals greatly affects system performance and cost.
The multiplexing technology of optical transmission network goes through three

development phases: Space Division Multiplexing (SDM), Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM) and Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM).
With simple design and practical feature, the SDM technology requires that the
quantity of fiber transmission cores must be configured in accordance with quantity
signal multiplexing channels, which means poor investment profit. The TDM
1
technology is widely applied. It is the base of PDH, SDH, ATM and IP. But its
disadvantage is low line utilization ratio. The WDM technology supports multiple
wavelengths (channels) to be carried on one fiber. So it is the major measure for
expanding the current fiber communication network and is mostly used in trunk
network.
1.1.2 PDH, SDH and DWDM
The traditional fiber transmission technologies, such as Plesiochronous Digital

Hierarchy (PDH) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH), use "one-wavelength-in-
one-fiber" mode. They are so restricted by the characteristics of their own equipment
that neither the transmission capacity nor expansion mode can meet the requirements of
the communication network developing at a high speed, while leaving the massive
bandwidth resources of fibers far from being fully exploited.
The new Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) becomes the most
effective and practical means for the fiber expansion. With its unique technical
advantages, the DWDM technology becomes a simple and economical means to
expand the fiber transmission capacity in a rapid and effective manner. It can fully
meet the current need of the network broadband service development and lays a solid
foundation for the development of the future fully-optical transmission network.
The development processes of PDH, SDH and DWDM are briefed below, as well as
interface specifications of each technology.
1. PDH
The early optical transmission system uses PDH, which introduces in Pulse
Coding Modulation (PCM) digital transmission technology based on the former
analog telephone network. It multiplexes signals of low rate level into high-
speed signals by means of bit filling and digit interleaving.
The primary signals of the PDH system are in synchronous TDM mode, and the
multiplexing of other high order groups are in plesiochronous (or called
asynchronous) TDM mode.
The PDH system covers three regional rate level standards in Europe, North
America and Japan, as shown in Table Background of DWDM Technology-1.
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Chapter 1 DWDM Overview
Table Background of DWDM Technology-1 PDH Code Rate
Primary Group Secondary

Country/Region Tertiary Group Quartus Group
(Primary) Group
8.448Mbit/s 34.368Mbit/s 139.264Mbit/s
Europe and 2.048Mbit/s
120 channels (30 480 channels 1920 channels
China 30 channels
× 4) (120 × 4) (480 × 4)
1.544Mbit/s
North America 96 channels (24 672 channels (96 4032 channels
24 channels
× 4) × 7) (672 × 6)
1.544Mbit/s
Japan 96 channels (24 480 channels (96 1440 channels
24 channels
× 4) × 5) (480 × 3)
From early 1970's to 1980's, the PDH system and devices are popularly used in
the digital network. However, along with the developing fiber communication
technology and user's increasing demands for communication services, the
PDH disadvantages are more and more remarkable.
1) The compatibility between three rate standards is not available, which obstructs
development of international interconnection.
2) There is no worldwide standard optical interface specification. Private optical

interfaces developed by different manufacturers are not compatible with each
other, which limits networking flexibility and increases network complexity and
operation costs.
3) PDH is a kind of multiplexing structure based on point-to-point transmission. It

only supports point-to-point transmission, but cannot accommodate complicated
networking.
4) The operation, management and maintenance must depend upon manual digital
signal cross-connection and service-suspension test, which cannot meet
monitoring and NM requirements of modern communication network.
5) Along with rate increase, it is more and more difficult to implement

multiplexing of high-order groups through PDH technology, and requirements
of fiber digital communication for large-capacity and super-high speed
transmission cannot be met.
3
WM_000_ E1 DWDM Basic Principles
2. SDH
In mid-1980's, the Bell Communication Research Institute in America put

forward the concept of Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). In 1988, the
CCITT (former ITU-T) accepted the SONET concept, formed the worldwide
unified technology standard for transmission network, and rename it as SDH.
The SDH signals use synchronous multiplexing mode and flexible multiplexing
and mapping structure. Code streams of different levels are arranged regularly in
the payload of the frame structure. The payload is synchronous with the
network, so software can be used to directly de-multiplex a high-speed signal
into low-speed tributary signals at a time, called “one-step” de-multiplexing”.
The rate specifications of the SDH system are shown in Table Background of
DWDM Technology-2.
Table Background of DWDM Technology-2 SDH Signal Levels
SDH Level (ITU-T) OC Level (SONET) Line Rate (Mbit/s)

STM-1 OC-3 155.520
STM-4 OC-12 622.080
STM-16 OC-48 2488.320
STM-64 OC-192 9953.280
The SDH standardizes the features of the digital signals, such as frame structure,
multiplexing mode, transmission rate level and interface code pattern. It
provides a frame that is supported globally, on which a world-class telecom
transmission network has been developed, featuring flexibility, reliability and
convenient management. This kind of transmission network is easy to expand
and is applicable to the development of new telecom services. In addition, it
makes possible the interworking between the devices of different manufacturers.
But, after the transmission rate is higher than 10 Gbit/s, the system dispersion
and other negative influences will increase difficulty of long-distance
transmission. Furthermore, the SDH system is the TDM system based on the
single wavelength. The single-wavelength transmission cannot fully utilize the
broad bandwidth of fiber. Therefore, the WDM technology is introduced in the
backbone network, greatly enlarging the transmission capacity of fiber.
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3. DWDM
DWDM is one of WDM technologies. Due to small interval (1 nm ~ 10 nm

order) between adjacent wavelengths, it is called DWDM. At present, the
practical DWDM system works in 1550 nm window for the purpose of using the
gain spectrum feature of the EDFA to directly amplify the composite optical
wavelength signals. To meet the horizontal compatibility between systems, the
central wavelength of the optical channel must accord with G.692 standard.
In the DWDM system, each optical channel can bear different customer signals,
such as SDH signal, PDH optical signal and ATM signal.
Due to unique advantages of fiber communication and its networking

technologies for accommodating multi-service and broadband requirements,
high-speed SDH system, N × 2.5Gbit/s DWDM system and N × 10Gbit/s
DWDM system become majority and backbone of the core network.
1.2 DWDM Technology Overview

The DWDM technology is this kind of fiber communication technology: Transmitting
multiple optical carriers with information (analog or digital) on one fiber and
expanding system only through wavelength (channel) increase. It can combine
(multiplex) optical signals with different wavelengths and then transmit them. After the
transmission, it can separate (de-multiplex) the combined optical signals and then send
them to different communication terminals. In other words, it can provide multiple
virtual fiber channels on one physical fiber.
1.2.1 Difference between DWDM Technology and Other Multiplexing

Technologies
This section compares the multiplexing technologies often used in the fiber
communication system.
1. TDM
TDM means that different channels of signals use different time intervals
(timeslot) for signal transmission on the same fiber.
The TDM has fixed timeslot allocation, which facilitate adjustment and control
and is applicable to the digital information transmission.
5
Its disadvantage is low line utilization, because when a signal source has no data
for transmission, the corresponding channel will be idle but the other busy
channels cannot occupy this idle channel. In addition, restricted by modulation
capacity of high-speed electronic components and laser, it is difficult to
implement the system with a capacity over 40 Gbit/s.
The TDM technology is widely applied, such as PDH, SDH, ATM and IP.
2. SDM
SDM means the technology that divide space into different channels to
implement wavelength multiplexing. For example, you can add the core quantity
in the cable or use more fibers to form different channels.
The SDH performs optical intensity modulation to each channel of baseband

signals respectively. Each channel of signals are transmitted by one fiber,
different channels will not affect each other, leading to best transmission
performance.
The SDM technology has simple design and practical feature, but it requires that
the fiber transmission core quantity must be configured in accordance with the
signal multiplexing channel quantity, leading to poor investment profit.
3. SCM
Microwave Sub-Carrier Multiplexing (SCM) technology means to modulate

multiple baseband signals into the microwave carriers with different frequency
for the sake of electrical Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM), and then use
this bit stream to modulate a single optical carrier into the fiber. At the receiving
end, pick the electrical FDM line signals through the photoelectrical detector
and then use microwave technology to de-multiplex the different microwave
carriers, to restore the former baseband signals. This technology is mostly used
in the CATV multi-band transmission system of access network.
4. WDM
WDM means to bear multiple wavelength (channel) systems on one fiber and
convert one fiber into multiple "virtual" fibers, each of which independently
works on different wavelengths. Boasting economical efficiency and
practicability, the WDM system technology is the major wavelength
6
multiplexing technology commonly used in the current fiber communication

network.
The WDM is divided into three multiplexing modes:

1310nm/1550 nm-wavelength multiplexing,
Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM) and
DWDM.
1) 1310 nm/1550 nm-wavelength multiplexing
In early 1970's, this multiplexing technology only uses two wavelengths: one in
1310 nm window and the other in 1550 nm window. It implements single-fiber
dual-window transmission through the WDM technology. It is the initial WDM
case.
2) DWDM
In simple words, the DWDM technology refers to the WDM technology with
small interval between adjacent wavelengths, with working wavelength in the
1550 nm window. It can bear 8 ~ 160 wavelengths on one fiber, mostly used in
long-distance transmission system.
For the details, please refer to other chapters in this manual.
3) CWDM
The CWDM technology refers to the WDM technology with large interval
(usually greater than 20 nm) between adjacent wavelengths. Usually, its
wavelength quantity is 4 or 8 (16 at most). It uses 1200 nm ~ 1700 nm windows.
It adopts non-cooling laser and passive amplifier component, leading to a lower

cost than that of DWDM.
Its disadvantages are small capacity and short transmission distance. Therefore,
the CWDM technology applies to the communication cases with short distance,
broad bandwidth and dense access points, for example, the network
communication inside the building or between buildings.
1.2.2 Relationship between DWDM and SDH
1. Relationship between DWDM and SDH on the transmission layer of optical

network
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Both DWDM system and SDH system belong to the transmission network layer.
They are the transmission means established on the fiber transport media. Their
relationship in the transport network is shown in Fig. DWDM Technology
Overview-1.
Circuit layer
(for example,
ATM and IP)
SDH channel SDH system ADM

layer
DXC
DWDM optical DWDM system OTM

channel layer OADM
Fig. DWDM Technology Overview-1 Relationship between DWDM and SDH in Transport Network
The SDH system implements multiplexing, cross-connection and networking on

the electrical channel layer. The WDM system implements multiplexing, cross-
connection and networking on the optical domain.
2. Multiplexing modes of DWDM and SDH for carrier signals
The SDH is the TDM system based on a single wavelength (one fiber
transmitting one wavelength channel). When the transmission rate exceeds 10
Gbit/s, the system dispersion and other negative influences will increase the
difficulty of long-distance transmission.
The DWDM technology simultaneously transmits multiple optical carrier

signals of different wavelengths in the same fiber, fully utilizing the bandwidth
resources of fiber and increasing system transmission capacity.
3. DWDM capable of transmitting different types of signals
At present, most customer-layer signals in the DWDM system are SDH signals.
But the wavelengths used in the DWDM system are mutually separated and
8
unrelated with the service signal formats, so each wavelength can transmit the
optical signals with totally different features, for the sake of hybrid transmission
of multiple kinds of signals.
The relationship between DWDM system and some common services is shown
in Fig. DWDM Technology Overview-2.
IP
ATM SDH ATM Ethernet Other
SDH Open optical interface
DWDM
Fiber physical layer
Fig. DWDM Technology Overview-2 Relationship between DWDM and Other Services
4. Optical interface standards of DWDM and SDH signals
The optical interfaces of the SDH device should accord with the ITU-T G.957
recommendation, which does not stipulate the working central wavelength.
The optical interfaces in the DWDM system must accord with the ITU-T G.692
recommendation, which specifies the reference frequency of each optical
channel, channel interval, nominal central frequency (central wavelength),
central frequency offset and other parameters.
Therefore, the DWDM system can be either open DWDM system or integrated
DWDM system.
 Open system: The transmitting side of the WDM system provides the optical
wavelength converter (OTU) to converts the customer signals with non-standard
wavelength into the standard wavelength compliant with G.692 standard.
"Open" means that the DWDM system has no special requirement for the
working wavelength of the input signals, for example, the signals accessed
through "Open interface" shown in Fig. DWDM Technology Overview-2.
9
 Integrated system: All the customer signals accessing the DWDM system must
accord with G.692 standard, for example, the signals accessed through "Non-
open interface" shown in Fig. DWDM Technology Overview-2.
5. Integrated application of DWDM and SDH
The transmission capacity of the fiber network can be effectively improved

through integrated application of DWDM and SDH.
1.2.3 Operation Wavelength Range
The quartz fiber has three low-loss windows: 860 nm, 1310 nm and 1550 nm, as shown
in Fig. DWDM Technology Overview-3.
3.0
~140THz
2.5
~50THz
OH- absorption peak
2.0 OH- absorption
peak
Loss (dB/km)
1.5
OH- absorption
1.0 peak
0.5
O E S C L
0
800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Wavelength (nm)
O: Original Band E: Extend Band S: Short Band C: Conventional Band L: Long Band
Fig. DWDM Technology Overview-3 Low-Loss Windows in Fiber Communication
1. 860 nm window
Its wavelength range is 600 nm ~ 900 nm. It is used in multi-mode fiber, with
large transmission loss (2 dB/km averagely). It is applicable to the short-distance
access network, such as Fiber Channel (FC) service.
2. 1310 nm window
The lower limit of the available wavelength here depends on the fiber cut-off
wavelength and fiber attenuation coefficient, and the upper limit depends on OH
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root absorption peak at 1385 nm. The working wavelength range is 1260 nm ~
1360 nm. The average loss is 0.3 dB/km ~ 0.4 dB/km.
This window is applied to intra-office, short-distance and long-distance

communication of STM-N signal (N = 1, 4 or 16). The light source can be multi-
longitudinal mode laser (MLM) and LED. Since the broadband optical amplifier
working in 1310 nm window is not available at present, this window is not
suitable for the DWDM system.
3. 1550 nm window
The lower limit of the available wavelength here depends on OH root absorption
peak at 1385 nm, and the upper limit depends on infrared absorption loss and
bending loss. . The working wavelength range is 1460 nm ~ 1625 nm. The
average loss is 0.19 dB/km ~ 0.25 dB/km.
The loss in the 1550 nm window is the lowest, so it can be applied to short-
distance and long-distance communication of SDH signals. In addition, the
EDFA often used currently has sound gain flatness in this window, so this
window is applicable to the DWDM system as well.
The working wavelength in the 1550 nm window is divided into three parts (S
band, C band and L band), with the wavelength range shown in Fig. DWDM
Technology Overview-4.
Fig. DWDM Technology Overview-4 Division of Working Wavelength in 1550 Window
1) S band (1460 nm ~ 1530 nm): Since the working wavelength range of EDFA is
in C band or L band, S band is not used in the DWDM system at present.
2) C band (1530 nm ~ 1565 nm): It is often used as the working wavelength area of
the DWDM system under 40 waves (with band interval as 100 GHz), DWDM
system under 80 waves (with band interval as 50 GHz) and SDH system.
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3) L band (1565 nm ~ 1625 nm): Working wavelength area of the DWDM system
above 80 waves. In this case, the band interval is 50 GHz.
1.3 DWDM Features and Advantages

1. Fully utilizing fiber bandwidth resources and featuring large transmission
capacity
The DWDM technology makes full use of the huge bandwidth (about 25 THz)
resource of fibers to expand the transmission capacity of the system.
2. Super-long transmission distance
Through EDFA and other super-long distance transmission technologies, the

channel signals in the DWDM system are amplified at the same time, for the
sake of long-distance transmission of the system.
3. Abundant service access types
The wavelengths in the DWDM system are separated to each other, capable of
transmitting different services in transparent way, such as SDH, GbE and ATM
signals, for the sake of hybrid transmission of multiple kinds of signals.
4. Saving fiber resource
The DWDM system multiplexes multiple single-channel wavelengths for

transmission in one fiber, greatly saving fiber resource and reducing line
construction cost.
5. Smooth upgrading and expansion
Since the DWDM system transmits the data in each wavelength channel in
transparent way and does no process the channel data, only more multiplexing
wavelength channels should be added for expansion, which is convenient and
practical.
6. Fully utilizing well-developed TDM technology
At present, the optical transmission technologies in TDM mode, such as SDH,

have been well developed. Through the WDM technology, the transmission
capacity can be enlarged by several times or even dozens of times, with
expansion cost lower than that in the TDM mode.
7. Forming full optical network
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Full optical network is the development trend of the optical transport network.
In such network, the WDM system is connected with Optical Add/Drop
Multiplexer (OADM) and Optical Cross-connection (OXC) device, to directly
performing optical channel adding/dropping and cross-connection to the services
on the optical wavelength signals, and thus forming full optical network with
high flexibility, reliability, survivability and economical efficiency to meet the
requirements of future information society for the broadband transport network.
1.4 DWDM Development Trend

1. Higher channel rate
The channel rate of the DWDM system has developed to 10 Gbit/s from 2.5
Gbit/s, and the system at 40 Gbit/s rate is in experimentation and its technology
becomes more and more mature.
2. Greater wavelength multiplexing quantity
The DWDM system at early phase usually works at 8/16/32 wavelengths, with
channel interval as 100 GHz and working wavelength in C band. Along with
ever development of the technology, the working wavelength of DWDM system
can cover C and L bands, with interval as 50 GHz. For example, ZTE's ZXWM
M900 device can provide the multiplexing of up to 160 waves.
3. Super-long fully-optical transmission distance
The initial cost and operation cost for network construction can be reduced
through extending full optical transmission and reducing electrical regeneration
points.
The traditional DWDM system uses EDFA to extend the current-free delay
transmission distance. At present, this distance can be extended from 600 km to
above 2000 km, through distributed Raman amplifier and super-powerful
Forward Error Correction (FEC) technology, dispersion management technology
and optical balancing technology and effective modulation formats.
4. Evolving from point-to-point WDM to full optical network
The ordinary point-to-point DWDM system consists of Optical Terminal

Multiplexer (OTM). Although it has a huge transmission capacity, it only
provides primitive transmission bandwidth and features inflexible networking
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capability. Along with ceaseless development of electrical cross-connection

system, the node capacity ever increases, and the point-to-point networking
obviously cannot keep up with the growth of network transmission link capacity.
The further expansion opportunity depends on the optical nodes, that is, OADM
and OXC.
Through OADM, we can construct chain and ring optical networks. The OADM
controls the optical signals of different wavelength channels to be sent to the
proper locations, for the sake of protection and restoration of optical services.
OXC is the route switch of next generation optical communication. In the full
optical network, it provides these functions: Providing connection function
based on wavelengths, providing wavelength add/drop function of optical
channels, leading the wavelength channels for the sake of best utilization of
fiber infrastructure, and implementing protection and restoration on wavelength,
wavelength and fiber levels. The OXC is set at the important tandem point of the
network, converging input of different wavelengths from different directions and
then output signals with proper wavelengths. Through OADM and OXC, we can
construct more complicated ring network. In the next generation IP Over
DWDM telecom/network architecture, the OXC may replace the existing
electrical switching/route by optical signals.
5. Development of IP over DWDM technology
The bandwidth of the Internet backbone network increases quickly, so if the

DWDM technology is not used, Internet data streams alone will occupy the
capacity of the whole single-wavelength fiber system (at present, the maximum
transmission rate of the single-wavelength fiber system for commercial use is 10
Gbit/s). Therefore, the IP over DWDM will be the major technology of the
network communication in the future.
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2 Overview of Optical Fiber
Communication
 Highlights:
 Basic knowledge on optical fiber communication.
 Types and applications of common optical fibers.
 Transmission features of optical fibers.
2.1 Basic Knowledge of Optical Fibers
2.1.1 Brief Introduction to Optical Fibers
1. Structure of optical fibers
Optical fiber is a kind of cylinder glass fiber with sound light conducting
performance and small diameter, consisting of fiber core, cladding and coating
layer, as shown in Fig. Basic Knowledge of Optical Fibers-5.
Coating layer
Cladding Fiber core
n2 n1
n1: Refractive index of fiber core n2: Refractive index of cladding
Fig. Basic Knowledge of Optical Fibers-5 Structure of the Optical Fiber
1) Fiber core
It is made of SiO 2 (quartz). It also comprises few doped chemical, such as GeO 2,
to improve refractive index (n1) of the fiber core. The diameter of the fiber core
usually ranges 5 μm ~ 50 μm.
15
2) Cladding
Usually, it is made of SiO2, with outer diameter as 125 μm. The refractive index
(n2) of cladding is less than that (n1) of fiber core.
3) Coating layer
It is made of high molecular materials, such as epoxide resin and silicone rubber,
with outer diameter as about 250 μm. Through adding coating, we can improve
flexibility, mechanical strength and aging-resistance features of the optical fiber.
2. Fiber categories
1) By distribution shape of refractive index
When the light is transmitted in the fiber, each light shoots into the juncture
between fiber core and cladding in proper angle. Since the refractive index (n1)
of the fiber core is greater than that (n2) of the cladding, when the shooting-in
angle of the light meets the full reflection condition, the light can be repeatedly
reflected on the juncture and move forwards in "zigzag" way, and thus
restricting the light inside the fiber core and forming transmission wave.
Depending on the refractive index radio distribution on the fiber cross section,
the fiber is divided into step-type fiber and graded fiber. The relationship
between refractive index and fiber structure as well as the transmission of light
in the fiber are shown in Fig. Basic Knowledge of Optical Fibers-6.
Cladding Cladding
n2 n2
Fiber core Light Fiber core Light
n1 n1
a: Step-type fiber b: Graded fiber
Fig. Basic Knowledge of Optical Fibers-6 Comparison between Step-Type Fiber and Graded Fiber
16
Chapter 2 Overview of Optical Fiber Communication
2) By fiber material
Besides quartz fiber, the fibers can be divided into quartz fiber, glass fiber with
many compositions, quartz-plastic fiber with quartz core and plastic cladding,
and full-plastic fiber with plastic core and plastic cladding, by material.
Such fibers have greater loss than the quartz fiber, so they are usually used by
the short-distance systems inside buildings or rooms.
3) By transmission mode
Light is a kind of electromagnetic wave. Therefore, the light transmitted in the

fiber should not only meet full-reflection condition between fiber core and
cladding, but also meet the related conditions for electromagnetic wave in the
transmission process.
For the specified fiber structure, only a series specified electromagnetic wave
can be effectively transmitted in the fiber. Such specified electromagnetic wave
is called optical fiber mode. In the fiber, the conductible mode quantity depends
on structure and refractive index radial distribution of the fiber.
If the fiber supports only one conduction mode (base mode), this fiber is called
Single-Mode Fiber (SMF) and its core transmits only one light. If the fiber
supports multiple conduction modes, this fiber is called Multi-Mode Fiber
(MMF), and each light in its core is in a transmission mode. Fig. Basic
Knowledge of Optical Fibers-6 shows two typical multi-mode fibers.
The differences between SMF and MMF are listed in Table Basic Knowledge of
Optical Fibers-3.
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Table Basic Knowledge of Optical Fibers-3 Differences Between SMF and MMF
SMF MMF
Transmission Only supporting transmission in base
Supporting multiple conduction modes
mode mode
Fiber core Smaller (about 5 μm ~ 10 μm) Greater (about 50 μm)
Caused by transmission rates of Large mode dispersion due to different
Dispersion different frequency components in the transmission rates of different modes,
influence optical signal; increasing along with directly affecting transmission
increased optical signal spectrum width bandwidth and transmission distance
Ordinary SMF, Dispersion Shifted
Type Fiber (DSF) and Dispersion Ordinary MMF
Compensation Fiber (DCF)
Working
1310 nm and 1550 nm 850 nm and 1310 nm
window
Long-distance fiber communication Short-distance fiber communication
Applications
system with large capacity system at low rate
2.1.2 Usage Overview of Applicable Frequencies of Optical Fiber
Due to improving fiber manufacture technique, the fiber transmission loss is lower and
lower. At present, there are five low-loss windows, as shown in Fig. Basic Knowledge
of Optical Fibers-7.
3.0
~140THz
2.5
~50THz
OH- absorption peak OH- absorption
2.0 peak
Loss (dB/km)
1.5
I II V I I I IV
OH- absorption
1.0 peak
0.5
O E S C L
0
800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Wavelength (nm)
O: Original Band E: Extend Band S: Short Band C: Conventional Band L: Long Band
Fig. Basic Knowledge of Optical Fibers-7 Division of Low-Loss Windows
18
The optical signal mark, wavelength range, applied fiber types and application of each
window are described in Table Basic Knowledge of Optical Fibers-4.
Table Basic Knowledge of Optical Fibers-4 Feature Comparison between Low-Loss Windows
Window I II III IV V
1310 (O 1360 ~ 1530
Mark (nm) 850 1550 (C band) 1600 (L band)
band) (E + S bands)
Wavelength
600~900 1260~1360 1530~1565 1565~1625 1360~1530
range (nm)
MMF/G.652/ G.652/G.653/ G.652/G.653/ Full-wave
Fiber type MMF
G.653 G.655 G.655 fiber
Short Short
Applications distance and distance and Long distance and high rate
low rate low rate
2.1.3 Types and Features of Common SMFs
This section briefly introduces features and functions of three SMFs, G.652, G.653 and
G.655. The fiber types applied in the DWDM system are also involved.
1. G.652 (ordinary SMF)
It is also called dispersion non-shifted SMF, used in 1310 nm and 1550 nm

windows. In the 1310 nm window, it has dispersion close to zero. But in the
1550 nm window, its loss is the smallest, with dispersion of 17 ps/km nm.
When it is used in the 1310 nm window, it is only applicable to the SDH system;
when it is used in the 1550 nm window, it is applicable to both SDH system and
DWDM system, requiring dispersion compensation when the single channel rate
is over 2.5 Gbit/s.
2. G.653 (dispersion shifted SMF)
It has the smallest loss and the smallest dispersion in the 1550 nm. Therefore, it
usually works in the 1550 nm window.
It is applicable to the high-rate and long-distance single-wavelength

communication system. When the DWDM technology is used, serious non-
linear Four Wave Mixing (FWM) problem will occur in zero-dispersion
wavelength area, resulting in optical signal attenuation in multiplexing channels
and channel crosstalk.
19
3. G.655 (non-zero dispersion shifted SMF)
In the 1550 nm window, the absolute value of its dispersion is not zero and
within a certain range (ensuring smallest loss and small dispersion in this
window).
It is applicable to the high-rate and long-distance optical communication system.

In addition, non-zero dispersion suppresses the influence of non-linear FWM
over DWDM system. Therefore, this kind of fiber is usually used in the DWDM
system.
2.2 Working Wavelength of DWDM System
2.2.1 Introduction to Working Wavelength Area
Based on multiplexing channel quantity and frequency interval of the DWDM system,
the working wavelengths of the systems below 40 wavelengths, 80-wavelength system
and 160-wavelength system are introduce below.
1. 8/16/32/40-wavelength system
Working wavelength range: C band (1530 nm ~ 1565 nm)
Frequency range: 192.1 THz ~ 196.0 THz
Channel interval: 100 GHz
Central frequency offset: ±20 GHz (at rate lower than 2.5 Gbit/s); ±12.5 GHz (at
rate 10 Gbit/s)
2. 80-wavelength system
Working wavelength range: C band (1530 nm ~ 1565 nm)
Frequency range: C band (192.1 THz ~ 196.0 THz)
Central frequency offset: ±5 GHz
3. 160-wavelength system
Working wavelength range: C band (1530 nm ~ 1565 nm) + L band (1565 nm ~

1625 nm)
20
Frequency range: C band (192.1 THz ~ 196.0 THz) + L band (190.90 THz ~
186.95 THz)
Central frequency offset: ±5 GHz
2.2.2 Wavelength Allocation
The working wavelength of the DWDM system complies with the specific central
wavelength and central frequency values in the multi-channel system, as stipulated by
the ITU-T Recommendation G.692.
1. The wavelength allocation for C band 40-wavelength system with wavelength

interval of 100 GHz is shown in Table Working Wavelength of DWDM System
-5.
Table Working Wavelength of DWDM System -5 Wavelength Allocation of 40CH/100 GHz Interval
on C Band
No. Central Frequency (THz) Wavelength (nm)

1 192.1 1560.61
2 192.2 1559.79
3 192.3 1558.98
4 192.4 1558.17
5 192.5 1557.36
6 192.6 1556.55
7 192.7 1555.75
8 192.8 1554.94
9 192.9 1554.13
10 193.0 1553.33
11 193.1 1552.52
12 193.2 1551.72
13 193.3 1550.92
14 193.4 1550.12
15 193.5 1549.32
16 193.6 1548.51
17 193.7 1547.72
18 193.8 1546.92
19 193.9 1546.12
20 194.0 1545.32
21 194.1 1544.53
21
No. Central Frequency (THz) Wavelength (nm)

22 194.2 1543.73
23 194.3 1542.94
24 194.4 1542.14
25 194.5 1541.35
26 194.6 1540.56
27 194.7 1539.77
28 194.8 1538.98
29 194.9 1538.19
30 195.0 1537.40
31 195.1 1536.61
32 195.2 1535.82
33 195.3 1535.04
34 195.4 1534.25
35 195.5 1533.47
36 195.6 1532.68
37 195.7 1531.90
38 195.8 1531.12
39 195.9 1530.33
40 196.0 1529.55
2. The wavelength allocation for C/C+ band 80-wavelength system with

wavelength interval of 50 GHz is shown in Table Working Wavelength of
DWDM System -6.
Table Working Wavelength of DWDM System -6 Wavelength Allocation of 80CH/50 GHz Interval
on C/C+ Band
Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal

Wavelength Central Central Wavelength Central Central
No. Frequency Wavelength No. Frequency Wavelength
THz nm THz nm
1 196.05 1529.16 41 194.05 1544.92
2 196.00 1529.55 42 194.00 1545.32
3 195.95 1529.94 43 193.95 1545.72
4 195.90 1530.33 44 193.90 1546.12
5 195.85 1530.72 45 193.85 1546.52
6 195.80 1531.12 46 193.80 1546.92
7 195.75 1531.51 47 193.75 1547.32
8 195.70 1531.90 48 193.70 1547.72
9 195.65 1532.29 49 193.65 1548.11
22

THz nm THz nm
10 195.60 1532.68 50 193.60 1548.51
11 195.55 1533.07 51 193.55 1548.91
12 195.50 1533.47 52 193.50 1549.32
13 195.45 1533.86 53 193.45 1549.72
14 195.40 1534.25 54 193.40 1550.12
15 195.35 1534.64 55 193.35 1550.52
16 195.30 1535.04 56 193.30 1550.92
17 195.25 1535.43 57 193.25 1551.32
18 195.20 1535.82 58 193.20 1551.72
19 195.15 1536.22 59 193.15 1552.12
20 195.10 1536.61 60 193.10 1552.52
21 195.05 1537.00 61 193.05 1552.93
22 195.00 1537.40 62 193.00 1553.33
23 194.95 1537.79 63 192.95 1553.73
24 194.90 1538.19 64 192.90 1554.13
25 194.85 1538.58 65 192.85 1554.54
26 194.80 1538.98 66 192.80 1554.94
27 194.75 1539.37 67 192.75 1555.34
28 194.70 1539.77 68 192.70 1555.75
29 194.65 1540.16 69 192.65 1556.15
30 194.60 1540.56 70 192.60 1556.55
31 194.55 1540.95 71 192.55 1556.96
32 194.50 1541.35 72 192.50 1557.36
33 194.45 1541.75 73 192.45 1557.77
34 194.40 1542.14 74 192.40 1558.17
35 194.35 1542.54 75 192.35 1558.58
36 194.30 1542.94 76 192.30 1558.98
37 194.25 1543.33 77 192.25 1559.39
38 194.20 1543.73 78 192.20 1559.79
39 194.15 1544.13 79 192.15 1560.20
40 194.10 1544.53 80 192.10 1560.61
23
3. The wavelength allocation for L/L+ band 80-wavelength system with

wavelength interval of 50 GHz is shown in Table Working Wavelength of
DWDM System -7.
Table Working Wavelength of DWDM System -7 Wavelength Distribution of 80CH/50 GHz Interval
on L/L+ Band

THz nm THz nm
1 190.90 1570.42 41 188.90 1587.04
2 190.85 1570.83 42 188.85 1587.46
3 190.80 1571.24 43 188.80 1587.88
4 190.75 1571.65 44 188.75 1588.30
5 190.70 1572.06 45 188.70 1588.73
6 190.65 1572.48 46 188.65 1589.15
7 190.60 1572.89 47 188.60 1589.57
8 190.55 1573.30 48 188.55 1589.99
9 190.50 1573.71 49 188.50 1590.41
10 190.45 1574.13 50 188.45 1590.83
11 190.40 1574.54 51 188.40 1591.26
12 190.35 1574.95 52 188.35 1591.68
13 190.30 1575.37 53 188.30 1592.10
14 190.25 1575.78 54 188.25 1592.52
15 190.20 1576.20 55 188.20 1592.95
16 190.15 1576.61 56 188.15 1593.37
17 190.10 1577.03 57 188.10 1593.79
18 190.05 1577.44 58 188.05 1594.22
19 190.00 1577.86 59 188.00 1594.64
20 189.95 1578.27 60 187.95 1595.06
21 189.90 1578.69 61 187.90 1595.49
22 189.85 1579.10 62 187.85 1595.91
23 189.80 1579.52 63 187.80 1596.34
24 189.75 1579.93 64 187.75 1596.76
25 189.70 1580.35 65 187.70 1597.19
26 189.65 1580.77 66 187.65 1597.62
27 189.60 1581.18 67 187.60 1598.04
28 189.55 1581.60 68 187.55 1598.47
29 189.50 1582.02 69 187.50 1598.89
24

THz nm THz nm
30 189.45 1582.44 70 187.45 1599.32
31 189.40 1582.85 71 187.40 1599.75
32 189.35 1583.27 72 187.35 1600.17
33 189.30 1583.69 73 187.30 1600.60
34 189.25 1584.11 74 187.25 1601.03
35 189.20 1584.53 75 187.20 1601.46
36 189.15 1584.95 76 187.15 1601.88
37 189.10 1585.36 77 187.10 1602.31
38 189.05 1585.78 78 187.05 1602.74
39 189.00 1586.20 79 187.00 1602.17
40 188.95 1586.62 80 186.95 1603.57
2.3 Fiber Transmission Features
2.3.1 Fiber Loss
Power transmission loss is a basic and important parameter of the fiber. Due to
existence of fiber loss, the optical power transmitted in the fiber will attenuate by index
with the increase of transmission distance.
1. Generation of fiber loss and low-loss window
The fiber loss covers two aspects:
1) Loss coming from fiber, including inherent absorption loss of fiber materials,
absorption loss of material impurity (especially the loss caused by the remained
OH component in the fiber), Raileigh dispersion loss, and dispersion loss due to
incomplete fiber structure.
2) The fiber additional loss caused by optical cable layout, fiber connection and
system coupling/connection in all kinds of environment, because the fibers are
bundled into cable. This aspect involves bending loss and minor bending loss of
optical fiber/cable, connection loss in the fiber line, and coupling loss between
optical components.
The fiber attenuation spectrum is shown in Fig. Basic Knowledge of Optical

Fibers-7. The average loss in Window I is 2 dB/km, the one in Window II is 0.3
25
dB/km ~ 0.4 dB/km, and the one in Window III is 0.19 dB/km ~ 0.25 dB/km.
The 1380 nm point in Window V exist OH absorption peak.
2. The line loss values of the common fibers are shown in Table Fiber
Transmission Features-8.
Table Fiber Transmission Features-8 SMF Loss
Fiber Type G.652 G.653 G.655

Typical loss value (1310 nm) 0.3 dB/km ~ 0.4 dB/km - -
Typical loss value (1550 nm) 0.15 dB/km ~ 0.25 0.19 dB/km ~ 0.19 dB/km ~
dB/km 0.25dB/km 0.25 dB/km
Working window 1310 nm and 1550 nm 1550 nm 1550 nm
2. Relationship between fiber loss and OSNR
OSNR means the ratio between optical signal power and noise power. It is very
important for estimating and measuring bit error performance, engineering
design and maintenance.
Take the OSNR at the receiving end of the DWDM system as an example, the
calculation formula is:
OSNR = Pout – 10logM - L + 58 - NF - 10logN
Here, Pout: In-fiber optical power (dBm).
M: Number of multiplexing channels of the WDM system
L: Loss between any two optical amplifiers, that is, sectional loss (dB)
NF: Noise index of the EDFA.
N: Number of the EDFAs between optical multiplexer and optical de-

multiplexer of the WDM system.
The formula shows this: When the other parameters keep unchanged, greater
line loss leads to lower OSNR, which means decreased transmission quality of
the optical line.
In the initial design of the DWDM, except loss limit and dispersion limit, the
OSNR at the receiving end, Q value and BER should also be considered. The
design is qualified only when these three factors are qualified.
26
2.3.2 Dispersion
After the optical pulse signals entering the fiber through input end are transmitted for a
long distance, the pulse wave shape spreads by time at the fiber output end, this
phenomenon is called dispersion. We take the dispersion in the SMF as an example, as
shown in Fig. Fiber Transmission Features-8.
Optical SMF Optical

power power
Time Time
Incoming optical Outgoing optical
pulse waveform pulse waveform
Fig. Fiber Transmission Features-8 Dispersion in Fiber
Dispersion will cause inter-symbol interference, affects correct judgment of optical

pulse signal at the receiving end, deteriorates BER performance and even affects
information transmission.
The dispersion in the SMF is caused by different transmission rates of different

frequency components in the optical signal, and is called chroma dispersion. In the area
with negligible chroma dispersion, the polarization mode dispersion is the major part of
SMF dispersion.
The phenomena and causes of chroma dispersion and polarization mode dispersion will
be introduced below, as well as their influences to the DWDM system.
2.3.2.1 Chroma Dispersion
1. Brief introduction to chroma dispersion
Chroma dispersion is divided into material dispersion and waveguide dispersion.
1) Material dispersion: The quartz glass, fiber material, has different refractive
index for different optical wavelengths. While the light source has certain
spectrum width, and different wavelengths results in different group rates, so the
optical pulse spreading will occur.
2) Waveguide dispersion: For a transmission mode of the fiber, the pulse spreading
occurs due to different group rates in different optical wavelengths. This
dispersion is related to the waveguide effect of fiber structure, so it is also called
structure dispersion.
27
Material dispersion is greater than waveguide dispersion. According to the

dispersion calculation formula, the material dispersion at a specific wavelength
may be zero, and this wavelength is called the zero dispersion wavelength of the
material. Luckily, this wavelength is in the low-loss window near 1310 nm. For
example, G.652 fiber is the zero dispersion fiber.
Although the optical components are heavily affected by the dispersion, there is
the tolerable maximum dispersion value (that is, dispersion tolerance). Normal
transmission can be ensured when the generated dispersion is within the
tolerance.
2. Influence of chroma dispersion
Chroma dispersion will result in pulse spreading and chirp effect.
1) Pulse spreading
Pulse spreading is the major influence of chroma dispersion to system

performance. When the transmission distance is longer than the fiber dispersion
length, the pulse spreading is too large. At this time, the system will have serious
inter-symbol interference and bit errors.
2) Chirp effect
Dispersion not only results in pulse spreading but also makes pulse generate
phase modulation. Such phase modulation makes different parts of the pulse
make different offset from the central frequency with different frequencies,
which is called chirp effect of pulse.
Due to chirp effect, the fiber is divided into normal dispersion fiber and
abnormal dispersion fiber. In the normal dispersion fiber, the high-frequency
component of the pulse is located at the rear edge of the pulse and the low-
frequency component is located at the front edge of the pulse. In the abnormal
dispersion fiber, the low-frequency component of the pulse is located at the rear
edge of the pulse and the high-frequency component is located at the front edge
of the pulse. In the transmission line, we can properly use these two fibers to
offset the chirp effect and remove the pulse dispersion spreading.
3. Removing influence of chroma dispersion to DWDM system
Since the DWDM system is mostly used in the 1550 nm window, if G.652 fiber
is used, it is required to use the DCF with negative wavelength dispersion to
28
compensate the dispersion and reduce the total dispersion value of the whole
transmission value.
2.3.2.2 Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
PMD is a kind of physical phenomenon existing in optical fiber and optical component
fields.
The baseband in the SMF has two polarization modes that are orthogonal. In the ideal
case, two polarization modes should have the same feature curve and transmission
characteristics. Due to geometrical and pressure asymmetry, two polarization modes
have different transmission rates, resulting in delay and PMD, as shown in Fig. Fiber
Transmission Features-9. Usually, the unit of PMD is ps/km1/2.
Optical fiber
Incoming light Outgoing light
Delay
Fig. Fiber Transmission Features-9 PMD in SMF
In the digital transmission system, the PMD will result in pulse separation and pulse
spreading, degrade transmission signal and limit transmission rate of carriers.
Compared with other dispersions, the PMD can almost be omitted. But it cannot be
totally extinguished, but can be minimized through optical components. The narrower
the pulse in the super-speed system is, the greater the PMD influence is.
2.3.3 Non-Linear Effect of Fiber
In the common fiber communications system, the transmitting optical power is low and
the fiber has linear transmission feature. But, for the DWDM system, the fiber has non-
linear effect after the EDFA is used.
The non-linear effect of the fiber will result in serious crosstalk between multi-
wavelength channels of the DWDM system, which will lead to additional attenuation
29
of the fiber communication system as well as restriction of optical power, EDFA

amplifying performance and current-free regenerative relay distance.
The non-linear effect involves Self-Phase Modulation (SPM), Cross-Phase Modulation

(XPM), Four Wave Mixing (FWM), Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS) and
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBC).
1. SPM
Due to dependency relationship between refractive index and light intensity,

refractive index changes during optical pulse continuance, with the pulse peak
phase delayed for both front and rear edges. With more transmission distance,
the phase shift is accumulated continuously and represents large phase
modulation upon certain distance. As a result, the spectrum spreading results in
pulse spreading, which is called SPM, as shown in Fig. Fiber Transmission
Features-10.
Fig. Fiber Transmission Features-10 SPM
When the system works in the fiber working area (for example, the short
wavelength area of G.653 fiber or working area with negative dispersion of
G.655 fiber) with negative dispersion index, the SPM will result in smaller
dispersion limit distance. When the system works in the fiber working area (for
example, the long wavelength area of G.652/G.653 fiber or working area with
30
positive dispersion of G.655 fiber) with positive dispersion index, the SPM will
result in greater dispersion limit distance.
The SPM effect occurs in certain distance from the transmitter end. In addition
the low-dispersion fiber can also reduce the influence of SPM to the system
performance.
2. XPM
When two or more optical waves with different frequencies are simultaneously
transmitted in the non-linear media, the amplitude modulation of each frequency
wave will result in the corresponding change of the fiber refractive index,
resulting in non-linear phase modulation of the optical wave with other
frequencies, which is called XPM.
XPM often occurs along with SPM. XPM will result in a series of non-linear
effects, such as signal interference between DWDM system channels and non-
linear dual-refraction of the fiber, leading to unstable polarization of the fiber
transmission. Meanwhile, the XPM will also affect wave shape and spectrum of
pulse.
Adding dispersion properly can reduce the XPM influence.
3. FWM
FWM refers to a physical process of energy exchange between multiple optical

carriers caused by non-linear effect of the fiber, when multiple frequencies of
optical carriers with high power are simultaneously transmitted in the fiber.
FWM results in optical signal energy attenuation in multiplexing channels and

channel crosstalk. As shown in Fig. Fiber Transmission Features-11, a new
optical wave appears on another wavelength, due to FWM.
New optical wave
Fig. Fiber Transmission Features-11 FWM
31
The generation of FWM is related to the fiber dispersion. For zero dispersion,
the mixing efficiency is the highest. Along with dispersion increase, the mixing
efficiency reduces fast. The DWDM system uses G.655 fiber to slider over the
FWM effect in 1550 nm zero-dispersion wavelength area.
4. SRS
SRS belongs to the stimulated non-elastic scattering process caused by non-

linear effect. It comes of mutual action and energy exchange between photon
and optical phonon (molecular vibration status).
SRS effect results in attenuation of signals with short wavelength and

reinforcement of signals with long wavelength, as shown in Fig. Fiber
Transmission Features-12.

Power Power
... ...
λ1 λ2 λ3 λ λ1 λ2 λ 3 λ
Fig. Fiber Transmission Features-12 SRS
SRS effect is widely applied in the fiber communication, for example, making
distributed Raman amplifier based on Raman gain, to provide distributed
broadband amplifying for optical signals. The DRA board of ZTE DWDM
device implements the optical amplifying function through the SRS effect. On
the other hand, SRS introduces in negative influence to the communication
system. In the DWDM system, light in the short-wavelength channel will serve
as pump light to transfer energy to the long-wavelength channel, resulting in
Raman crosstalk between channels.
5. SBS
SBS belongs to the stimulated non-elastic scattering process caused by non-

linear effect. It comes of mutual action and energy exchange between photon
and acoustic phonon (crystal vibration status).
SRS effect can be used to make fiber Brillouin laser and amplifier. On the other
hand, SBS will result in unstable signal light source and crosstalk between
reverse transmission channels. However, along with increase of system
32
transmission rate, the SBS peak gain obviously reduces. So, SBS will not greatly
affect the high-speed fiber transmission system.
2.4 New Optical Fiber Types

This section will briefly introduce features and applications of some new-type fibers.
1. G.654 optical fiber
The G.654 fiber works in the 1550 nm window, with average loss as 0.15 dB/km
~ 0.19 dB/km, which is less than those of the other types of fibers. The zero
dispersion point is still in the 1310 nm window.
It is applicable to the long/medium-distance optical transmission system.
2. Full-wave fiber
The full-wave fiber, water peak free fiber, eliminates OH - ions near the 1385 nm
wavelength and thus also eliminates the appended water peak attenuation caused
by the OH- ions. In this way, the fiber attenuation is only determined by the
internal scattering loss of the silicon glass.
Full-wave fiber is numbered as G.652 C&D in ITU-T Recommendations. It is

one kind of G.652 fiber. Its full name is wavelength-expanded dispersion non-
shifted single-mode fiber.
The attenuation of the full-wave fiber becomes even at the band of 1310 nm~
1600 nm. As internal OH- ions are already eliminated, no water peak attenuation
will occur even when the fiber is exposed to hydrogen gas and the long-term
attenuation is reliable.
Full-wave optical fiber can provide a complete transmission band from 1280 nm
to 1625 nm. The available wavelength range is about 1.5 times of the
wavelength range of ordinary fibers.
3. Real-wave fiber
Real-wave fiber is a kind of non-zero dispersion shifted single-mode fiber

(G.655 fiber) widely used at present. Its fiber characteristics are similar to those
of G.655 fiber. Its zero dispersion point is in short-wavelength area below 1530
nm. In 1549 nm ~ 1561 nm band, the dispersion index is 2.0 ps/nm·km ~ 3.0
ps/nm·km.
33
It has small dispersion slope and dispersion coefficient, capable of tolerating

higher non-linear effect. It is applicable to large-capacity optical transmission
system to reduce network construction cost.
4. Fiber with large effective fiber core area
It also belongs to non-zero dispersion shifted single-mode fiber (G.655 fiber).

Essentially, it improves non-linear resistance capability of the system.
The super-speed system performance is mostly limited by dispersion and non-

linear effect. Usually, dispersion can be distinguished through dispersion
compensation. But the non-linear effect cannot be distinguished only through
linear compensation. The effective area of the fiber determines the fiber non-
linear effect. Larger effective area means high affordable optical power, that is,
better resistance to non-linear effect.
34
3 Key Technologies of DWDM System
 Highlights:
 Basic structure of the DWDM system.
 Light source technology.
 Optical wavelength division multiplexing and de-multiplexing technologies.
 OTU technology.
 Optical amplifying technology.
 Supervision technology.
3.1 Basic Structure of DWDM System

The DWDM system multiplexes several or dozens of optical channel signals with
different nominal wavelengths to one fiber for transmission, with each optical channel
bearing one service signal.
The basic structure of a unidirectional DWDM system is shown in Fig. Basic Structure
of DWDM System -13.
Optical transmitter Optical receiver
G.692 Optical relay amplifier

TX1 1 1 Optical RX1
Optical transponder
transponder
2 RX2
TX2 Optical 2 Optical
transponder transponder
RX3
TX3 Optical 3 OD 3 Optical
transponder OM OBA OLA OPA transponder
... ... RXn

TXn n n Optical
Optical transponder
transponder Receiver/transmitter of
optical supervision channel
Transmitter of optical Receiver of optical

supervision channel supervision channel
Fig. Basic Structure of DWDM System -13 Composition of DWDM System
1. Optical transmitter end
35
TX1…TXn, the optical transmitters of all the multiplexing channels,
respectively transmit the optical signals (λ1, λ2 …λn, with the corresponding
frequencies as f1, f2…fn) with different nominal wavelengths. Each optical
channel bears different service signals, such as standard SDH signal, ATM signal
and Ethernet signal. After that, the optical multiplexer combines these signals
into one beam of optical wave, which will be output by the OBA to the fiber for
transmission.
2. Optical receiver end
After the line fiber goes through amplifying of OPA, the optical channel signals
are de-multiplexed by the optical de-multiplexer and then respectively input to
the corresponding multiplexing channel optical receivers, RX1…RXn.
3. Optical regenerating amplifier end
Located in the middle of the optical transmission section, it uses OLA to amplify
the optical signals.
4. Optical monitoring channel
In the DWDM system shown in Fig. Basic Structure of DWDM System -13, an
independent wavelength (1510 nm) is used as the optical monitoring channel for
transmitting optical monitoring signals. The optical monitoring signals are used
to bear NE management and monitoring information of the DWDM system, for
the sake of effectively management of network management system over the
DWDM system.
5. Network management system
This module is omitted in Fig. Basic Structure of DWDM System -13. The
DWDM NMS should be capable of managing optical amplifying units (such as
OBA, OLA and OPA), wavelength division multiplexer, Optical Transponder
Unit (OTU) and channel performance supervision on one platform. It can
manage the device in terms of performance, fault, configuration and security.
The information in the NMS is borne by the monitoring signals in the optical
monitoring channel.
3.2 Light Source Technology

1. Type of optical sources
36
Chapter 3 Key Technologies of DWDM System
At present, the semi-conductor optical sources widely used now are Laser
Device (LD) and Light-Emitting Diode (LED).
LD is coherence light source, with large in-fiber power, small spectral line width
and high modulation rate. It is applicable to the long-distance high-speed
system. The LED is non-coherence light source, with small in-fiber power, large
spectral line width and low modulation rate. It is applicable to short-distance
low-speed system.
The light source of the DWDM system adopts the semi-conductor laser.
2. Features of DWDM system light source
1) Providing standard and stable wavelength
The DWDM system has very strict requirements for the working wavelength of
each multiplexing channel. Wavelength drift will cause unstable and unreliable
operation of the system.
The common wavelength stabilization measures are temperature feedback

control method and wavelength feedback control method.
2) Providing rather large dispersion tolerance
Fiber transmission may be limited by system loss and dispersion. Along with
increased transmission rate, the dispersion influence is larger. Here, dispersion
limit can be solved through using optical fibers/cables with small dispersion
coefficient or semi-conductor laser with small spectral width. After the optical
cables are laid, minimizing spectral width of light source devices is an effective
measure for solving dispersion limit.
3. Modulation modes of DWDM system laser
At present, there are two methods of light source intensity modulation: Direct
modulation and indirect modulation (that is, external modulation).
1) Direct modulation
Direct modulation means directly controlling the working current of semi-

conductor laser through electrical pulse code stream, and thus making it generate
the optical pulse stream corresponding to the electrical signal pulse. For
example, when the electrical pulse signal is "1", the working current of the laser
is greater than its current threshold, therefore it generates an optical pulse. When
37
the electrical pulse signal is "0", the working current of the laser is smaller than
its current threshold, therefore it does not generate optical pulse.
The direct modulation mode is simple, with low loss and low cost. But, the
super-speed change of working current of the laser will make modulation chirp
easily. And chirp will limit transmission rate and distance of the system.
The direct modulation mode is often used in the transmission system composed
of G.652 fiber, with transmission shorter than 100 km and rate lower than 2.5
Gbit/s.
2) Indirect modulation (external modulation)
The external modulation mode refers to indirectly control (modulate) the

continuous light generated by the laser which is in the continuous light emitting
status, and thus obtaining optical pulse stream.
Therefore, in external modulation case, the laser nit generates stable high-power
laser, and the external modulator will modulate it in low chirp, to obtain the
maximum dispersion value much greater than that in the case of direct
modulation.It is applicable to the long-distance transmission system at rate over
2.5 Gbit/s.
At present, the external modulators often used are electrical absorption

modulator (EA) and waveguide Mach-Zehnder (MZ) modulator.
 EA modulator
It uses absorber controlled by electrical pulse signal to absorb or not absorb the
optical wave transmitted by the continuous wave semi-conductor laser (CW),
and thus making optical pulse stream under indirect control of electrical pulse
signal stream.
The EA light source features small size, high integration, low driving power and
low power consumption. The maximum dispersion can reach 12 000 ps/nm.
 Waveguide M-Z modulator
At the input end, the CW is in continuous wave working status. The optical
wave emitted by it is divided by the optical de-multiplexer into two equal signal
channels, which will respectively enter two optical tributaries of the modulator.
Under control of electrical pulse stream, it performs phase modulation to the
optical signals. At the output end, two optical tributaries are combined by the
38
optical multiplexer. When the signal phases in two optical tributaries are reverse
to each other, the optical multiplexer has no optical signal output; when the
signal phases in two optical tributaries are the same, the optical multiplexer has
optical signal output. In this way, the optical pulse stream is controlled by the
electrical pulse stream.
The M-Z light source features high modulation rate, large maximum dispersion
value, and large extinction ratio. Its chirp coefficient can be zero in theory. Its
disadvantage is that polarization maintaining fiber must be used to connect the
laser and the modulator, because modulation status is related to light polarization
status.
3.3 Optical Wavelength Division Multiplexing and De-Multiplexing

Technologies
3.3.1 Overview
The optical wavelength division multiplexer and de-multiplexer, also called optical
multiplexer and de-multiplexer, belong to optical wavelength division multiplexer,
which is actually a kind of optical filter.
At the transmitting end, the Optical Multiplexer (OM) is used to combine the optical
signals in each multiplexing channel with nominal wavelength into a beam of optical
wave, and then transmit it into the fiber for transmission, that is, multiplexing optical
wave.
At the receiving end, the Optical De-multiplexer (OD) is used to divide optical wave in
the fiber into optical signals of each multiplexing channel with formal nominal
wavelength, and then input them into the corresponding optical channel receivers, that
is, de-multiplexing optical wave.
Since the performance of OM and OD determine the system transmission quality, the
attenuation, offset and channel crosstalk of OM and OD must be small values.
3.3.2 Introduction to OM
Four types of common OMs are briefly introduced below, as well as OM types often
used in the DWDM systems with different wavelength numbers.
1. Brief introduction to common OMs
39
1) Grating type of OM
The grating type of OM is an angular dispersion type of device.
Since the optical signals with different wavelengths have different refractive
angles on the grating, it divides and combines the optical signals with different
wavelengths. Its working principle is shown in Fig. Optical Wavelength
Division Multiplexing and De-Multiplexing Technologies -14.
1,2,3,...n




n
Fig. Optical Wavelength Division Multiplexing and De-Multiplexing Technologies -14 Principle of
Grating Type of OM
It has sound wavelength selection performance, capable of narrowing

wavelength interval to about 0.5 nm. However, the grating features precise
manufacture requirements and is not suitable for large-batch manufacture. It is
often used in research in the laboratory.
2) Dielectric thin film type of OM
It is composed of Thin Film Filter (TFF).
TFF consists of dozens layers of dielectric films with different materials,

different refractive indexes and different thickness values. One layer features
high refractive index and the other layer features low refractive index, therefore
TFF emerges a passband within certain wavelength range while a stopband
within other wavelength ranges, and thus forming the desired filtering
performance. The working principle is shown in Fig. Optical Wavelength
Division Multiplexing and De-Multiplexing Technologies -15.
40
 1,2,3,...n







Dielectric Thin Film Type of OM
It is a kind of compact passive optical device with stable structure, featuring flat
signal passband, low insertion loss and sound channel interval.
3) Array Waveguide OM (AWG)
AWG OM is the flat waveguide device based on optical integration technology.

Its working principle is shown in Fig. Optical Wavelength Division Multiplexing
and De-Multiplexing Technologies -16.
AWG OM
Due to compact structure and low insertion loss, it is the best scheme for optical
wave multiplexing/de-multiplexing in the optical transport network.
4) Coupling type of OM
It is a kind of surface interactive device with two or more fibers which are
closed to each other and are properly melted. It is used for OM, with the
working principle shown in Fig. Optical Wavelength Division Multiplexing and
De-Multiplexing Technologies -17.
41
λ1
λ2
λ3
λ4
λ5
λ1，2，3……
λ6
λ7
λ8
Coupling Type of OM
It can only implement multiplexing function, with low cost and large insertion
loss.
2. Multiplexer/de-multiplexer of DWDM system
The relationship between the system with different wavelengths and the
corresponding optical wavelength division multiplexers is shown in Table
Optical Wavelength Division Multiplexing and De-Multiplexing Technologies -9.
Table Optical Wavelength Division Multiplexing and De-Multiplexing Technologies -9 Relationship between DWDM
Systems and Corresponding Optical Wavelength Division Multiplexers
Type of Optical OM OD
Wavelength Division Below 32 40 Above 80 Below 32 40 Above 80
Multiplexer wavelengths wavelengths wavelengths wavelengths wavelengths wavelengths
Coupling type √ - - - - -
Array waveguide type √ √ - √ √ -
Dielectric thin film type √ √ - √ √ -
Grating type - - √ - - √
3.3.3 Key Performance Indices
1. Multiplexing channel quantity
It represents the quantity of optical channels of multiplexing and de-

multiplexing made by the optical wavelength multiplexer, closely related to
resolution and isolation of the device.
42
2. Insertion loss
The attenuation effect of wavelength division multiplexer to optical signals

directly affects system transmission distance.
Different types of wavelength division multiplexers have different insertion loss

values. Smaller insertion loss value is preferable.
3. Isolation
It represents the isolation distance between multiplexing optical channels in the

optical devices. The higher the channel isolation is, the better is the frequency
selection performance of the wavelength division multiplexer. Consequently, the
crosstalk suppression ratio becomes higher and the mutual interference between
multiplexing optical channels becomes lower.
It is meaningful only for the wavelength sensitive devices (TFF type and AWG
type devices). It is not meaningful for the coupling devices.
4. Reflection coefficient
At the input end of the wavelength division multiplexer, the ratio between the
reflection optical power and incidence optical power is the reflection coefficient.
Smaller coefficient is preferable.
5. Polarization Dependent Loss (PDL)
PDL means the maximum change value of the insertion loss caused by the
change of optical wave polarization status.
Light is the electromagnetic wave with extremely high frequency, therefore,

there is the problem of wave vibration direction (polarization). For the optical
signals of the multiplexing channels input to the wavelength division
multiplexer, their polarization statuses will not be totally consistent. And the
same wavelength division multiplexer has different attenuation effects to the
optical waves in different polarization statuses. Smaller PDL value is preferable.
6. Temperature coefficient
It means the offset of central working frequency of the multiplexing channel

caused by ambient temperature change. Smaller temperature coefficient of the
wavelength division multiplexer is preferable. Smaller coefficient means more
stable central working frequency of the multiplexing channels.
43
7. Bandwidth
It is a parameter of the wavelength sensitive devices (TFF type and AWG type
devices). It is not meaningful for the coupling type of wavelength division
multiplexer.
Bandwidth is divided into channel bandwidth @-0.5 dB and channel bandwidth

@-20 dB.
 Channel width @ -0.5 dB
It refers to the corresponding change value of the working wavelength when the
OD insertion loss decreases by 0.5 dB.
It describes the bandpass feature of the OD. Sound bandpass feature curve
should be flat and wide. Greater bandpass value is preferable.
 Channel width @ -20 dB
It refers to the corresponding change value of the working wavelength when the
OD insertion loss decreases by 20 dB.
It describes the stopband feature of the OD. The stopband feature curve should
be sharp. Smaller bandwidth value is preferable.
3.4 OTU Technology
3.4.1 Overview
The Optical Wavelength Transponder Unit (OTU) technology is used to implement

wavelength conversion. It converts the non-nominal wavelength of the optical channel
signal into the nominal optical wavelength in accordance with G.692 stipulation in
ITU-T recommendations, and then makes it access the DWDM system.
OTU also provides other functions:
1. Standard and stable light source
44
The DWDM system needs to multiplex multiple wavelengths in a low-loss

window, with small wavelength interval, so the central frequency of the DWDM
light source must stably work in the nominal central frequency sequence
specified by ITU-T standards.
2. Light source with rather large dispersion tolerance
Increase of current-free relay distance in the DWDM system requires greater

dispersion tolerance distance of the light source, for the sake of solving non-
linear effect of the fiber.
3. Functioning as regenerator
When the transponder serves as the regenerator, it has the data regeneration
function, which is an optional function of the OTU.
3.4.2 Working Principle and Performance Indices
1. Working principle
The working principle of the OTU is shown in Fig. OTU Technology -18.
G.957 O/E Shaping, timing, E/O G.692

(regeneration)
Optical input Optical output
Fig. OTU Technology -18 Working Principle of OTU
OTU performs O/E conversion to the multiplexing optical channel signals which
accord with the G.957 recommendation, and implements shaping, timing
extraction and data regeneration (this can be omitted) to the converted electrical
signals, and then performs E/O conversion, to output DWDM optical channel
signals whose wavelength, dispersion and optical transmitting power accord
with G.692 recommendation.
After O/E conversion, if only shaping and timing processing (that is, 2R
functions) are implemented, this OTU only implements wavelength conversion
function with a small transmission distance.
45
After O/E conversion, if shaping, timing processing and regeneration (that is, 3R
functions) are implemented, actually this OTU also has the function of the
regeneration repeater (REG).
2. Key performance indices
1) System working wavelength area
It is in the 1550 nm low-loss window, divided into C band and L band.
 C band (conventional band)
Wavelength range: 1530 nm ~ 1565 nm
Working frequency: 196.05 THz ~ 192.10 THz (1 THz = 1000 GHz)
 L band (long-wavelength band)
Wavelength range: 1565 nm ~ 1625 nm
Working frequency: 190.90 THz ~ 186.95 THz
 Hint:
Usually, the working range of the DWDM system is represented through frequency.
2) Channel interval
Channel interval means the nominal frequency difference between two adjacent
multiplexing channels, covering even channel interval and uneven channel
interval. At present, even channel interval is used mostly.
The minimum channel interval of the DWDM system is integer times of 50

GHz.
 When the multiplexing channels are 8 wavelengths, the channel interval is 200
GHz.
 When the multiplexing channels are 16/32/40 wavelengths, the channel interval
is 100 GHz.
 When the multiplexing channels are above 80 wavelengths, the channel interval
is 50 GHz.
Smaller channel interval requires higher resolution of the OD and means more
multiplexing channels.
3) Nominal central frequency

46
It refers to the central wavelength (frequency) corresponding to each

multiplexing channel in the DWDM system.
For example, when the multiplexing channels are 16/32/40 wavelengths, the
central frequency of wavelength 1 is 192.1 THz, the channel interval is 100 GHz
and frequency increases in ascending order.
4) Central frequency offset
It is also called frequency offset. It refers to the offset between the actual
working central frequency of the multiplexing optical channel and nominal
central frequency.
According to the national standards, the system with frequency interval as 100
GHz, the maximum central frequency offset is ±20 GHz (about ±0.16 nm) when
the rate is below 2.5 Gbit/s or ±12.5 GHz when the rate is 10 Gbit/s. For the
system with frequency interval as 50 GHz, the maximum central frequency
offset is ±5 GHz.
The maximum central frequency offset refers to the value which can be met
when the designed life cycle of the system expires, with temperature, humidity
and other factors taken into consideration.
5) Dispersion tolerance
Dispersion reflects the spreading of the optical pulse in the transmission in the
fiber.
The pulse spreading will result in decreased distinguish ratio of signal pulse at
the receiving end, that is, levels of bit "1" and bit "0" are similar, leading to
mistaken judgment of the receiver. To avoid bit error, it is required to take
proper measures to compensate the optical pulse spreading in fiber transmission
process. The pulse spreading will be more and more serious along with
increased transmission distance.
The requirements of DWDM system for the fiber chroma dispersion coefficient
are basically those of a single multiplexing channel rate signal for fiber chroma
dispersion coefficient. In addition, since the current-free relay distance of the
DWDM system is much greater than that of a single SDH system, the dispersion
tolerance distance of the system light source must be prolonged.
47
6) Receiver sensitivity
The receiver sensitivity refers to the minimum value of the average receiving
optical power on the OTU input port, when input signals are located in the 1550
nm window and the BER reaches 10-12.
7) Overloaded optical power
The overloaded optical power refers to the maximum value of the average
receiving optical power on the OTU input port, when input signals are located in
the 1550 nm window and the BER reaches 10-12.
3.4.3 Classification and Applications of OTU
Depending on the locations in the DWDM system, the OTU can be classified into
OTUT, OTUR and OTUG. Their applications in the transmission system are shown in
Fig. OTU Technology -19.
λ1 λ1
OTUT OTUG OTUR
λ2 λ2
OTUT OM OA OA OD OTUG OM OA OA OD OTUR
Line fiber Internal fiber

OM: Optical OD: Optical OA: Optical
multiplexer de-multiplexe amplifier
Fig. OTU Technology -19 OTU Applications
1. OTUT
It is located between customer devices and OM. The signals output from it to the
OM should accord with G.692 standards. This kind of OTU not only has E/O
and O/E conversion functions, but also has re-shaping and re-timing functions
(that is, 2R functions) as well as B1 byte detection function.
2. OTUR
It is located between OD and customer devices. The optical signals output from
the OD to the OTUR should accord with G.692 standards. This kind of OTU has
48
the similar functions as OTUT functions. It implements wavelength conversion,

2R functions and B1 byte detection function.
3. OTUG
It is located between OM and OD. Its input and output signals should accord
with G.692 standards.
This kind of OTU not only has E/O and O/E conversion functions, but also has
re-shaping, re-timing and data regeneration functions (that is, 3R functions).
Therefore, it is equal to a conventional REG. It also has B1 byte detection
function.
3.5 Optical Amplifying Technology

For the long-distance optical transmission, optical power gradually decreases along
with transmission distance increase. The light source output of the laser usually is not
over 3 dBm, otherwise, the laser life cycle may be unqualified. In addition, to ensure
correct signal receiving, the receiving power at the receiving end must always be
certain value, for example, -28 dBm. Therefore, the optical power limit turns into the
major factor determining transmission distance.
Optical amplifier is the technology for solving optical power limit. Without O/E/O
conversion, it directly amplifies the optical signals. Its classifications are shown in Fig.
Optical Amplifying Technology -20.
{
Resonance type
{
Semi-conductor OA
Progressive wave type
{
1550 nm fiber amplifier, for example, EDFA
Lanthanon doped
{
fiber amplifier 1310 nm fiber amplifier, for example, PDFA
Fiber amplifier
Non-linear
optical amplifier { Raman fiber amplifier (SRA)
Brillouin fiber amplifier (SBA)
Fig. Optical Amplifying Technology -20 Fiber Amplifier Classifications
EDFA and Raman fiber amplifier are introduced below.
49
3.5.1 EDFA Technology
3.5.1.1 EDFA Technology Principle
Erbium (Er) is a lanthanon. In the fiber manufacture process, certain quantity of

Er3+ ions are doped to form Erbium Doped Fiber (EDF}. The Er 3+ ions in such
fiber will absorb photon energy to make own energy level change, which is
called stimulation. The light source for stimulation is called pump light source,
and the corresponding transmitting stimulation optical wave is called pump
light.
Its working principle is shown in Fig. Optical Amplifying Technology -21.
N3~0
1550 nm N2
signal light
1550 nm
980 nm 1480nm stimulated
pump light emission
N1
Fig. Optical Amplifying Technology -21 Working Principle of EDFA
The Er3+ ion free from stimulation is at the lowest energy level. When the pump
light is shot in, the Er3+ ion absorbs energy of the pump light and transits to the
higher energy level. At the higher energy level, the Er 3+ ions are in instable
status, therefore they continuously converge to metastable energy level in non-
radiant transition format, and thus implementing population inversion
distribution. When the optical signals with 1550 nm wavelength pass this
segment of EDF, the metastable particles transit to the ground status in
stimulated emission format, and photons which are the same as those in the
incoming signal light are generated, and thus implementing amplifying of
optical signals.
2. Composition
50
The EDFA consists of EDF, bump light source, coupler and isolator, as shown in
Fig. Optical Amplifying Technology -22.
WDM Erbium λ1 λ2 λn
λ1 λ2 λn Isolator Isolator
coupler doped fiber
... ...
Pin Pout
Pump laser
Fig. Optical Amplifying Technology -22 EDFA Composition
The coupler is used to combine signal light with pump light. The isolator is used
to suppress light reflection, to ensure stable working of the optical amplifier. The
pump laser generates pump light source.
3. Key performance indices
1) Gain (G)
It is the ratio between output optical signal power and input optical signal power.
Greater gain means more powerful amplifying capability.
2) Noise Fig. (NF)
It is the ratio between SNR at EDFA input end and SNR at output end.
EDFA noise comes from many factors, such as signal shot noise, internal
reflection noise and Amplified Spontaneous Emission (ASE) noise. But the
major source of EDFA noise is ASE noise.
 Note:
ASE means the emission noise caused by such own factors as unbalance between
EDFA optical transmitting area and absorption area, different population inversion
degrees (quantity of ions in stable energy level E2 and the quantity of ions in ground
energy level E1 are different), EDFA gain and EDFA working status.
Since the EDFA can amplify both optical signals and noise, NF is used. NF
value is closely related to the ASE noise of the EDFA. It greatly affects the
51
system performance, especially the OSNR of the whole system. Smaller NF is

preferable, for example, below 5.0 dB.
3) Bandwidth
The working wavelength range of the DWDM system covers C band and L
band. The optical amplifier needs to amplify all the multiplexing channel signals
of the system, so its bandwidth should be wide enough.
4) Gain flatness Gp-p
It means the allowed fluctuation of EDFA gain within the specified working
band range. For the sake of sound flatness, aluminum doped technology is
usually used in the EDF.
In the DWDM system, to minimize the difference between output optical power
signals of different multiplexing channels and facilitate optical power
estimation, smaller EDFA gain flatness is preferable.
5) Total input/output power range
It is the optical power range at input/output end of the EDFA.
In the WDM system application, one EDFA is responsible for amplifying all the
multiplexing optical channel signals in the system. Therefore, its input/output
optical power range should be large enough, especially for the WDM system
with enormous multiplexing channels.
On the other hand, to ensure EDFA gain flatness and low noise performance, the
DEFA should work in small signal working range. In other words, the
input/output power range of the EDFA cannot be too large. More importantly, to
avoid fiber non-linear effect, the EDFA output power cannot too large.
To avoid fiber non-linear effect, the optical power of a signal channel cannot be
too large. It is required to determine the proper power according to signal rate
and transmission fiber type.
6) Polarization Dependent Gain (PDG)
Since the EDFA generates different gains for the optical waves in different
polarization statuses. So, we call the maximum change value of the EDFA gain
52
caused by polarization status change of the optical wave as PDG. Smaller value
is preferable.
7) Pump light leakage
Although optical isolators are set at input and output ends of the EDFA, a few
pump light leakage occurs. Smaller leakage is preferable.
Pump light leakage means the ratio between pump light leakage power and
input/output pump light power.
8) Input/output optical reflectance
It is the ratio between optical power at the EDFA input/output end and reflection
optical power. Greater value is preferable.
4. Importance of EDFA for DWDM system
To ensure the transmission quality of DWDM system, the EDFA used in the
DWDM system must have sufficient bandwidth, flat gain, low NF and high
output power. Proper gain flatness is especially important, which is special
requirement of DWDM system for EDFA.
3.5.1.2 EDFA Classifications
Depending on locations of EDFA in the DWDM system and pump source types, two
EDFA classification modes are introduced below.
1. By location
By locations in the optical transport network, the EDFA is divided into Booster
Amplifier (BA), Line Amplifier (LA) and Pre-Amplifier (PA).
1) BA: It is located behind the OTM or transmitting light source of relay device,
and in the front of the relay segment. It is used to boot the transmitting power
for the sake of extending transmission distance.
2) LA: It is located in the middle of the relay segment. It is used to directly insert
the EDFA into the fiber transmission link for amplifying signals. A relay
segment can be equipped with multiple LAs as required.
53
3) PA: It is located at the relay segment end and ahead of the optical receiving
device. It is used to pre-amplify the small signals going through line attenuation,
to boost the power of optical signals entering the receiver and meet the
sensitivity requirements of the receiver.
The locations of all kinds of amplifiers in the optical line are shown in Fig.
Optical Amplifying Technology -23.
Relay segment
OTM BA LA LA PA OTM
Fig. Optical Amplifying Technology -23 Locations of all Kinds of Amplifiers in Relay Segment
2. By pump source
At present, the pump sources often used cover 980 nm and 1480 nm, because
these two types of pump sources have high pump efficiency.
The 980 nm pump light source has lower NF; the 1480 nm one has higher NF, so
a larger output power is obtainable (about 3 dB higher than that of the 980 nm
pump light source).
In the actual LA applications, most 8-channel WDM system uses the 980 nm
pump source, because the WDM system of G.652 fiber mostly features
dispersion limit other than loss limit. If such WDM system uses the 1480 nm
pump source, the system power attenuation will increase, which is unnecessary
for boosting EDFA output power. However, the above-16-channel WDM system
uses the 1480 nm pump source, because enormous tributaries dwindle the
available power range and the pump source with higher power is necessary. The
two-level pump can also be used, for the sake of both NF improvement and
output power increase.
3.5.1.3 Problems of EDFA to Be Solved
When solving the problems of fiber transmission system, the EDFA also introduces in
some new problems.
1. Non-linear effect
EDFA amplifies the optical power through increasing the optical power shot into
the fiber, but optical power increase should be proper. When the optical power is
54
increased to certain degree, fiber non-linear effect will occur. Therefore, in the
usage of fiber amplifier, it is required to control the value of the in-fiber optical
power in a single channel.
2. Bandwidth
Bandwidth refers to the range of the optical wavelength which can be amplified
flatly. The working wavelength range of the EDFA in C band is 1530 nm ~ 1561
nm, and the one of the EDFA in L band is 1565 nm ~ 1625 nm.
The gain flatness filter is used inside the EDFA, so that the EDFA has almost the
same gain for each multiplexing optical channel signal within the corresponding
wavelength range. The gain fluctuation should be limited within the allowed
rage, for example, ±1 dB. Therefore, the bandwidth is closely related to the gain
flatness.
3. Optical surge
When the optical line is normal, the erbium ions stimulated by the pump light
are carried off by the signal light, and thus implementing amplifying of signal
light. If the input light is interrupted, the metastable erbium ions still converge
continuously, so energy transient will occur, leading to optical surge.
The way of solving optical surge is to implement Automatic Power Reduction

(APR) or Automatic Power ShutDown (APSD) function in the EDFA. In other
words, the EDFA will automatically reduce power or shut down power upon no
input light, and thus suppressing surge.
4. Dispersion
Along with transmission distance increase, the total dispersion increases

correspondingly. Therefore, the current-free relay segment in the WDM system
cannot be prolonged limitlessly. We can prolong the current-free relay distance
of the multiplexing section through dispersion compensation measures.
3.5.2 Raman Amplifying Technology
The Raman fiber amplifier uses the gain mechanism generated by non-linear
SRS in the fiber to amplify the optical signals.
55
The SRS converts the energy of short-wavelength pump light into the energy of
long-wavelength signal light, to amplify the signal light.
2. Features
1) Based on dozens of kilometers of line fibers, it implements distributed

amplifying, with low NF and effectively improve system SNR.
2) With the same SNR, it can reduce the optical power at the transmitting end and
minimize the non-linear effect.
3) It can generate gain for all the wavelengths, serving as full-band amplifier
(required to be divided into C band amplifier and L band amplifier).
4) It has flat gain. The gain wavelength range depends on the pump wavelength.
5) Since the noise of Raman fiber amplifier reduces along with fiber distance
increase, the fiber should be long enough. There is no requirement for the fiber
type.
6) The pump conversion efficiency is low, so the high-power pump laser source is
required.
7) The amplifying gain is low, so it needs to work with the EDFA to form
combined amplifier, for the sake of compensation of line attenuation and node
insertion loss.
3. Application
If the DWDM system above 40 G only uses EDFA for amplifying, spontaneous
emission will be accumulated, restricting overall system performance.
Compared with EDFA, the SRA has such advantages as low noise, introducing
in no additional loss upon removal of pump light, and no transient effect.
Therefore, the combination of EDFA and SRA can form the important optical
amplifying technology for the transmission system above 40 G or of super great
distance.
3.6 Supervision Technology

Detection, control and management are basic requirements of all the network
operations. To ensure secure operation of the DWDM system, physically, the
56
monitoring system is designed into the independent system separated from working
channels and devices.
For example, ZTE DWDM system uses an independent wavelength (1510 nm) and
relays on no service channel, to ensure that no active amplifying is required for the
long distance transmission and reliability is improved, and thus eventually
implementing monitoring over the NE devices of the system.
3.6.1 Functions of Optical Supervision Channel (OSC)
Different from the conventional SDH system, the DWDM system with optical
amplifier can monitor and management the EDFA. Since the EDFA only amplifies
optical signals without electrical signal input. Especially when it uses as the optical
amplifier regenerator, it has no electrical interface connection because there is no
add/drop of service signals, leading to higher difficulty of monitoring on it. In addition,
there is no special byte for monitoring the EDFA in the SDH overhead, so an electrical
signal must be added to monitor the EDFA status.
The OSC is used to transmit the NE management and supervision information related
to the DWDM system on a long wavelength, involving fault alarm, fault location,
quality parameter supervision in the operation, control over backup line upon line
interruption and EDFA supervision. In this way, the network operator can effectively
manage the DWDM system.
3.6.2 Requirements for OSC
The DWDM system has the following requirements for the OSC:
1. The OSC cannot restrict the optical wavelengths (980 nm and 1480 nm) of the
pump light source in the optical amplifier.
2. The OSC cannot restrict the transmission distance between two LAs.
3. The OSC cannot restrict the services on the 1310 wavelength in the future.
4. The OSC should still be available upon failure of the LA.
The supervision information transmitted on the OSC is the information related

to all kinds of optical amplifiers, such as input/output optical power of the
optical amplifier and working wavelength of pump light source. Therefore,
when the optical amplifier is failed, the OSC cannot work normally. At this time,
the subversion is meaningless.
57
5. The OSC transmission is bidirectional. Bidirectional transmission ensures the

supervision information can be received by the line terminal when one fiber is
broken.
6. OSC transmission segment can be dropped on each optical amplifier relay

station and DWDM system office station and added with new supervision
signals.
3.6.3 Implementation of OSC
The implementation principle of OSC is shown in Fig. Supervision Technology-24.
λ1 λ1
OTUT OTUR
λ2 λ2
OTUT OM OBA OM2 OD2 OPA OD OTUR
λosc λosc
OSC information OSC information
Line fiber Internal fiber

OM: Optical OD: Optical OBA and OPA: OTUT and OTUR:
multiplexer de-multiplexer Optical amplifiers Optical transponders
Fig. Supervision Technology-24 Implementation Principle of OSC
1. Dropping and adding of OSC information
As shown in the above diagram, to ensure that the supervision information

transmitted on the OSC can be dropped or added on each optical amplifier relay
station and DWDM system office station without influence from optical
amplifier, at the transmitting end, it is required to use a 2-wavelength OM OM2
behind the OBA to add the OSC information into the main channel; at the
receiving end, it is required to use a 2-wavelength OD OD2 ahead of the OPA to
drop the OSC information.
2. Working wavelength of OSC
For the DWDM system working with LA, an additional OSC is required, which
should be able to perform adding/dropping with low enough BER in each optical
relay/amplifier.
58
According to ITU-T recommendation, a specific wavelength can be used as the

OSC. Such wavelength can be 1,310 nm, 1,480 nm or 1,510 nm when out of
service information transmission band. The 1,510 nm is preferable.
Since this channel is out of the gain bandwidth of the EDFA (also called external
OSC), the supervision signals must be drop (dropping optical channel) ahead of
EDFA and added (adding optical channel) behind the EDFA. As shown in Fig.
Supervision Technology-24, OSC is added behind OBA and dropped ahead of
OPA.
3. Transmission rate of OSC
In the actual DWDM system, most of the information really requiring

supervision involves EDFA working status, so the supervision information is not
huge. In addition, to ensure normal operation of the supervision channel upon
optical amplifier fault, the receiving sensitivity should be high. As a result, the
supervision channel signals without amplifying of optical amplifier can cover
the maximum transmission distance of the service major signals. Therefore, the
working rate of the OSC is set to 2 Mbit/s.
At present, since the technology ceaselessly develops, OSC rate improves as

well. For example, ZTE DWDM can provide supervision rate of 10 Mbit/s or
100 Mbit/s.
4. Frame structure of OSC information
For the supervision system at working rate of 2 Mbit/s, thirty-two 64 kbit/s bytes
are used to bear supervision information, which is transmitted and exchanged in
PCM32 frame format.
For the system at supervision rate of 10 Mbit/s or 100 Mbit/s, for example, ZTE
DWDM, the supervision channel uses 10/100 M Ethernet technology to
encapsulate data in IP packet format and transmits and exchanges them in
Ethernet data frame.
5. Line coding
The 2 Mbit/s OSC uses Code Mark Inversion (CMI) as the line code type.
The 10/100 Mbit/s OSC uses 4B/5B code.
59
6. OSC protection
Upon the OSC bidirectional transmission interruption caused by totally break-

off of the fiber, the NE management system cannot obtain the supervision
information normally. At this time, the backup route (for example, Data
Communication Network (DCN)) should be used for transmitting supervision
information, for the sake of OSC protection.
60
4 Protection Principle of DWDM System
 Highlights:
 Principle of 1+1 protection.
 Principle of 1:N protection.
 Principle of optical channel protection.
 Principle of optical multiplexing section protection.
4.1 Brief Introduction to DWDM System Hierarchy

 Note:
In this chapter, we take ZTE DWDM as an example for introduction.
The DWDM system protection involves protection of optical channel layer and optical
MS layer. First of all, we will introduce the location of each layer in the system.
The DWDM system is divided into Optical Multiplexing Section (OMS) layer, Optical
Transport (OTS) layer, Optical Channel (OCH) layer and Optical Access (OAC) layer.
The locations of the layers in the system are shown in Fig. Brief Introduction to
DWDM System Hierarchy -25, and their functions are listed in Table Brief
Introduction to DWDM System Hierarchy -10
OTM OTM
G.692 OLA
TX1
Optical 1 1 Optical RX1
2 RX2
TX2 Optical 2 Optical
RX3
TX3 Optical 3 OD 3 Optical
transponder OM OBA OLA OPA transponder
... ... RXn

TXn n n Optical
Optical
OTS OTS
OMS
OAC OCH OAC
Fig. Brief Introduction to DWDM System Hierarchy -25 Hierarchy of DWDM System
61
Table Brief Introduction to DWDM System Hierarchy -10 Hierarchy Meaning of DWDM System
Layer Location Function

Multiplexing optical channel signals and de-
OMS Between OTMs
multiplexing multiplexed optical channel signals
Between OTM and OLA, and
OTS Transmitting optical signals on all kinds of fibers
between OLAs
Supporting OAC to convert customer signals into
At the line side of optical
OCH optical signals in accordance with G.692
transponder platform
recommendation for transmission
At the client side of optical
OAC Accessing customer signals
transponder platform
4.2 1+1 Protection

In the 1+1 protection changeover, the optical signals are simultaneously transmitted on
working line and protection line. In other words, the signals are permanently connected
(bridged) with working line and protection at the transmitting end. At the receiving
end, the protection function monitors the statuses of the signals received from these
two lines and selectively connects with the line with better signal quality. So this
protection mode is called "concurrent transmitting and priority receiving".
For ZTE DWDM, 1+1 protection is implemented by the OP board.
4.2.1 Link 1+1 Protection
Depending on locations, the OP board can implement 1+1 protection of OCH or OMS.
1. 1+1 protection of OCH
One OP board is used to protect a pair of bidirectional services. In channel 1+1

protection, the number of OP boards configured must be consistent with that of
the channels to be protected.
The protection channel and protected channel are transmitted in the same fiber.
Channel 1+1 protection in the chain networking can only protect device other
than route, as shown in Fig. 1+1 Protection -26.
62
Chapter 4 Protection Principle of DWDM System
Optical 1 1 Optical
Optical 2 2 Optical
transponder
O O transponder
Protected
channel Optical
transponder
3
M D 3 Optical
transponder
... U U ...
Protection n
channel Optical
n Optical
O O
P Protected
channel P
Optical Optical
O O
Optical Optical
D M
Protection
channel U U
Fig. 1+1 Protection -26 1+1 Protection of OCH
2. 1 +1 protection of OMS
The 1+1 protection of OMS is in segment-by-segment 1+1 protection mode, as

shown in Fig. 1+1 Protection -27.
 
OTU OTU
Line 1 in
 direction A 
OTU OBA OPA O OTU
O
 M D 
OTU OTU
D Line 2 in U
direction A
n n
OTU OTU
O O
 P P
OTU 
Line 1 in OTU
 direction B 
OTU OBA OTU
O OPA O
 
OTU D Line 2 in M OTU
D direction B U
n n
OTU OTU
Line 1 is working channel and line 2 is protection channel.
Fig. 1+1 Protection -27 1 +1 Protection of OMS
When the OP board supervises the major optical channel, changeover is

implemented through optical switch inside the board when changeover condition
is met.
63
4.2.2 Ring 1+1 Protection
When the ring network uses 1+1 protection, the protection can be divided into 1+1
protection of OCH and 1+1 protection of OMS. In the ring network, the protection
channel and protected channel reaches the receiving end through different routes.
1. 1+1 protection of OCH
The 1+1 protection of OCH can protect not only route but also devices. We
assume the ring network is as shown in Fig. 1+1 Protection -28.
Protection
channel
B D
Working A
channel
Fig. 1+1 Protection -28 Ring Networking
The optical connection between Node A and Node B is shown in Fig. 1+1
Protection -29.
O O
M D
U U
Working
channel
OTU OTU
O O
D M
U U
O O
P P
OTU O O OTU
M D
U U
Protection
channe
O O
D M
Site A U U Site B
Fig. 1+1 Protection -29 1+1 Protection of OCH (Ring Networking)
2. 1+1 protection of OMS
64
In the ring network, the 1+1 protection of OMS protects the multiplexed signals.
When the fiber is broken off, the two nodes close to the broken points
implement "loop-back" function, and thus protecting all the services. It is similar
to the protection mode shown in Fig. 1+1 Protection -27.
4.2.3 Features of 1+1 Protection
1. Protection line is special and cannot be shared with other working lines.
2. Signaling support is not required. It can be implemented easily.
3. It can be used in any network structure (point-to-point, ring or grid network).
4. It is restorable protection without signaling support.
5. Its bandwidth utilization ratio is low and cost is high.
4.3 1: N Protection
4.3.1 Working Principle
In the 1:N protection changeover, multiplex working lines share one protection line. N
working lines are bridged to the protection line at both ends. The protection function
monitors and judges the received signal status, and changes over the services on this
working line to the protection line, upon deterioration or failure of service signals on
the working line. This mode is called "transmitting-receiving changeover". Its working
principle is shown in Fig. 1: N Protection-30.
Service can be
transmitted
Protection line Protection line

Transmitting Receiving of
of working line working line 1
1
Transmitting of Receiving of
working line 2 working line 2
This service is
discarded.
Protection line Protection line

Transmitting Receiving of
of working line working line 1
1
Transmitting of
working line 2 Receiving of
working line 2
Changeover
protocol
Fig. 1: N Protection-30 Working Principle of 1:N Protection
65
4.3.2 Protection Implementation
At present, ZTE DWDM can provide 1:N protection for OCH. We take the protection
implemented by the Electrical Switching Board (SWE) as an example.
The SWE implements changeover in electrical switching mode. At the transmitting

end, N channels of service signals are input to input ports 1 ~ N of the SWE, and then
output to OTU through output ports 1 ~ N of the SWE. At the receiving end, input
ports 1 ~ N of the SWE respectively receive the signals from OTU, and output ports 1
~ N of the SWE output such signals to the user terminal.
The protection function is shown in Fig. 1: N Protection-31.
1 1
1 OTU OTU 1
Incoming SDH Outgoing OTU Incoming SDH Outgoing OTU

optical signal SWE optical signal optical signal SWE optical signal
OMU ODU
16 OTU OTU 16
17 17
Fig. 1: N Protection-31 Functional Block Diagram of 1+1 Protection of OCH
If any channel in the N channels of services becomes faulty, once the receiving end
detects the faulty service, it notifies the SWE boards at the transmitting end and
receiving end through protocols, and then the receiving/transmitting end changes this
channel of service to the port N + 1 to protect the service.
When multiple channels of services are faulty at the same time, the service in high
priority will take priority of protection. The protection priority is set in the NM.
4.3.3 Features of 1:N Protection
1. The protection line is shared by multiple working lines.
2. Signaling support is required. The implementation process is relatively

complicated.
3. It can be used in ring and grid networks.
4. Protection is restorable.
5. Its bandwidth utilization ratio is high but protection reliability is low.
66
4.4 Bidirectional Optical Channel Protection

In the 2-fiber bidirectional channel shared protection ring, λ 1 of the external ring
forms the working channel, and λ1 of the internal ring forms the protection
channel. The working channel allows wavelength multiplexing of multiple
unidirectional services, and the protection channel shares protection of all
services on the working channel.
As shown in Fig. Bidirectional Optical Channel Protection -32, when a cross-

section fiber is faulty (× means faulty), the services passing this span are
damaged, and thus the access switch starts operation at the service transmitting
end, and services are transmitted along the protection route. Meanwhile the two
changeover switches at the receiving end start operations, and services are
received from the protection route. In this way, service protection is
implemented.
T1（λ1）
A B C
Reserved wavelength channel (λ1) in Internal ring
F E D
Adding channel,
dropping channel
T2（λ1） T3（λ1） T4（λ1）
Changeover node Changeover node
Fig. Bidirectional Optical Channel Protection -32 Principle of 2-Fiber Bidirectional Channel Shared
Protection
2. Implementation mode of OPCS board
The ZXMP M800, ZTE DWDM, implements bidirectional channel shared

protection through the Optical Channel Shared Protection (OPCS) board.
Besides channel protection of the ring network, the OPCS board also controls
67
the adding status of adding protection wavelength through connecting with the
optical switch, to avoid conflict of multiple services that use the same working
wavelength on the protection ring.
Fig. Bidirectional Optical Channel Protection -33 shows a networking example.
λ21(B→A)
H A B B
λ21(B→A)
λ22(A→B)
λ22(A→B)
λ22(E→F)
G F E D
λ22(E→F)
λ21(F→E)
λ21(F→E)
Fig. Bidirectional Optical Channel Protection -33 Wavelength Configuration of Channel Shared
Protection
We assume that a pair of bidirectional services between Site A and Site B need
protection. First of all, we install the OPCS board at Sites A and B and connect
fibers.
In the configuration, the required service wavelength is differential-wavelength

transmission. Service from A to B is borne by λ 21 (external ring), and service
from B to A is borne by λ 22 (internal ring). In this way, the working wavelength
formed by λ21 and λ22 can be repeatedly used between other nodes in the ring
network, and λ21 of internal ring serves as the protection wavelength of external
ring λ21. Similarly, λ22 wavelength serves as the protection wavelength of internal
ring λ22, and thus implementing shared protection of multiple services in the ring
network.
The wavelength allocation can be flexibly adjusted. But service bidirectional

feature and differential-wavelength of working wavelengths must be guaranteed.
For the convenience of project debugging and maintenance, the default principle
is allocating wavelengths by adjacent odd and even wavelengths.
3. Application features
68
1) It is used for loop protection.
2) Service protection is based on channels. Changeover depends on quality of the

signals in a channel leaving the loop.
3) In the loop, the transport directions of node receiving information and node
transmitting information are two reverse directions. The resource utilization
ratio is high.
4) In the changeover, changeover is implemented in adding channel node and

dropping channel node of the service.
5) Wavelength allocation is flexible.
4.5 Bidirectional OMS Protection

In the 2-fiber bidirectional MS protection, the system uses the same wavelength
in internal ring and external ring for mutual protection. For example, for the 32-
wavelength system, the first 16 wavelengths of the internal ring serve as
working wavelengths, and the last 16 wavelengths serve as protection
wavelengths. The first 16 wavelengths of the external ring serve as protection
wavelengths, and the last 16 wavelengths serve as working wavelengths. The
wavelengths are complementarily distributed.
Only 8 wavelengths of the 32-wavelength system can be protected as well, and

the scheme of mutual protection can be employed for the 8 wavelengths of the
internal and external rings, that is, the actual working wavelengths of the system
are 24 wavelengths. The working wavelengths usually transmit services while
the protection wavelengths usually not.
Fig. Bidirectional OMS Protection -34 shows the schematic diagram of MS

protection for mutual protection of the wavelengths in the internal and external
rings, with 16 working wavelengths. The solid lines indicate working routes, and
the dotted lines indicate protection routes of the external ring in case of fault
between D and E.
69
B A H G
λ17 λ17
C D E F
Adding channel, Adding channel,

dropping channel dropping channel
λ1 λ1
Fig. Bidirectional OMS Protection -34 Schematic Principle Diagram of 2-Fiber Bidirectional MS
Shared Protection
2. Implementation mode of OPMS board
The ZXMP M800, ZTE DWDM, implements bidirectional OMS shared

protection through the Optical MS Shared Protection (OPMS) board.
Fig. Bidirectional OMS Protection -35 shows a networking example.
λ21(B→A)
H A B B
λ21(B→A)
λ43(A→B)
λ43(A→B)
λ43(E→F)
G F E D
λ43(E→F)
λ21(F→E)
λ21(F→E)
Fig. Bidirectional OMS Protection -35 Wavelength Configuration of MS Shared Protection
We assume that a pair of bidirectional services between Site A and Site B need
protection. First of all, we install the OPMS board at Sites A and B and connect
fibers.
In the configuration, the service wavelengths are in differential-wavelength

transmission mode, and both working bands and protection bands of
internal/external ring are distributed symmetrically. For example, 16
70
wavelengths (192.1 THz ~ 193.8 THz) of the external ring serve as working
wavelengths of external ring, and 16 wavelengths (194.3 THz ~ 196.0 THz) of
the internal ring serve as working wavelengths of internal ring. We assume that
service from A to B is borne by λ21 (external ring), and service from B to A is
borne by λ43 (internal ring). In this way, the working wavelength formed by λ 21
and λ43 can be repeatedly used between other nodes in the ring network, and λ 21
of internal ring serves as the protection wavelength of external ring λ 21.
Similarly, λ43 wavelength of external ring serves as the protection wavelength of
internal ring λ43, and thus implementing shared protection of multiple services in
the ring network.
3. Application features
1) It is used for loop protection.
2) Service protection is based on MS. Changeover depends on quality of the MS

signals between adjacent nodes.
3) In the loop, the transport directions of node receiving information and node
transmitting information are two reverse directions. The resource utilization
ratio is high.
4) Upon fault, changeover is executed between adjacent nodes of faulty span.
5) In the configuration of MS shared protection, at least one Optical MS Shared

Protection board (with preventing resonance switch) is configured in the loop, to
avoid self-stimulation of the loop.
71
Appendix A Abbreviations
Abbreviation Full Name

AFR Absolute Frequency Reference
AFEC Advanced FEC
AGENT -
AIS Alarm Indication Signal
APR Automatic Power Reduction
APS Automatic Protection Switching
APSD Automatic Power Shutdown
APSF Automatic Protection Switching for Fast Ethernet
ASE Amplified Spontaneous Emission
AWG Array Waveguide Grating
BER Bit Error Ratio
BLSR Bidirectional Line Switching Ring
BSHR Bidirectional Self-Healing Ring
CDR Clock and Data Recovery
CMI Code Mark Inversion
CODEC Code and Decode
CPU Center Process Unit
CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check
DBMS Database Management System
DCC Data Communications Channel
DCF Dispersion Compensation Fiber
DCG Dispersion Compensation Grating
DCN Data Communications Network
DCM Dispersion Compensation Module
DCF Dispersion Compensating Fiber
DDI Double Defect Indication
DFB-LD Distributed Feedback Laser Diode
DSF Dispersion Shifted Fiber
DGD Differential Group Delay
DTMF Dual Tone Multi Frequency
DWDM Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
DXC Digital Cross-connect
EAM Electrical Absorption Modulation
ECC Embedded Control Channel
EDFA Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier
EFEC Enhanced FEC
73

EX Extinction Ratio
FDI Forward Defection Indication
FEC Forward Error Correction
FPDC Fiber Passive Dispersion Compensator
FWM Four Wave Mixing
GbE Gigabits Ethernet
GUI Graphical User Interfaces
IP Internet Protocol
LD Laser Diode
LOF Loss of Frame
LOS Loss of Signal
MANAGER -
MDI Multiple Document Interface
MCU Management and Control Unit
MOADM Metro Optical Add Drop Multiplexer Equipment
MBOTU Sub-rack backplane for OTU
MQW Multiple Quantum Well
MSP Multiplex Section Protection
MST Multiplex Section Termination
NCP Net Control Processor
NDSF None Dispersion Shift Fiber
NE Network Element
NNI Network Node Interface
NMCC Network Manage Control Center
NRZ Non Return to Zero
NT Network Termination
NZDSF Non-Zero Dispersion Shifted Fiber
OA Optical Amplifier
OADM Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer
OBA Optical Booster Amplifier
Och Optical Channel
ODF Optical fiber Distribution Frame
ODU Optical Demultiplexer Unit
OGMD Optical Group Mux/DeMux Board
OHP Order wire
OHPF Overhead Processing Board for Fast Ethernet
OLA Optical Line Amplifier
OLT Optical Line Termination
OMU Optical Multiplexer Unit
ONU Optical Network Unit
OP Optical Protection Unit
OPA Optical Preamplifier Amplifier
74
Appendix A Abbreviations

OPM Optical Performance Monitor
OPMSN Optical Protect for Mux Section (without preventing resonance switch)
OPMSS Optical Protect for Mux Section (with preventing resonance switch)
OSC Optical Supervisory Channel
OSCF Optical Supervision channel for Fast Ethernet
OSNR Optical Signal-Noise Ratio
OTM Optical Terminal
OTN Optical Transport Network
OTU Optical Transponder Unit
OXC Optical Cross-connect
PDC Passive Dispersion Compensator
PMD Polarization Mode Dispersion
PDL Polarization Dependent Loss
RZ Return to Zero
SBS Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
SDH Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
SDM Supervision add/drop multiplexing board
SEF Severely Errored Frame
SES Severely Errored Block Second
SFP Small Form Factor Pluggable
SLIC Subscriber Line Interface Circuit
SMCC Sub-network Management Control Center
SMT Surface Mount
SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol
SPM Self-Phase Modulation
SRS Stimulated Raman Scattering
STM Synchronous Transfer Mode
SWE Electrical Switching Board
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
TFF Thin Film Filter
TMN Telecommunications Management Network
VOA Variable Optical Attenuator
WDM Wavelength Division Multiplexing
XPM Cross-Phase Modulation
75

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WM_000_E1 DWDM Basic Principles

 Grasping the significance and application

 Optical Wavelength Division Multiplexing

1.1 Background of DWDM Technology...................................................................................................1

1.1.1 Development of Multiplexing Technology in Optical Network..............................................1

1.1.2 PDH, SDH and DWDM...........................................................................................................2

1.2 DWDM Technology Overview...........................................................................................................5

1.2.1 Different between DWDM Technology and Other Multiplexing Technologies......................5

1.2.2 Relationship between DWDM and SDH.................................................................................7

1.2.3 Operation Wavelength Range.................................................................................................10

1.3 DWDM Features and Advantages.....................................................................................................12

1.4 DWDM Development Trend.............................................................................................................13

2 Overview of Optical Fiber Communication.............................................................................................15

2.1 Basic Knowledge of Optical Fibers...................................................................................................15

2.1.1 Brief Introduction to Optical Fibers.......................................................................................15

2.1.2 Usage Overview of Applicable Frequencies of Optical Fiber...............................................18

2.1.3 Types and Features of Common SMFs..................................................................................19

2.2 Working Wavelength of DWDM System..........................................................................................20

2.2.1 Introduction to Working Wavelength Area.............................................................................20

2.2.2 Wavelength Allocation............................................................................................................21

2.3 Fiber Transmission Features..............................................................................................................25

2.3.1 Fiber Loss...............................................................................................................................25

2.3.3 Non-Linear Effect of Fiber.....................................................................................................29

2.4 New Optical Fiber Types...................................................................................................................33

3.1 Basic Structure of DWDM System...................................................................................................35

3.2 Light Source Technology...................................................................................................................36

3.3 Optical Wavelength Division Multiplexing and De-Multiplexing Technologies.............................39

3.3.2 Introduction to OM.................................................................................................................39

3.3.3 Key Performance Indices.......................................................................................................42

3.4 OTU Technology...............................................................................................................................44

3.4.2 Working Principle and Performance Indices..........................................................................45

3.4.3 Classification and Applications of OTU................................................................................48

3.5 Optical Amplifying Technology........................................................................................................49

3.5.1 EDFA Technology...................................................................................................................49

3.5.2 Raman Amplifying Technology.............................................................................................55

3.6 Supervision Technology....................................................................................................................56

3.6.1 Functions of Optical Supervision Channel (OSC).................................................................57

3.6.2 Requirements for OSC...........................................................................................................57

3.6.3 Implementation of OSC..........................................................................................................58

4 Protection Principle of DWDM System....................................................................................................61

4.1 Brief Introduction to DWDM System Hierarchy..............................................................................61

4.2 1+1 Protection....................................................................................................................................62

4.2.1 Link 1+1 Protection................................................................................................................62

4.2.2 Ring 1+1 Protection................................................................................................................64

4.2.3 Features of 1+1 Protection.....................................................................................................65

4.3.1 Working Principle...................................................................................................................65

4.3.2 Protection Implementation.....................................................................................................66

4.4 Bidirectional Optical Channel Protection..........................................................................................67

4.5 Bidirectional OMS Protection...........................................................................................................69

 DWDM definitions and generation background.

 DWDM development trend.

1.1 Background of DWDM Technology

1.1.1 Development of Multiplexing Technology in Optical Network

The communication network covers diversified transmission media, such as twisted

The multiplexing technology of optical transmission network goes through three

1.1.2 PDH, SDH and DWDM

The traditional fiber transmission technologies, such as Plesiochronous Digital

Table Background of DWDM Technology-1 PDH Code Rate

Primary Group Secondary

2) There is no worldwide standard optical interface specification. Private optical

3) PDH is a kind of multiplexing structure based on point-to-point transmission. It

5) Along with rate increase, it is more and more difficult to implement

In mid-1980's, the Bell Communication Research Institute in America put

Table Background of DWDM Technology-2 SDH Signal Levels

SDH Level (ITU-T) OC Level (SONET) Line Rate (Mbit/s)

DWDM is one of WDM technologies. Due to small interval (1 nm ~ 10 nm

Due to unique advantages of fiber communication and its networking